| Great Swamp Fight | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of King Philip's War | |||||||
 The attack on the Narragansett fortress | |||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||
|
New England Confederation Mohegan Pequot | Narragansett | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
| Josiah Winslow | Canonchet | ||||||
| Strength | |||||||
| 1,250[1] |
300 up to 700 non-combatants also present | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
|
Total: 131 dead, 222 wounded |
Total: 397 dead, unknown wounded | ||||||
The Great Swamp Fight (also known as the Great Swamp Massacre) was a significant battle of King Philip's War that resulted in a decisive but costly victory for the New England Confederation and which saw the assembly of the largest army ever raised in the recorded history of North America up to that point.
Fought over the course of three hours on December 19, 1675, it pitted the combined forces of the colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, and Connecticut - as well as their Mohegan and Pequot allies - against the Narragansett, who had taken refuge in a sprawling, walled and fortified settlement deep in the Great Swamp. The battle had the effect of pulling both the Narragansett and the colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, both of which had up until then remained neutral in the conflict, into the war.
The bloodiest battle ever fought on Rhode Island soil, an estimated 340 Narragansett were killed, including 300 non-combatants immolated when the swamp city was set to the torch. Colonial forces also suffered heavy losses with more than 100 dead and many more wounded.
Prelude
edit
In the spring of 1675 Wussausmon, a member of the Massachusett tribe popular among New England settlers, was allegedly killed by three Wampanoag men who were councilors to King Philip, the great sachem of the Wampanoag Confederation.[4][5] The three were convicted of murder by a mixed jury of colonists and Native elders which convened in Plymouth colony, and acted largely on the testimony of a single witness - Patuckson - whom, it was later learned, owed a gambling debt to one of the accused men.[4][5][6] The subsequent execution of the three Wampanoag has been cited as the immediate casus belli of the conflict that followed.[4] Philip saw the arrest and trial of his councilors as a violation of the sovereignty of the Wampanoag and, in June, attacked the Plymouth village of Swansea, killing several settlers.[4][6]
The government of Plymouth, in response to the attack on Swansea, activated the dormant mutual defense pact known as the New England Confederation, pulling Connecticut Colony and the Province of Massachusetts Bay into the conflict.[7] The destructive war saw rapid Wampanoag gains and bloody losses by the New England colonies who were largely refused military assistance both by the British government and by the neighboring colony of New York.[7][8][a]
Rhode Island and Narragansett neutrality
edit
In the midst of the increasingly brutal conflict being played-out across Massachusetts, Plymouth, and Connecticut, the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations remained a place of relative calm. The colony had been established by royal charter in 1663 and was unique among the New England colonies for its secular government which had abolished slavery and the death penalty, decriminalized witchcraft, and extended freedom of religion to women.[9][10] Under the rule of the radical Puritan minister Roger Williams, Rhode Island enjoyed friendly relations with the Narraganasett who had earlier sold the land on which the colony was set in order to have access to English merchandise without the necessity of travel to Boston. Rhode Island, along with the Narraganasett, had managed to remain neutral in the war between the other New England colonies and the Wampanoag.[10] At this time the southern part of Rhode Island - what is now known as Washington County - was the subject of a territorial dispute between the Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, and the Colony of Connecticut. Jurisdiction of this area, officially called King's Province but colloquially known as Narraganasett Country, had been temporarily settled by the British Crown which placed it under the nominal governance of Rhode Island until the Connecticut claims could be more fully investigated. However, despite being under the formal authority of Rhode Island, the area was under the effective control of the Narraganasett.
When war broke out in June of 1675, King Phillip sent the old men, women, and children of the tribe across the Rhode Island frontier to live with the Narragansett inside the perceived safety of the neutral colony's borders.[10] In July of 1675, with Roger Williams' help, the Narragansett signed a treaty of neutrality with the Massachusetts Bay Colony promising they would not join with King Phillip.[10][3] With the promise of peace between the Narragansett and the warring colonies, some members of the tribe - totaling 150 in all - decamped from Rhode Island and chose to settle in nearby Plymouth colony, despite the ongoing conflict.[3]
On October 18, 1675 the Narragansett sachem, Canochet, was summoned to Boston to account for a report that Weetamoe, King Philip's sister-in-law, was among those Wampanoag being sheltered by him.[3] Massachusetts Bay leaders believed that Weetamoe would make a valuable hostage that might induce Philip to agree to peace.[3] Canochet concluded a second treaty with Massachusetts Bay promising to surrender Weetamoe within ten days; in exchange for the promise of the Wampanoag royal, Massachusetts Bay governor Josiah Winslow gave Canochet a silver-trimmed coat.[3]
On November 2, with the agreement to surrender Weetamoe unfulfilled, the New England Confederation declared war on the Narragansett.[3][b]
Battlefield
editThe Great Swamp is a large, forested and marshy area in southern Rhode Island, created by a permanent backlog of drainage resulting from the presence of the natural earthen dam known as the Charlestown Moraine.[11] It is located near present-day South Kingstown, Rhode Island.[11]
A fortress in the Great Swamp, near Worden Pond - described in one account as an "unusually elaborate palisaded village" - had been built by Canonchet.[12][13] Because of its location on a small island of dry land in the midst of the Great Swamp, Canochet probably considered it impenetrable.[13] The fortress consisted of a log defensive wall reinforced with blockhouses which, in turn, was surrounded by a dense hedge of brush, all of which was set upon a high piece of ground overlooking the surrounding swamp.[12][13] Within the fortress were as many as 500 wigwams which had been "armored" with barrels of grain to render them effectively musket-proof.[12][14] Two fallen trees formed natural bridges which were the only entrances to the sprawling compound, and were each narrow enough that they could only be crossed in a single file.[13][14] Inside the fort the food, supplies, and accumulated wealth of the Narragansetts had been brought, along with the Wampanoag women, children, and infirm who had been sent by King Philip for refuge.[13] The population of the fortress city at the time of the battle was probably about 1,000.[1]
Ordinarily the swamp was practically impenetrable, but due to the severe December weather the marshy ground had frozen, allowing easier access across the normally difficult terrain.[13]
Forces
editNaraganasset forces
editplaceholder
New England forces and order of battle
editThe New England army consisted of 1,140 colonial militia and warriors from allied tribes, all under the command of Josiah Winslow.[2][1] It was, according to George Madison Bodge, the "largest and best organized" military force ever seen in North America up to that point in history.[15] Contributions from each colony and tribe were: 517 militia (Massachusetts); 158 militia (Plymouth); 315 militia (Connecticut); 75 warriors (Pequot tribe); 75 warriors (Mohegan tribe).[2] The Pequot and Mohegan warriors formed part of the Connecticut regiment, and were attached to its first and fifth companies.[16]
| General staff | Regiments | Components |
|---|---|---|
|
General Josiah Winslow, commanding.
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Massachusetts Regiment
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|
| Plymouth Regiment
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| |
| Connecticut Regiment
|
|
Battle
editBudge notes that reliable sources about the flow of the battle are few, and those that exist largely lack details.[15]
Preparation
edit
Petaquamset had earlier been selected as the marshaling area where colonial and allied forces would rendezvous in preparation for the attack. Connecticut units - including their allied Mohegan and Pequot auxiliaries - arrived at Petaquamset on XXXX.[17] The crossing of the Rhode Island border by the New England forces amounted to an "invasion" of the colony, though Williams and the Rhode Island government were unaware it was taking place.
The Massachusetts and Plymouth forces moved by foot into Rhode Island, stopping at Smith's Castle, a trading post near present-day Wickford, Rhode Island, to offload supplies that arrived there by sloop - along with Benjamin Church - several days beforehand.[18][17] They then continued on to to Petaquamset to liase with the Connecticut contingent.[17]
The army set-out at XXXX on XXXX, the Massachusetts Bay regiment in the lead, followed by the Plymouth and Connecticut regiments, respectively.[15]
Preliminary skirmishes
edithold
Arrival and first engagement
edit
At approximately 1:00 p.m. on December 19, 1675, the vanguard of the New England army arrived at the edge of the Great Swamp where it encountered a Naraganasett picket.[15] After a brief exchange of fire, the Naraganasett retreated, pursued by the leading elements of the Massachusetts Bay regiment, the chase so fast and reckless that the Massachusetts Bay soldiers were led straight to one of the two log bridge entrances to the swamp fortress.[15] The Massachusetts Bay companies stopped and quickly maneuvered to the second entrance, Davenport and Johnson leading their companies over the log bridge and into the fort. Crossing the bridge, at the head of his men, Johnson was cut down by Naraganasett musketry and, in the words of a later American chronicler "became for New England, for all time, a hero and a martyr".[15]
Davenport, now in command of the leading elements of the Massachusetts Bay regiment, was able to penetrate just within the palisade, however, took such heavy fire from the Naraganasett blockhouses that he was forced to fall back. Even the retreat, however, became impossible due to the intensity of Naraganasett fire and the Massachusetts Bay soldiers found themselves pinned to the ground, unable to move in any direction.[15] By this point the rest of the army had caught up. Mosley and Gardiner were sent forward to try and rescue the stranded Massachusetts Bay companies. During the advance, however, they sustained such heavy losses from Naraganasett fire that they were forced to withdraw.[15]
Storming of the fortress
editAppleton, with both he and Oliver's company, made the next attempt at the fortress. Arraying his men in a storming column, Appleton pushed forward, leapfrogging the stranded Massachusetts Bay companies and moving to secure the entrance to the fortress which quickly fell to the colonial soldiers.[15] Though the main gate had been captured, the blockhouses were still active, preventing further penetration of the compound.
It was at this point that Winslow ordered the second wave of the assault to begin and the Connecticut regiment surged forward.[15][c]
Moving against the fortress, Connecticut forces - composed of Connecticut militia backed by Mohegan and Pequot warriors - pushed through the gate held by Appleton and, under continuing and withering fire, entered the compound. Inside, they began storming the blockhouses. As these began to fall, most of the Naraganasett warriors manning them mounted a fighting retreat, abandoning the fortress and scattering into the thick forest surrounding it. Those which could not make it outside sought refuge in the wigwams, using them as cover to lay-down harassing fire at the soldiers who were now swarming the city.[15] With only scattered Naraganasett resistance remaining, Winslow ordered the fresh Plymouth regiment to relieve the beleagured Massachusetts Bay and Connecticut forces in clearing the compound and mopping-up resistance.
The entire battle lasted approximately three hours.[15]
Aftermath
editThe battle was concluded, and the swamp fortress secured, by approximately 4:00 p.m.[17] Colonial commanders debated their next course of action.[17][19] Benjamin Church called for the colonial army to remain at the Narragansett settlement which - he argued - would make an ideal field hospital for the sick and wounded.[19] Winslow was initially receptive to the idea, however, an unidentified colonial officer threatened to “shoot his [Winslow's] horse under him" unless he agreed to torch the village and withdraw.[19] Support for a quick departure may have been due to concern that Narragansett warriors who had fled into the swamp might soon regroup and attempt to recapture the settlement.[17] The decision set, the New England forces set the village alight and began the long march back to Petaquamset, arriving at two o'clock the next morning.[17][19] In addition to the wounded, the colonists carried back with them as many of their dead as could be carried, though some bodies were ultimately left behind.[17][19]
The decision of New England commanders to set light to the settlement reportedly disturbed their men, for many of the Narragansett and Wampanoag women and infirm were still sheltered inside the wigwams within the fortress.[13] As many as 300 may have died in the ensuing conflagration.[13] An account of one colonial soldier questioned whether the torching of the settlement was "consistent with humanity and the benevolent principle of the gospel".[13] The torching of the swamp fortress, still populated by non-combatants, marked a departure from typical New England battlefield behavior which was marked by a fragile restraint.[2] Colonial forces and their tribal allies typically acted with leniency to encourage similar behavior by their adversaries against whom they believed they might likely lose the war.[2]
The following day, the sachem Ninigret moved from his headquarters near Westerly, Rhode Island to the ruins of the Narragansett city and took custody of the site.[17] Ninigret ordered the burial of the native dead and those of the colonial killed who had been abandoned.[17]
Casualties
editAbout 20 militia were killed, and more than 100 wounded, during the fight.[1][20] However, the decision for a prompt withdrawal and forced march back to Petaquamset may have exacerbated colonial losses; William Hubbard would later opine that more of the wounded might have survived had they been able to recuperate at the captured Narragansett city.[19] As many as 40 of the injured died in the days that followed the battle and, by the end of the month, the overall death toll had increased to 80.[1][19]
Losses among the colonial-allied Mohegan and Pequot were also substantial with 51 dead and 82 wounded.[1]
Estimates of Narragansett losses from the battle vary widely with Increase Mather claiming 1,000 Narragansett were killed. The number of non-combatants killed, according to James Quathoaf, was 300.
However, Mather's claim was based on misquoted information. have been estimated as high as 600, however, more disastrous for the tribe was the destruction of their shelter and winter food supply and many members of the tribe later died from exposure to the unforgiving weather.[20][21]
Execution of Canonchet
editCanonchet was among those Narraganasett warriors who had remained in the swamp fortress as it fell to the New England Confederation, and was taken prisoner by them. Colonial soldiers took Canonchet to the west bank of the Pawtucket River, where he was executed in the presence of several Niantic witnesses. The Niantic, though neutral in the greater war, were traditional enemies of the Narraganasett.
The details of Canonchet's execution are disputed. According to one account, colonial soldiers surrendered Canonchet to Oneco, son of Uncas, the sachem of the Connecticut-allied Mohegans.[22] Thirty years before, Uncas had killed Canonchet's father Miantonomoh and, upon receiving his son, Uncas killed him as well.[22] Another account says that Oneco killed Canonchet himself. Yet another account says the executioner was a Niantic relative of Uncas who whispered to him "farewell cousin, I must kill you now" before shooting him dead.
Canonchet's remains were left with the Niantic who cremated them, cremation being a ritually auspicious funeral rite intended to speed the transfer of the soul of the deceased to the throne of Cautantowwit. However, before cremation, he was first decapitated and his head sent as a tribute to the Connecticut War Council in Hartford.
Execution of Joshua Tefft
editAmong those discovered inside the city after its capture was Joshua Tefft, a colonist whose farm lay two miles from the Narragansett base. Tefft's wife was Native and there were rumors he had renounced Christianity; during his interrogation it was found that, in regards to the church, "he was as ignorant as a heathen". Though he claimed he had been captured by Canonchet the month before and used as a slave, the testimony of several witnesses disputed this version of events. One Narragansett prisoner insisted Tefft had been their "encourager and conductor" while Captain Oliver said he had witnessed Tefft fire at advancing Massachusetts forces at least twenty times. In addition, a colonial spy inside the Narragansett camp claimed Tefft had killed or wounded at least five colonial soldiers during the battle.
Tefft was convicted of Treason in a court martial conducted in Wickford, Rhode Island on January 16, 1676. Two days later he was hanged, drawn, and quartered, the only recorded instance in the history of North America in which this form of execution has been imposed.[23]
Attack on Providence
editThe Narragansett, believing that Rhode Island was complicit in the assault, went to war against the colony. On XXXX they attacked Providence, Rhode Island, setting fire to most of its buildings. The town had earlier been evacuated save for the elderly governor Roger Williams and a small group of his supporters. Williams tried to assure the Narragansett that Rhode Island had nothing to do with the incident and chastised them for setting fire to Providence, at one point declaring that "this house of mine now burning … hath lodged kindly some thousands of you these ten years" and telling them that they "had forgot they were mankind and ran about the country like wolves". According to Williams' account, the Narragansett "confessed they were in a strange way". The war party guaranteed the safe departure of Williams and the Rhode Island government, who withdrew to Plymouth.
Significance
editThe Great Swamp Fight was the climax of the war up to that point, however, did not measure any significant strategic gains for the New England Confederation.[2]
An attempt by Winslow to use the New England army to pursue the retreating Narragansett during the winter was called-off by February due to both a lack of supplies, and growing animosity between the Massachusetts Bay and Connecticut soldiers who each distrusted the other. Drake notes that even "the shared threat of an Indian rebellion was not enough to unify these fractious people".
Following the capitulation of the swamp settlement, the principal sachems of the Narragansett regrouped in the Connecticut Valley to determine their course of action.[21] The attack on the swamp fortress had revealed to them that neither Rhode Island's borders, nor the Narragansett's historic allegiance to the Crown of England, were of much concern to the New England Confederation.
In their ensuing discussions, the Narragansett leaders were split as to whether they should sue for peace or prosecute the conflict against the colonists with vigor.[21] Messages were exchanged between the Narragansett and the Connecticut government in late December and early January, however, no immediate peace settlement emerged and military action continued between both sides for most of the duration of the conflict.[21] The Great Swamp Fight ended the non-belligerence of Rhode Island and the Narragansett and compelled both of these formerly neutral parties to pick a side in the growing war.
Legacy
editIn 1906, the Society of Colonial Wars joined the Narragansett people in the erection of a granite memorial to the Great Swamp Fight at the approximate location at which it was fought.
| “ | We dedicate this rugged granite shaft, frost-riven from the native hills, untouched by tool of man, as a fitting emblem of the rugged and unadorned Pilgrim and Puritan of sixteen hundred and seventy-five, with the prayer that we may be as loyal to our ideals as they were to theirs ... And in this memorial we also pay tribute to the brave Sachem of the Narragansetts, who here fought valiantly for his rights, his people, and their homes.[24] | ” |
In the 1930s, the Civilian Conservation Corps built a foot path to the monument.[25]
The 1945 ceremony was dedicated to veterans of World War II and ended with the performance of God Bless America.[26]
The battlefield and surrounding lands, including the site of the 1906 memorial, were acquired by the State of Rhode Island in 1950 and designated the Great Swamp Wildlife Management Area.[27] The 3,350 acre site is notable for being the largest swamp in New England.[27]
See also
editNotes
edit- ^ By the spring of 1676 the frontier of Massachusetts had been overrun and lay "in shambles" with eleven towns – including Dartmouth and Springfield – entirely evacuated, much of the population sheltered in a besieged Boston.[8]
- ^ With the declaration of war, the 150 Narragansett who had earlier settled in Plymouth were arrested and transported to Spain as slaves.[3]
- ^ During the attack, the Plymouth regiment, and the Massachusetts Bay cavalry, were kept in reserve to cover Winslow's flanks and guard against the possibility of a surprise attack from the rear.[15]
References
edit- ^ a b c d e f g h i Tucker, Spencer (2011). The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890. ABC-CLIO. pp. 346–348. ISBN 1851096973.
- ^ a b c d e f James, Drake (2000). King Philip's War: Civil War in New England. University of Massachusetts Press. pp. 119–121. ISBN 1558492240.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Howe, George (December 1958). "The Tragedy Of King Philip And The Destruction Of The New England Indians". American Heritage. No. 1. Archived from the original on January 21, 2018. Retrieved January 21, 2018.
- ^ a b c d Woods, Jeanne. ""Anticipatory Self-Defense" and Other Stories". uknowledge.uky.edu. University of Kentucky. Retrieved January 23, 2018.
- ^ a b Asher, Robert (2012). Murder on Trial: 1620-2002. State University of New York Press. p. 45. ISBN 0791483614.
- ^ a b Moniz, William (January 11, 2016). "Barneyville a surviving sign of a warring time". Standard-Times. Archived from the original on January 23, 2018. Retrieved January 23, 2018.
- ^ a b The Oxford Companion to United States History. Oxford University Press. 2001. pp. 421–422. ISBN 0195082095.
- ^ a b Tougias, Michael (2016). King Philip's War: The History and Legacy of America's Forgotten Conflict. Countryman. ISBN 1581574908.
- ^ Barry, John (January 2014). "God, Government and Roger Williams' Big Idea". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved January 24, 2018.
- ^ a b c d "Roger Williams: King Philip's War". Roger Williams National Memorial Rhode Island. National Park Service. Archived from the original on January 21, 2018. Retrieved January 21, 2018.
- ^ a b "Historic and Architectural Resources of South Kingstown, Rhode Island" (PDF). preservation.ri.gov. Rhode Island Historical Preservation Commission. Retrieved January 23, 2018.
- ^ a b c Gallay, Alan (2015). Colonial Wars of North America, 1512-1763. Routledge. p. 284. ISBN 9781317487197.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Hyde, Gerald. "Historic Great Swamp Opened at Last". nps.gov. National Park Service. Archived from the original on January 21, 2018. Retrieved January 21, 2018.
- ^ a b Cite error: The named reference
budgewas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Bodge, George (1906). Soldiers in King Philip's War: Being a Critical Account of that War, with a Concise History of the Indian Wars of New England from 1620-1677. pp. 1541–74.
- ^ Radune, Richard (2005). Pequot Plantation: The Story of an Early Colonial Settlement. Research in Time Publications. ISBN 0976434105.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Simmons, William. "Paths to the Great Swamp Fight, December 19, 1675". John Carter Brown Library. Brown University. Retrieved January 20, 2018.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
ahmwas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ a b c d e f g Cray, Robert (Fall 2009). ""Weltering in Their Own Blood": Puritan Casualties in King Philip's War". Historical Journal of Massachusetts. 37 (2): 115–117. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 21, 2018.
- ^ a b Peter, Maslowski (2012). For the Common Defense. Simon and Schuster. pp. 2–3. ISBN 1439118272.
- ^ a b c d McBride, Kevin. ""The 1676 Battle of Nipsachuck: Identification and Evaluation". kpwar.org. National Park Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 21, 2018. Retrieved January 21, 2018.
- ^ a b Peterson, Edward (1853). History of Rhode Island. J. S. Taylor. p. 47.
- ^ Philbrick, Nathaniel (2006). Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community, and War. Penguin. p. 280. ISBN 0670037605.
- ^ A Record of the Ceremony and Oration on the Occasion of the Unveiling of the Monument Commemorating the Great Swamp Fight. Society of Colonial Wars. 1906. pp. 5–6.
- ^ Voss, Barbara (2011). The Archaeology of Colonialism: Intimate Encounters and Sexual Effects. Cambridge University Press. pp. 242–248. ISBN 1139503138.
- ^ DeLucia, Christine (2018). Memory Lands: King Philip’s War and the Place of Violence in the Northeast. Yale University Press. p. 174. ISBN 0300231121.
- ^ a b Benson, Judy (May 17, 2015). "Hiking Guide: Great Swamp a great treasure in little Rhode Island". The Day. Archived from the original on January 21, 2018. Retrieved January 21, 2018.
External links
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This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Park Service.
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