Jerusalem[note 2] is a city in the Southern Levant, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the oldest cities in the world, and is considered holy to the three major Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Both the State of Israel and the State of Palestine claim Jerusalem as their capital city. Israel maintains its primary governmental institutions there, and the State of Palestine ultimately foresees it as its seat of power. Neither claim is widely recognized internationally.[note 3][8]
Jerusalem
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Nicknames:
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  Jerusalem  Jerusalem  Jerusalem  Jerusalem | |
| Coordinates: 31°46′44″N 35°13′32″E / 31.77889°N 35.22556°E | |
| Administered by | Israel |
| Claimed by | Israel and Palestine[note 1] |
| Israeli district | Jerusalem |
| Palestinian governorate | Quds |
| Gihon Spring settlement | 3000–2800 BCE |
| City of David | c. 1000 BCE |
| Present Old City walls built | 1541 |
| East-West Jerusalem division | 1948 |
| Israeli annexation of East Jerusalem | 1967 |
| Jerusalem Law | 1980 |
| Government | |
| • Type | Mayor–council |
| • Body | Jerusalem Municipality |
| • Mayor | Moshe Lion (Likud) |
| Area | |
| 125,156 dunams (125.156 km2 or 48.323 sq mi) | |
| • Metro | 652,000 dunams (652 km2 or 252 sq mi) |
| Elevation | 754 m (2,474 ft) |
| Population (2022) | |
| 981,711 | |
| • Density | 7,800/km2 (20,000/sq mi) |
| • Metro | 1,253,900 |
| Demonyms |
|
| Time zone | UTC+02:00 (IST, PST) |
| • Summer (DST) | UTC+03:00 (IDT, PDT) |
| Postal code | 9XXXXXX |
| Area code | +972-2 |
| Website | jerusalem.muni.il |
| Official name | Old City of Jerusalem and its Walls |
| Type | Cultural |
| Criteria | ii, iii, vi |
| Designated | 1981 |
| Reference no. | 148 |
| Region | Arab States |
| Endangered | 1982–present |
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Throughout its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed at least twice, besieged 23 times, captured and recaptured 44 times, and attacked 52 times.[9] The part of Jerusalem called the City of David shows first signs of settlement in the 4th millennium BCE, in the shape of encampments of nomadic shepherds.[10] During the Canaanite period (14th century BCE), Jerusalem was named as Urusalim on ancient Egyptian tablets, probably meaning "City of Shalem" after a Canaanite deity. During the Israelite period, significant construction activity in Jerusalem began in the 10th century BCE (Iron Age II), and by the 9th century BCE, the city had developed into the religious and administrative center of the Kingdom of Judah.[11] In 1538, the city walls were rebuilt for a last time around Jerusalem under Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire. Today those walls define the Old City, which since the 19th century has been divided into four quarters – the Armenian, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim quarters.[12][13] The Old City became a World Heritage Site in 1981, and is on the List of World Heritage in Danger.[14] Since 1860, Jerusalem has grown far beyond the Old City's boundaries. In 2022, Jerusalem had a population of some 971,800 residents, of which almost 60% were Jews and almost 40% Palestinians.[15][note 4] In 2020, the population was 951,100, of which Jews comprised 570,100 (59.9%), Muslims 353,800 (37.2%), Christians 16,300 (1.7%), and 10,800 unclassified (1.1%).[17]
According to the Hebrew Bible, King David conquered the city from the Jebusites and established it as the capital of the United Kingdom of Israel, and his son, King Solomon, commissioned the building of the First Temple.[note 5] Modern scholars argue that Israelites branched out of the Canaanite peoples and culture through the development of a distinct monolatrous—and later monotheistic—religion centered on El/Yahweh.[19][20] These foundational events, straddling the dawn of the 1st millennium BCE, assumed central symbolic importance for the Jewish people.[21][22] The sobriquet of holy city (Hebrew: עיר הקודש, romanized: 'Ir ha-Qodesh) was probably attached to Jerusalem in post-exilic times.[23][24][25] The holiness of Jerusalem in Christianity, conserved in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible,[26] which Christians adopted as the Old Testament,[27] was reinforced by the New Testament account of Jesus's crucifixion and resurrection there. Meanwhile, in Islam, Jerusalem is the third-holiest city, after Mecca and Medina.[28][29] The city was the first standard direction for Muslim prayers,[30] and in Islamic tradition, Muhammad made his Night Journey there in 621, ascending to heaven where he spoke to God, per the Quran.[31][32] As a result, despite having an area of only 0.9 km2 (3⁄8 sq mi),[33] the Old City is home to many sites of seminal religious importance, among them the Temple Mount with its Western Wall, Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque, and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.
At present, the status of Jerusalem remains one of the core issues in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, West Jerusalem was among the areas incorporated into Israel, while East Jerusalem, including the Old City, was occupied and annexed by Jordan. Israel occupied East Jerusalem from Jordan during the 1967 Six-Day War and subsequently annexed it into the city's municipality, together with additional surrounding territory.[note 6] One of Israel's Basic Laws, the 1980 Jerusalem Law, refers to Jerusalem as the country's undivided capital. All branches of the Israeli government are located in Jerusalem, including the Knesset (Israel's parliament), the residences of the Prime Minister and President, and the Supreme Court. The international community rejects the annexation as illegal and regards East Jerusalem as Palestinian territory occupied by Israel.[37][38][39][40]
Etymology and names
Etymology
The name "Jerusalem" is variously etymologized to mean "foundation (Semitic yry' 'to found, to lay a cornerstone') of the pagan god Shalem";[41][42] the god Shalem was thus the original tutelary deity of the Bronze Age city.[43]
Shalim or Shalem was the name of the god of dusk in the Canaanite religion, whose name is based on the same root S-L-M from which the Hebrew word for "peace" is derived (Shalom in Hebrew, cognate with Arabic Salam).[44][45] The name thus offered itself to etymologizations such as "The City of Peace",[42][46] "Abode of Peace",[47][48] "Dwelling of Peace" ("founded in safety"),[49] or "Vision of Peace" in some Christian authors.[50]
The ending -ayim indicates the dual, thus leading to the suggestion that the name Yerushalayim refers to the fact that the city initially sat on two hills.[51][52]
Ancient Egyptian sources
The Execration Texts of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt (c. 19th century BCE), which refer to a city called rwšꜣlmm or ꜣwšꜣmm, variously transcribed as Rušalimum, or Urušalimum,[53][54] may indicate Jerusalem.[55][56] Alternatively, the Amarna letters of Abdi-Heba (1330s BCE), which reference an Úrušalim, may be the earliest mention of the city.[57][58][59]
Hebrew Bible and Jewish sources
The form Yerushalem or Yerushalayim first appears in the Bible, in the Book of Joshua. According to a Midrash, the name is a combination of two names united by God, Yireh ("the abiding place", the name given by Abraham to the place where he planned to sacrifice his son) and Shalem ("Place of Peace", the name given by high priest Shem).[60]
Oldest written mention of Jerusalem
One of the earliest extra-biblical Hebrew writing of the word Jerusalem is dated to the sixth or seventh century BCE[61][62] and was discovered in Khirbet Beit Lei near Beit Guvrin in 1961. The inscription states: "I am Yahweh thy God, I will accept the cities of Judah and I will redeem Jerusalem",[63][64][65] or as other scholars suggest: "Yahweh is the God of the whole earth. The mountains of Judah belong to him, to the God of Jerusalem".[66][67] An earlier example of the name appears in a papyrus from the 7th century BCE.[68][69]
In extra-biblical inscriptions, the earliest known example of the -ayim ending was discovered on a column about 3 km west of ancient Jerusalem, dated to the first century BCE.[69]
Jebus, Zion, City of David
An ancient settlement of Jerusalem, founded as early as the Bronze Age on the hill above the Gihon Spring, was, according to the Bible, named Jebus.[70][71][72] Called the "Fortress of Zion" (metsudat Zion), it was renamed as the "City of David",[73] and was known by this name in antiquity.[74][75] Another name, "Zion", initially referred to a distinct part of the city, but later came to signify the city as a whole, and afterwards to represent the whole biblical Land of Israel.
Greek, Roman and Byzantine names
In Greek and Latin, the city's name was transliterated Hierosolyma/Hierosoluma (Greek: Ἱεροσόλυμα; in Greek hieròs, ἱερός, means holy), and was the term used by Matthew and Mark in their gospels instead of the Hebrew term.[76]
Up until the 2010's the consensus among historians was that following Alexander the Great's conquest, Hierosoluma was set to be incorporated into the larger temple cities of the Seleucid kingdom, and to be Hellenized as Hierapolis.[76] However, modern historians dispute this as a proper Ancient Greek translation for the polis would be similar to Hierolophos.[76]
The city was renamed Aelia Capitolina for part of the Roman period of its history.[citation needed]
Salem
The Aramaic Apocryphon of Genesis of the Dead Sea Scrolls (1QapGen 22:13) equates Jerusalem with the earlier "Salem" (שלם), said to be the kingdom of Melchizedek in Genesis 14.[77] Other early Hebrew sources,[78] early Christian renderings of the verse[79] and targumim,[80] however, put Salem in Northern Israel near Shechem (Sichem), now Nablus, a city of some importance in early sacred Hebrew writing.[81] Possibly the redactor of the Apocryphon of Genesis wanted to dissociate Melchizedek from the area of Shechem, which at the time was in possession of the Samaritans.[82] However that may be, later Rabbinic sources also equate Salem with Jerusalem, mainly to link Melchizedek to later Temple traditions.[83]
Arabic names
Originally titled Bayt al-Maqdis, today, Jerusalem is most commonly known in Arabic as القُدس, transliterated as al-Quds and meaning "the holy" or "the holy sanctuary",[47][48] cognate with Hebrew: הקדש, romanized: ha-qodesh. The name is possibly a shortened form of مدينة القُدس Madīnat al-Quds "city of the holy sanctuary" after the Hebrew nickname with the same meaning, Ir ha-Qodesh (עיר הקדש). The ق (Q) is pronounced either with a voiceless uvular plosive (/q/), as in Classical Arabic, or with a glottal stop (ʔ) as in Levantine Arabic.[7] Official Israeli government policy mandates that أُورُشَلِيمَ, transliterated as Ūrušalīm, which is the name frequently used in Christian translations of the Bible into Arabic,[84][85] be used as the Arabic language name for the city in conjunction with القُدس, giving أُورُشَلِيمَ-القُدس, Ūrušalīm-al-Quds.[86] Palestinian Arab families who hail from this city are often called "Qudsi" (قُدسي) or "Maqdasi" (مقدسي), while Palestinian Muslim Jerusalemites may use these terms as a demonym.[87]
History
Jerusalem is one of the world's oldest cities, with a history spanning over 5,000 years. Its origins trace back to around 3000 BCE, with the first settlement near the Gihon Spring. The city is first mentioned in Egyptian Execration texts around 2000 BCE as "Rusalimum." By the 17th century BCE, Jerusalem had developed into a fortified city under Canaanite rule, with massive walls protecting its water system. During the Late Bronze Age, Jerusalem became a vassal of Ancient Egypt, as documented in the Amarna letters.
The city's importance grew during the Israelite period, which began around 1000 BCE when King David captured Jerusalem and made it the capital of the United Kingdom of Israel. David's son, Solomon, built the First Temple, establishing the city as a major religious center. Following the kingdom's split, Jerusalem became the capital of the Kingdom of Judah until it was captured by the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 586 BCE. The Babylonians destroyed the First Temple, leading to the Babylonian exile of the Jewish population. After the Persian conquest of Babylon in 539 BCE, Cyrus the Great allowed the Jews to return and rebuild the city and its temple, marking the start of the Second Temple period. Jerusalem fell under Hellenistic rule after the conquests of Alexander the Great in 332 BCE, leading to increasing cultural and political influence from Greece. The Hasmonean revolt in 164 BCE briefly restored Jewish autonomy, with Jerusalem as the capital of an independent state.
In 63 BCE, Jerusalem was conquered by Pompey and became part of the Roman Empire. The city remained under Roman control until the Jewish-Roman Wars, which culminated in the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. The city was renamed Aelia Capitolina and rebuilt as a Roman colony after the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE), with Jews banned from entering the city. Jerusalem gained significance during the Byzantine Empire as a center of Christianity, particularly after Constantine the Great endorsed the construction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. In 638 CE, Jerusalem was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate, and under early Islamic rule, the Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa Mosque were built, solidifying its religious importance in Islam.
During the Crusades, Jerusalem changed hands multiple times, being captured by the Crusaders in 1099 and recaptured by Saladin in 1187. It remained under Islamic control through the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods, until it became part of the Ottoman Empire in 1517. In the modern period, Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan after the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. Israel captured East Jerusalem during the Six-Day War in 1967, uniting the city under Israeli control. The status of Jerusalem remains a highly contentious issue, with both Israelis and Palestinians claiming it as their capital. Historiographically, the city's history is often interpreted through the lens of competing national narratives. Israeli scholars emphasize the ancient Jewish connection to the city, while Palestinian narratives highlight the city's broader historical and multicultural significance. Both perspectives influence contemporary discussions of Jerusalem's status and future.
Political status
Psalm 122:6;
Pray for the peace of Jerusalem...
From 1923 until 1948, Jerusalem served as the administrative capital of Mandatory Palestine.[88]
From 1949 until 1967, West Jerusalem served as Israel's capital, but was not recognized as such internationally because UN General Assembly Resolution 194 envisaged Jerusalem as an international city. As a result of the Six-Day War in 1967, the whole of Jerusalem came under Israeli control. On 27 June 1967, the government of Levi Eshkol extended Israeli law and jurisdiction to East Jerusalem, but agreed that administration of the Temple Mount compound would be maintained by the Jordanian waqf, under the Jordanian Ministry of Religious Endowments.[89]
In 1988, Israel ordered the closure of Orient House, home of the Arab Studies Society, but also the headquarters of the Palestine Liberation Organization, for security reasons. The building reopened in 1992 as a Palestinian guesthouse.[90][91] The Oslo Accords stated that the final status of Jerusalem would be determined by negotiations with the Palestinian Authority. The accords banned any official Palestinian presence in the city until a final peace agreement, but provided for the opening of a Palestinian trade office in East Jerusalem. The Palestinian Authority regards East Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state.[92][93]
President Mahmoud Abbas has said that any agreement that did not include East Jerusalem as the capital of Palestine would be unacceptable.[94] Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has similarly stated that Jerusalem would remain the undivided capital of Israel. Due to its proximity to the city, especially the Temple Mount, Abu Dis, a Palestinian suburb of Jerusalem, has been proposed as the future capital of a Palestinian state by Israel. Israel has not incorporated Abu Dis within its security wall around Jerusalem. The Palestinian Authority has built a possible future parliament building for the Palestinian Legislative Council in the town, and its Jerusalem Affairs Offices are all located in Abu Dis.[95]
International status
While the international community regards East Jerusalem, including the entire Old City, as part of the occupied Palestinian territories, neither part, West or East Jerusalem, is recognized as part of the territory of Israel or the State of Palestine.[96][97][98][99] Under the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1947, Jerusalem was envisaged to become a corpus separatum administered by the United Nations. In the war of 1948, the western part of the city was occupied by forces of the nascent state of Israel, while the eastern part was occupied by Jordan. The international community largely considers the legal status of Jerusalem to derive from the partition plan, and correspondingly refuses to recognize Israeli sovereignty over the city.[100]
Status under Israeli rule
Following the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel extended its jurisdiction and administration over East Jerusalem, establishing new municipal borders.
In 2010, Israel approved legislation giving Jerusalem the highest national priority status in Israel. The law prioritized construction throughout the city, and offered grants and tax benefits to residents to make housing, infrastructure, education, employment, business, tourism, and cultural events more affordable. Communications Minister Moshe Kahlon said that the bill sent "a clear, unequivocal political message that Jerusalem will not be divided", and that "all those within the Palestinian and international community who expect the current Israeli government to accept any demands regarding Israel's sovereignty over its capital are mistaken and misleading".[101]
The status of the city, and especially its holy places, remains a core issue in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. The Israeli government has approved building plans in the Muslim Quarter of the Old City[102] in order to expand the Jewish presence in East Jerusalem, while some Islamic leaders have made claims that Jews have no historical connection to Jerusalem, alleging that the 2,500-year-old Western Wall was constructed as part of a mosque.[103][104] Palestinians regard Jerusalem as the capital of the State of Palestine,[105] and the city's borders have been the subject of bilateral talks. A team of experts assembled by the then Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak in 2000 concluded that the city must be divided, since Israel had failed to achieve any of its national aims there.[106]
However, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu said in 2014 that "Jerusalem will never be divided".[107] A poll conducted in June 2013 found that 74% of Israeli Jews reject the idea of a Palestinian capital in any portion of Jerusalem, though 72% of the public regarded it as a divided city.[108] A poll conducted by Palestinian Centre for Public Opinion and American Pechter Middle East Polls for the Council on Foreign Relations, among East Jerusalem Arab residents in 2011 revealed that 39% of East Jerusalem Arab residents would prefer Israeli citizenship contrary to 31% who opted for Palestinian citizenship. According to the poll, 40% of Palestinian residents would prefer to leave their neighbourhoods if they would be placed under Palestinian rule.[109]
Jerusalem as capital of Israel
On 5 December 1949, Israel's first Prime Minister, David Ben-Gurion, proclaimed Jerusalem as Israel's "eternal" and "sacred" capital, and eight days later specified that only the war had "compelled" the Israeli leadership "to establish the seat of Government in Tel Aviv", while "for the State of Israel there has always been and always will be one capital only – Jerusalem the Eternal", and that after the war, efforts had been ongoing for creating the conditions for "the Knesset... returning to Jerusalem."[110] This indeed took place, and since the beginning of 1950 all branches of the Israeli government—legislative, judicial, and executive—have resided there, except for the Ministry of Defense, which is located at HaKirya in Tel Aviv.[111][112] At the time of Ben Gurion's proclamations and the ensuing Knesset vote of 24 January 1950,[112] Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan, and thus the proclamation only applied to West Jerusalem.
In July 1980, Israel passed the Jerusalem Law as Basic Law. The law declared Jerusalem the "complete and united" capital of Israel.[113] The Jerusalem Law was condemned by the international community, which did not recognize Jerusalem as the capital of Israel. The United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 478 on 20 August 1980, which declared that the Jerusalem Law is "a violation of international law", is "null and void and must be rescinded forthwith". Member states were called upon to withdraw their diplomatic representation from Jerusalem.[114]
Following the resolution, 22 of the 24 countries that previously had their embassy in (West) Jerusalem relocated them in Tel Aviv, where many embassies already resided prior to Resolution 478. Costa Rica and El Salvador followed in 2006.[115] There are five embassies—United States, Guatemala, Honduras, Papua-New Guinea and Kosovo —and two consulates located within the city limits of Jerusalem, and two Latin American states maintain embassies in the Jerusalem District town of Mevaseret Zion (Bolivia and Paraguay).[116][117][118][119] There are a number of consulates-general located in Jerusalem, which work primarily either with Israel, or the Palestinian authorities.
In 1995, the United States Congress passed the Jerusalem Embassy Act, which required, subject to conditions, that its embassy be moved from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem.[120] On 6 December 2017 U.S. President Donald Trump officially recognized Jerusalem as Israel's capital and announced his intention to move the American embassy to Jerusalem, reversing decades of United States policy on the issue.[121][122] The move was criticized by many nations.[123] A resolution condemning the US decision was supported by all the 14 other members of the UN Security Council, but was vetoed by the US on 18 December 2017.[124] A subsequent resolution condemning the US decision was passed in the United Nations General Assembly.[125][126][127][128] On 14 May 2018, the United States officially opened its embassy in Jerusalem, transforming its Tel Aviv location into a consulate. Due to the general lack of international recognition of Jerusalem as Israel's capital, some non-Israeli media outlets use Tel Aviv as a metonym for Israel.[129][130][131][132]
In April 2017, the Russian Foreign Ministry announced it viewed Western Jerusalem as Israel's capital in the context of UN-approved principles which include the status of East Jerusalem as the capital of the future Palestinian state.[133][134][135] On 15 December 2018, Australia officially recognized West Jerusalem as Israel's capital, but said their embassy in Tel Aviv would stay until a two-state resolution was settled.[136] The decision was reversed in October 2022.[137]
Government precinct and national institutions
The Kiryat HaLeom (national precinct) project is intended to house most government agencies and national cultural institutions. They are located in the Kiryat HaMemshala (government complex) in the Givat Ram neighbourhood. Some government buildings are located in Kiryat Menachem Begin. The city is home to the Knesset,[138] the Supreme Court,[139] the Bank of Israel, the National Headquarters of the Israel Police, the official residences of the President and Prime Minister, the Cabinet, and all ministries except for the Ministry of Defense (which is located in central Tel Aviv's HaKirya district) and the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (which is located in Rishon LeZion, in the wider Tel Aviv metropolitan area, near Beit Dagan).
Israeli settlements
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Since its capture in 1967, the Israeli government has built 12 Israeli settlements in East Jerusalem, with a population amounting to 220,000 Israeli Jewish settlers as of 2019.[140] The international community consider Israeli settlements to be illegal under international law.[141]
Jerusalem as capital of Palestine
The Palestinian National Authority views East Jerusalem as occupied territory according to United Nations Security Council Resolution 242. The Palestinian Authority claims Jerusalem, including the Haram al-Sharif, as the capital of the State of Palestine,[105] The PLO claims that West Jerusalem is also subject to permanent status negotiations. However, it has stated that it would be willing to consider alternative solutions, such as making Jerusalem an open city.[142]
The PLO's position is that East Jerusalem, as defined by the pre-1967 municipal boundaries, shall be the capital of Palestine and West Jerusalem the capital of Israel, with each state enjoying full sovereignty over its respective part of the city and with its own municipality. A joint development council would be responsible for coordinated development.[143] Orient House in East Jerusalem served as the headquarters of the PLO in the 1980s and 1990s. It was closed by Israel in 2001, two days after the Sbarro restaurant suicide bombing.
Some states, such as Russia[144] and China,[145] recognize the Palestinian state with East Jerusalem as its capital. United Nations General Assembly Resolution 58/292 affirmed that the Palestinian people have the right to sovereignty over East Jerusalem.[146]
Palestinian offices and institutions
Government offices are located outside the Israeli municipal limits include the Palestinian Security Services, Force 17, the Preventative Security Service and the Ministry of Interior.[147][148][149] There is a Palestinian Authority regional office and an electoral office located in the Dahiyat al Barid neighborhood.[150]
Municipal administration
The Jerusalem City Council is a body of 31 elected members headed by the mayor, who serves a five-year term and appoints eight deputies. The former mayor of Jerusalem, Uri Lupolianski, was elected in 2003.[151] In the November 2008 city elections, Nir Barkat was elected. In November 2018, Moshe Lion was elected mayor.[152]
Apart from the mayor and his deputies, City Council members receive no salaries and work on a voluntary basis. The longest-serving Jerusalem mayor was Teddy Kollek, who spent 28 years—six consecutive terms—in office. Most of the meetings of the Jerusalem City Council are private, but each month, it holds a session that is open to the public.[151] Within the city council, religious political parties form an especially powerful faction, accounting for the majority of its seats.[153]
The headquarters of the Jerusalem Municipality and the mayor's office are at Safra Square (Kikar Safra) on Jaffa Road. The municipal complex, comprising two modern buildings and ten renovated historic buildings surrounding a large plaza, opened in 1993 when it moved from the old town hall building built by the Mandate authorities.[154] The city falls under the Jerusalem District, with Jerusalem as the district's capital. 37% of the population is Palestinian, but in 2014 not more than 10% of tax revenues were allocated for them. In East Jerusalem, 52% of the land was excluded from development, 35% designated for Jewish settlements, and 13% for Palestinian use, almost all of which was already built upon.[155]
In Oslo I Accord, certain parts of few neighborhoods were allotted to the Palestinian Authority. Parts of Sur Baher, Wadi al-Hummus, Umm Leisun and Umm Tuba, altogether came under Area A, which is completely controlled by the Palestinian Authority.[156] Al-Ram and Dahiyat al-Barid are mostly in Area B, where both Palestine and Israel has control.[157] Other parts of Beit Hanina, Kafr Aqab and Arab al-Jahalin also falls under Area B.[158][159][160]
Geography
Jerusalem is situated on the southern spur of a plateau in the Judaean Mountains, which include the Mount of Olives (East) and Mount Scopus (North East). The elevation of the Old City is approximately 760 m (2,490 ft).[161] The whole of Jerusalem is surrounded by valleys and dry riverbeds (wadis). The Kidron, Hinnom, and Tyropoeon Valleys intersect in an area just south of the Old City of Jerusalem.[162] The Kidron Valley runs to the east of the Old City and separates the Mount of Olives from the city proper. Along the southern side of old Jerusalem is the Valley of Hinnom, a steep ravine associated in biblical eschatology with the concept of Gehenna or Hell.[163]
The Tyropoeon Valley commenced in the northwest near the Damascus Gate, ran south-southeasterly through the centre of the Old City down to the Pool of Siloam, and divided the lower part into two hills, the Temple Mount to the east, and the rest of the city to the west, the lower and the upper cities described by Josephus. Today, this valley is hidden by debris that has accumulated over the centuries.[162] In biblical times, Jerusalem was surrounded by forests of almond, olive and pine trees. Over centuries of warfare and neglect, these forests were destroyed. Farmers in the Jerusalem region built stone terraces along the slopes to hold back the soil, a feature still very much in evidence in the Jerusalem landscape.[citation needed]
Water supply has always been a major problem in Jerusalem, as attested to by the intricate network of ancient aqueducts, tunnels, pools and cisterns found in the city.[164]
Jerusalem is 60 km (37 mi)[165] east of Tel Aviv and the Mediterranean Sea. On the opposite side of the city, approximately 35 km (22 mi)[166] away, is the Dead Sea, the lowest body of water on Earth. Neighbouring cities and towns include Bethlehem and Beit Jala to the south, Abu Dis and Ma'ale Adumim to the east, Mevaseret Zion to the west, and Ramallah and Giv'at Ze'ev to the north.[167][168][169]
Mount Herzl, at the western side of the city near the Jerusalem Forest, serves as the national cemetery of Israel.
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Astronauts' view of Jerusalem -
Sunset aerial photograph of the Mount of Olives
Climate
The city is characterized by a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa), with hot, dry summers, and mild, wet winters. Snow flurries usually occur once or twice a winter, although the city experiences heavy snowfall every three to four years, on average, with short-lived accumulation.
January is the coldest month of the year, with an average temperature of 9.1 °C (48.4 °F); July and August are the hottest months, with an average temperature of 24.2 °C (75.6 °F), and the summer months are usually rainless. The average annual precipitation is around 537 mm (21 in), with rain occurring almost entirely between October and May.[170] Snowfall is rare, and large snowfalls are even more rare.[171][172] Jerusalem received over 30 cm (12 in) of snow on 13 December 2013, which nearly paralyzed the city.[171][172] A day in Jerusalem has on average, 9.3 sunshine hours. With summers averaging similar temperatures as the coastline, the maritime influence from the Mediterranean Sea is strong, in particular given that Jerusalem is located on a similar latitude as scorching hot deserts not far to its east.
The highest recorded temperature in Jerusalem was 44.4 °C (111.9 °F) on 28 and 30 August 1881, and the lowest temperature recorded was −6.7 °C (19.9 °F) on 25 January 1907.
Most of the air pollution in Jerusalem comes from vehicular traffic.[173] Many main streets in Jerusalem were not built to accommodate such a large volume of traffic, leading to traffic congestion and more carbon monoxide released into the air. Industrial pollution inside the city is sparse, but emissions from factories on the Israeli Mediterranean coast can travel eastward and settle over the city.[173][174]
| Climate data for Jerusalem (1991–2020 normals) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 24.4 (75.9) |
27.5 (81.5) |
32.7 (90.9) |
35.6 (96.1) |
38.6 (101.5) |
38.4 (101.1) |
40.6 (105.1) |
44.4 (111.9) |
42.7 (108.9) |
36.5 (97.7) |
30.5 (86.9) |
28.5 (83.3) |
44.4 (111.9) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 12.7 (54.9) |
14.0 (57.2) |
17.4 (63.3) |
22.0 (71.6) |
26.2 (79.2) |
28.6 (83.5) |
30.0 (86.0) |
30.3 (86.5) |
28.9 (84.0) |
25.9 (78.6) |
19.9 (67.8) |
14.9 (58.8) |
22.6 (72.6) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 9.8 (49.6) |
10.7 (51.3) |
13.4 (56.1) |
17.3 (63.1) |
21.2 (70.2) |
23.5 (74.3) |
25.0 (77.0) |
25.3 (77.5) |
24.0 (75.2) |
21.6 (70.9) |
16.4 (61.5) |
11.9 (53.4) |
18.3 (65.0) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 6.7 (44.1) |
7.3 (45.1) |
9.5 (49.1) |
12.5 (54.5) |
16.2 (61.2) |
18.3 (64.9) |
20.0 (68.0) |
20.2 (68.4) |
19.1 (66.4) |
17.3 (63.1) |
12.9 (55.2) |
8.8 (47.8) |
14.1 (57.3) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −6.7 (19.9) |
−2.5 (27.5) |
−0.3 (31.5) |
0.8 (33.4) |
7.6 (45.7) |
11.0 (51.8) |
14.6 (58.3) |
15.5 (59.9) |
13.2 (55.8) |
9.8 (49.6) |
1.8 (35.2) |
−0.4 (31.3) |
−6.7 (19.9) |
| Average rainfall mm (inches) | 136.8 (5.39) |
117.9 (4.64) |
67.2 (2.65) |
21.8 (0.86) |
7.1 (0.28) |
0.3 (0.01) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.7 (0.03) |
10.3 (0.41) |
51.1 (2.01) |
112.3 (4.42) |
525.5 (20.7) |
| Average rainy days (≥ 1 mm) | 9.2 | 8.5 | 6.2 | 2.4 | 0.8 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.2 | 1.9 | 4.7 | 7.7 | 41.6 |
| Average relative humidity (%) | 61 | 59 | 52 | 39 | 35 | 37 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 42 | 48 | 56 | 46 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 192.9 | 243.6 | 226.3 | 266.6 | 331.7 | 381.0 | 384.4 | 365.8 | 309.0 | 275.9 | 228.0 | 192.2 | 3,397.4 |
| Source 1: Israel Meteorological Service (records until 1990)[175][176] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2: NOAA (normal values & records, 1991–2020)[177] (sun, 1961–1990)[178] | |||||||||||||
Demographics
Demographic history
Jerusalem's population size and composition has shifted many times over its 5,000-year history. Since the 19th century, the Old City of Jerusalem has been divided into Jewish, Muslim, Christian, and Armenian quarters. Matthew Teller writes that this convention may have originated in the 1841 British Royal Engineers map of Jerusalem,[13] or at least Reverend George Williams' subsequent labelling of it.[179]
Most population data before 1905 is based on estimates, often from foreign travellers or organisations, since previous census data usually covered wider areas such as the Jerusalem District.[180] These estimates suggest that since the end of the Crusades, Muslims formed the largest group in Jerusalem until the mid-nineteenth century.
Between 1838 and 1876, a number of estimates exist which conflict as to whether Jews or Muslims were the largest group during this period, and between 1882 and 1922 estimates conflict as to exactly when Jews became an absolute majority of the population.
Current demographics
| West or East (1967 borders) |
Total | Jews and others |
Jews and others % |
Approx. # of Ultra- Orthodox |
Ultra- Orthodox as % of "Jews and Others" |
Arabs/ Pale- stinians |
Pale- stinian % |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| East Jerusalem | 611,370 | 240,831 | 39.4% | 111,121 | 46.1% | 370,532 | 60.6% |
| West Jerusalem | 354,840 | 349,734 | 98.6% | 166,688 | 47.7% | 5,088 | 1.4% |
| Total Jerusalem | 966,210 | 590,565 | 61% | 277,809 | 29% | 375,620 | 39% |
| Some sub-quarters straddle the Green Line and in those cases the sub-quarter is assigned to the sector (East or West) into which most of the area falls. Source: Statistical Yearbook of Jerusalem, 2021.[181] Totals do not sum exactly due to the presentation of some ethnoreligious groups as percentages of totals. | |||||||
In December 2007, Jerusalem had a population of 747,600—63.7% were Jewish, 33.1% Muslim, and 2% Christian.[182]
According to a study published in 2000, the percentage of Jews in the city's population had been decreasing; this was attributed to a higher Muslim birth rate, and Jewish residents leaving. The study also found that about nine percent of the Old City's 32,488 people were Jews.[183] Of the Jewish population, 200,000 live in East Jerusalem settlements which are considered illegal under international law.[184]
In 2005, 2,850 new immigrants settled in Jerusalem, mostly from the United States, France and the former Soviet Union. In terms of the local population, the number of outgoing residents exceeds the number of incoming residents. In 2005, 16,000 left Jerusalem and only 10,000 moved in.[185] Nevertheless, the population of Jerusalem continues to rise due to the high birth rate, especially in the Haredi Jewish and Arab communities. Consequently, the total fertility rate in Jerusalem (4.02) is higher than in Tel Aviv (1.98) and well above the national average of 2.90. The average size of Jerusalem's 180,000 households is 3.8 people.[185]
In 2005, the total population grew by 13,000 (1.8%)—similar to the Israeli national average, but the religious and ethnic composition is shifting. While 31% of the Jewish population is made up of children below the age fifteen, the figure for the Arab population is 42%.[185]
In 1967, Jews accounted for 74 percent of the population, while the figure for 2006 is down nine percent.[186] Possible factors are the high cost of housing, fewer job opportunities and the increasingly religious character of the city, although proportionally, young Haredim are leaving in higher numbers.[citation needed] The percentage of secular Jews, or those who 'wear their faith lightly' is dropping, with some 20,000 leaving the city over the past seven years (2012). They now number 31% of the population, the same percentage as the rising Haredi population.
In 2010, 61% of all Jewish children in Jerusalem studied in Haredi (Ultra-Orthodox) schools. This correlates with the high number of children in Haredi families.[187]
While some secular Jews leave Jerusalem for its relative lack of development and religious and political tensions, Jerusalem-born Palestinians cannot leave Jerusalem, or they lose their right to live in the city. Palestinians with a "Jerusalem resident status" are entitled to the subsidized healthcare and social security benefits Israel provides to its citizens, and have the right to vote in municipal elections, but not to be voted in municipal elections, or to vote in national elections. Arabs in Jerusalem can send their children to Israeli-run schools, although not every neighbourhood has one, and universities. Israeli doctors and highly regarded hospitals such as Hadassah Medical Centre are available to residents.[188]
Demographics and the Jewish-Arab population divide play a major role in the dispute over Jerusalem. In 1998, the Jerusalem Development Authority expanded city limits to the west to include more areas heavily populated with Jews.[16]
Within the past few years, there has been a steady increase in the Jewish birthrate and a steady decrease in the Arab birthrate. In May 2012, it was reported that the Jewish birthrate had overtaken the Arab birthrate. The city's birthrate stands about 4.2 children per Jewish family and 3.9 children per Arab family.[189][190] In addition, increasing numbers of Jewish immigrants chose to settle in Jerusalem. In the last few years, thousands of Palestinians have moved to previously fully Jewish neighbourhoods of East Jerusalem, built after the 1967 Six-Day War. In 2007, 1,300 Palestinians lived in the previously exclusively Jewish neighbourhood of Pisgat Ze'ev and constituted three percent of the population in Neve Ya'akov. In the French Hill neighbourhood, Palestinians today constitute one-sixth of the overall population.[191]
At the end of 2008, the population of East Jerusalem was 456,300, comprising 60% of Jerusalem's residents. Of these, 195,500 (43%) were Jews, (comprising 40% of the Jewish population of Jerusalem as a whole), and 260,800 (57%) were Muslim (comprising 98% of the Muslim population of Jerusalem).[192] In 2008, the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics reported the number of Palestinians living in East Jerusalem was 208,000 according to a recently completed census.[193]
Jerusalem's Jewish population is overwhelmingly religious. Only 18% of Jewish residents are secular. In addition, Haredi Jews comprise 35% of the city's adult Jewish population. In a phenomenon seen rarely around the world, the percentage of Jewish women who work, 81%, exceeds the percentage of Jewish men who work, 70%.[194]
Jerusalem had a population of 804,400 in 2011, of which Jews comprised 499,400 (62.1%), Muslims 281,100 (34.9%), Christians 14,700 (1.8%), and 9,000 (1.1%) were not classified by religion.[17]
Jerusalem had a population of 882,700 in 2016, of which Jews comprised 536,600 (60.8%), Muslims 319,800 (36.2%), Christians 15,800 (1.8%), and 10,300 unclassified (1.2%).[17]
Jerusalem had a population of 951,100 in 2020, of which Jews comprised 570,100 (59.9%), Muslims 353.800 (37.2%), Christians 16.300 (1.7%), and 10,800 unclassified (1.1%).[17]
According to Peace Now, approvals for building in Israeli settlements in East Jerusalem have expanded by 60% under Donald Trump's term as U.S. president.[195] Since 1991, Palestinians, who make up the majority of the residents in East Jerusalem, have only received 30% of the building permits.[196]
Urban planning issues
Critics of efforts to promote a Jewish majority in Jerusalem say that government planning policies are motivated by demographic considerations and seek to limit Arab construction while promoting Jewish construction.[197] According to a World Bank report, the number of recorded building violations between 1996 and 2000 was four and half times higher in Jewish neighbourhoods but four times fewer demolition orders were issued in West Jerusalem than in East Jerusalem; Arabs in Jerusalem were less likely to receive construction permits than Jews, and "the authorities are much more likely to take action against Palestinian violators" than Jewish violators of the permit process.[198] In recent years, private Jewish foundations have received permission from the government to develop projects on disputed lands, such as the City of David archaeological site in the 60% Arab neighbourhood of Silwan (adjacent to the Old City),[199] and the Museum of Tolerance on Mamilla Cemetery (adjacent to Zion Square).[198][200]
Religious significance
Jerusalem has been sacred to Judaism for roughly 3000 years, to Christianity for around 2000 years, and to Islam for approximately 1400 years. The 2000 Statistical Yearbook of Jerusalem lists 1204 synagogues, 158 churches, and 73 mosques within the city.[201] Despite efforts to maintain peaceful religious coexistence, some sites, such as the Temple Mount, have been a continuous source of friction and controversy. The Temple Mount is the holiest spot in Judaism and the third holiest site in Islam. Jews venerate it as the site of the two former Temples and Muslims believe that Muhammad was transported from the Great Mosque of Mecca to this location during the Night Journey.
Judaism
Jerusalem has been the holiest city in Judaism and the ancestral and spiritual homeland of the Jewish people since King David proclaimed it his capital in the 10th century BCE.[note 5][21] Without counting its other names, Jerusalem appears in the Hebrew Bible 669 times.[202] The first section, the Torah (Pentateuch), only mentions Moriah, but in later parts of the Bible, the city is mentioned explicitly.[203] The Temple Mount, which was the site of Solomon's Temple and the Second Temple, is the holiest site in Judaism and the place Jews turn towards during prayer.[204][205] The Western Wall, a remnant of the wall surrounding the Second Temple, is the holiest place where Jews are permitted to pray.[206] Synagogues around the world are traditionally built with the Holy Ark facing Jerusalem,[207] and Arks within Jerusalem face the Holy of Holies.[208] As prescribed in the Mishna and codified in the Shulchan Aruch, daily prayers are recited while facing towards Jerusalem and the Temple Mount. Many Jews have "Mizrach" plaques hung on a wall of their homes to indicate the direction of prayer.[208][209] The Western Wall is a remnant of the Second Temple and the holiest place where Jews are permitted to pray.
Christianity
Jerusalem is generally considered the cradle of Christianity.[210] Christianity reveres Jerusalem for its Old Testament history, and also for its significance in the life of Jesus. According to the New Testament, Jesus was brought to Jerusalem soon after his birth[211] and later in his life cleansed the Second Temple.[212] The Cenacle, believed to be the site of Jesus' Last Supper, is located on Mount Zion in the same building that houses the Tomb of King David.[213][214] Another prominent Christian site in Jerusalem is Golgotha, the site of the crucifixion. The Gospel of John describes it as being located outside Jerusalem,[215] but recent archaeological evidence suggests Golgotha is a short distance from the Old City walls, within the present-day confines of the city.[216] The land occupied by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is considered one of the top candidates for Golgotha and thus has been a Christian pilgrimage site for the past 2000 years.[216][217][218] The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is generally considered the most important church in Christendom.[219] It contains the two holiest sites in Christianity: the site where Jesus was crucified, and Jesus's empty tomb, where he is believed by Christians to have been buried and resurrected.
Islam
Jerusalem is the third-holiest city in Sunni Islam.[28] Islamic tradition holds that for approximately a year, before it was permanently switched to the Kaaba in Mecca, the qibla (direction of prayer) for Muslims was Jerusalem.[220][221] The city's lasting place in Islam, however, is primarily due to Muhammad's Night Journey (c. 620 CE). Muslims believe that Muhammad was miraculously transported one night from the Great Mosque of Mecca to the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, whereupon he ascended to Heaven to meet previous prophets of Islam.[222][223][224] The first verse in the Qur'an's Surat al-Isra notes the destination of Muhammad's journey as al-masjid al-aqṣā ("the farthest place of prayer").[225][226] In the earliest days of Islam, this was understood as a reference to a site in the heavens,[227] however, Post-Rashidun Islamic scholars understood it as relating to Jerusalem, and particularly to the site of the former Jewish Temple.[228] The hadith, a collection of the sayings of Muhammad, mentions that the location of the Al-Aqsa Mosque is in Jerusalem.[229] The Al-Aqsa Mosque, originally named after the wider compound it sits within,[230] was built on the Temple Mount under the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid several decades after Muhammad's death to commemorate the place from which Muslims believe he had ascended to Heaven.[231]
-
A view of the Temple Mount -
The Western Wall, also known as the Wailing Wall and the Kotel, i -
-
The Garden Tomb – a new holy site established by British Protestants in the 19th century -
Dome of the Rock, where Muhammad is believed by Muslims to have ascended to heaven -
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-Temple_Mount-Dome_of_the_Rock_(SE_exposure).jpg)
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Economy
Historically, Jerusalem's economy was supported almost exclusively by religious pilgrims, as it was far from the major ports of Jaffa and Gaza.[232] Jerusalem's religious and cultural landmarks today remain the top draw for foreign visitors, with the majority of tourists visiting the Western Wall and the Old City.[185] In 2010, Jerusalem was named the top leisure travel city in Africa and the Middle East by Travel + Leisure magazine.[233] in 2013, 75% of the 3.5 million tourists to Israel visited Jerusalem.[234]
Since the establishment of the State of Israel, the national government has remained a major player in Jerusalem's economy. The government, centred in Jerusalem, generates a large number of jobs, and offers subsidies and incentives for new business initiatives and start-ups.[232] Although Tel Aviv remains Israel's financial centre, a growing number of high tech companies are moving to Jerusalem, providing 12,000 jobs in 2006.[235] Northern Jerusalem's Har Hotzvim industrial park and the Jerusalem Technology Park in south Jerusalem are home to large Research and Development centres of international tech companies, among them Intel, Cisco Systems, Teva Pharmaceutical Industries, IBM, Mobileye, Johnson & Johnson, Medtronic and more.[236] In April 2015, Time Magazine picked Jerusalem as one of the five emerging tech hubs in the world, proclaiming that "The city has become a flourishing centre for biomed, cleantech, Internet/mobile startups, accelerators, investors and supporting service providers."[237]
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Higher than average percentages are employed in education (17.9% vs. 12.7%); health and welfare (12.6% vs. 10.7%); community and social services (6.4% vs. 4.7%); hotels and restaurants (6.1% vs. 4.7%); and public administration (8.2% vs. 4.7%).[238] During the British Mandate, a law was passed requiring all buildings to be constructed of Jerusalem stone in order to preserve the unique historic and aesthetic character of the city.[239] Complementing this building code, which is still in force, is the discouragement of heavy industry in Jerusalem; only about 2.2% of Jerusalem's land is zoned for "industry and infrastructure". By comparison, the percentage of land in Tel Aviv zoned for industry and infrastructure is twice as high, and in Haifa, seven times as high.[185] Only 8.5% of the Jerusalem District work force is employed in the manufacturing sector, which is half the national average (15.8%).
Although many statistics indicate economic growth in the city, since 1967, East Jerusalem has lagged behind the development of West Jerusalem.[232] Nevertheless, the percentage of households with employed persons is higher for Arab households (76.1%) than for Jewish households (66.8%). The unemployment rate in Jerusalem (8.3%) is slightly better than the national average (9.0%), although the civilian labour force accounted for less than half of all persons fifteen years or older—lower in comparison to that of Tel Aviv (58.0%) and Haifa (52.4%).[185] Poverty remains a problem in the city as 37% of the families in Jerusalem lived in 2011 below the poverty line. According to a report by the Association for Civil Rights in Israel (ACRI), 78% of Arabs in Jerusalem lived in poverty in 2012, up from 64% in 2006. While the ACRI attributes the increase to the lack of employment opportunities, infrastructure and a worsening educational system, Ir Amim blames the legal status of Palestinians in Jerusalem.[240]
The increasing number of educated Palestinians in Jerusalem has brought about positive economic changes.[241] Through reforms and initiatives in sectors like technology, tourism, trade, and infrastructure, they have helped drive economic growth, create jobs, and improve living conditions in the city.[242][243] Various joint summits between Israeli and Palestinian entrepreneurs have been held in the city.[244] Palestine Investment Fund have proposed various projects in Jerusalem.[245][246] Palestinian industrialist Bashar Masri sought to make heavy investments in the city.[247] PA controlled industrial areas are located outskirts of Jerusalem, primarily in Bir Nabala, Abu Dis and Eizariya, engaging in manufacture of tires, food products and concretes.[248]
High-tech industry is emerged among Palestinian society of Jerusalem.[249][250] In 2023, Israel opened a technology park in East Jerusalem, known as EasTech. Local Palestinian engineers are employed in the complex by multinational companies, some of which includes AT&T, Natural Intelligence, Nvidia, Unity and Synamedia. Station J, an innovation hub is located in Sheikh Jarrah, which is yet another tech hub for Palestinians in the city. Hani Alami, a Jerusalem-based Palestinian entrepreneur has set up a start-+up accelerator.[251] As a part of Israeli–Palestinian economic peace efforts, interaction between Israeli and Palestinian business community, also contributes in growth of Palestinian IT sector in the city.[252][253]
Urban structure
High-rise construction
Jerusalem has traditionally had a low-rise skyline. About 18 tall buildings were built at different times in the downtown area when there was no clear policy over the matter. One of them, Holyland Tower 1, Jerusalem's tallest building, is a skyscraper by international standards, rising 32 stories. Holyland Tower 2, which has been approved for construction, will reach the same height.[254][255]
A new master plan for the city will see many high-rise buildings, including skyscrapers, built in certain, designated areas of downtown Jerusalem. Under the plan, towers will line Jaffa Road and King George Street. One of the proposed towers along King George Street, the Migdal Merkaz HaYekum, is planned as a 65-story building, which would make it one of the tallest buildings in Israel. At the entrance to the city, near the Jerusalem Chords Bridge and the Central Bus Station, twelve towers rising between 24 and 33 stories will be built, as part of a complex that will also include an open square and an underground train station serving a new express line between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv, and will be connected by bridges and tunnels. Eleven of the skyscrapers will be either office or apartment buildings, and one will be a 2,000-room hotel. The complex is expected to attract many businesses from Tel Aviv, and become the city's main business hub. In addition, a complex for the city's courts and the prosecutor's office will be built, as well as new buildings for Central Zionist Archives and Israel State Archives.[256][257][258] The skyscrapers built throughout the city are expected to contain public space, shops, restaurants, and entertainment venues, and it has been speculated that this may lead to a revitalization of downtown Jerusalem.[259][260] In August 2015, the city council approved construction of a 344-foot pyramid-shaped skyscraper designed by Daniel Libeskind and Yigal Levi, in place of a rejected previous design by Libeskind; it is set to break ground by 2019.[261]
New projects in Jerusalem
In 2021, Bashar Masri announced and launched "Lana", a massive mix-used project in East Jerusalem, which is located in the neighborhood of Beit Hanina. The project is in a partnership between Massar International and the Orthodox Church of Jerusalem. It features 400 residential apartments along with a vibrant commercial center that hosts well-known global brands, cinemas, restaurants, cafes, and offices. The project also includes modern educational facilities, such as a school and a kindergarten, catering to the needs of residents. In addition to its focus on residential and commercial aspects, the Lana project emphasizes the improvement of infrastructure within the project and its surroundings. This involves the construction of three to four floors of underground parking to accommodate the residents' vehicles conveniently. Furthermore, there is a comprehensive plan to expand the road network surrounding the project, ensuring smooth transportation and accessibility for both residents and visitors. It is situated just 15 minutes away from the historic Old City of Jerusalem.[262]
Transportation
Public transport
Jerusalem is served by highly developed communication infrastructures, making it a leading logistics hub for Israel.
The Jerusalem Central Bus Station, located on Jaffa Road, is the busiest bus station in Israel. It is served by Egged Bus Cooperative, which is the second-largest bus company in the world,[263] The Dan serves the Bnei Brak-Jerusalem route along with Egged, and Superbus serves the routes between Jerusalem, Modi'in Illit, and Modi'in-Maccabim-Re'ut. The companies operate from Jerusalem Central Bus Station. Arab neighbourhoods in East Jerusalem and routes between Jerusalem and locations in the West Bank are served by the East Jerusalem Central Bus Station, a transportation hub located near the Old City's Damascus Gate.
Railway
The Jerusalem Light Rail initiated service in August 2011. According to plans, the first rail line will be capable of transporting an estimated 200,000 people daily, and has 23 stops. The route is from Pisgat Ze'ev in the north via the Old City and city centre to Mt. Herzl in the south.
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A high-speed rail line connecting Tel Aviv to Jerusalem became partially operational in 2018 and was completed in 2019.[264] Its terminus is at the new underground station (80 m or 262 ft deep) serving the International Convention Centre and the Central Bus Station,[265] and is planned to be extended eventually to Malha station. Israel Railways operated train services to Malha train station from Tel Aviv via Beit Shemesh, but this service was discontinued in 2020.[266][267][268]
Begin Expressway is one of Jerusalem's major north–south thoroughfares; it runs on the western side of the city, merging in the north with Route 443, which continues toward Tel Aviv. Route 60 runs through the centre of the city near the Green Line between East and West Jerusalem. Construction is progressing on parts of a 35 km (22 mi) ring road around the city, fostering faster connection between the suburbs.[269][270] The eastern half of the project was conceptualized decades ago, but reaction to the proposed highway is still mixed.[269]
Airport
In the past, Jerusalem was also served by the local Jerusalem International Airport, locally known as Atarot Airport. It was the first airport built in the British Mandate of Palestine. Palestinians considered the Atarot Airport as a "symbol of Palestinian sovereignty".[271] The airport falls beyond Green Line. After 1948 war, it came under control of Jordan. Following the Six Day War of 1967, the airport came under control of Israel.[272] With increase of violence in the second intifada, Atarot Airport ceased operation in 2000. Today Jerusalem is served by Ben Gurion Airport, some 50 km (30 mi) northwest of the Jerusalem, on the route to Tel Aviv. The Tel Aviv–Jerusalem railway runs non-stop from Jerusalem–Yitzhak Navon railway station to the airport and began operation in 2018.[273]
Australian businessman Kevin Bermeister proposed a masterplan of Jerusalem, which also includes the development of an airport for Jerusalem in the Jordan Valley, near Jericho.[274] The airport is sought to be a joint Israeli-Palestinian airport. Palestinian Prime Minister Mohammad Shtayyeh have also appealed to Israeli authorities to redevelop the airport.[275] In 2021, the Israeli government planned to redevelop Atarot Airport as a joint Israeli–Palestinian airport.[276] The new Atarot Airport will include two separate Israeli and Palestinian terminals.
Education
Universities
Jerusalem is home to several prestigious universities offering courses in Hebrew, Arabic and English.
Founded in 1925, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem has been ranked among the top 100 schools in the world.[277] The Board of Governors has included such prominent Jewish intellectuals as Albert Einstein and Sigmund Freud.[278] The university has produced several Nobel laureates; recent winners associated with Hebrew University include Avram Hershko,[279] David Gross,[280] and Daniel Kahneman.[281] One of the university's major assets is the Jewish National and University Library, which houses over five million books.[282] The library opened in 1892, over three decades before the university was established, and is one of the world's largest repositories of books on Jewish subjects. Today it is both the central library of the university and the national library of Israel.[283] The Hebrew University operates three campuses in Jerusalem, on Mount Scopus, on Giv'at Ram and a medical campus at the Hadassah Ein Kerem hospital. The Academy of the Hebrew Language are located in the Hebrew university in Givat Ram and the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities located near the Presidents House.
The Jerusalem College of Technology, founded in 1969, combines training in engineering and other high-tech industries with a Jewish studies programme.[284] It is one of many schools in Jerusalem, from elementary school and up, that combine secular and religious studies. Numerous religious educational institutions and Yeshivot, including some of the most prestigious yeshivas, among them the Brisk, Chevron, Midrash Shmuel and Mir, are based in the city, with the Mir Yeshiva claiming to be the largest.[285] There were nearly 8,000 twelfth-grade students in Hebrew-language schools during the 2003–2004 school year.[185] However, due to the large portion of students in Haredi Jewish frameworks, only fifty-five percent of twelfth graders took matriculation exams (Bagrut) and only thirty-seven percent were eligible to graduate. Unlike public schools, many Haredi schools do not prepare students to take standardized tests.[185] To attract more university students to Jerusalem, the city has begun to offer a special package of financial incentives and housing subsidies to students who rent apartments in downtown Jerusalem.[286]
Al-Quds University was established in 1984[287] to serve as a flagship university for the Arab and Palestinian peoples.[citation needed] It describes itself as the "only Arab university in Jerusalem".[288] Bard College of Annandale-on-Hudson, New York and Al-Quds University agreed to open a joint college in a building originally built to house the Palestinian Legislative Council and Yasser Arafat's office. The college gives Master of Arts in Teaching degrees.[289] Al-Quds University resides southeast of the city proper on a 190,000 m2 (47-acre) Abu Dis campus.[287] Other campuses of AQU are located within city limits of Jerusalem. A campus of university in Sheikh Jarrah, which is one of the oldest faculties, is known as Hind Al Husseini College for Arts.[290] It was named after Hind al-Husseini, a Palestinian activists known for rescuing orphaned survivors of Deir Yassin massacre and giving them shelter in a palace of her grandfather, which was converted into an orphanage and later a college, which is a part today's Al Quds University.[291] A joint campus of AQU and Bard College is located in Beit Hanina. Bayt Mal Al Qods Acharif Agency, a Moroccan organization is constructing a new campus in same neighborhood.[292]
Other institutions of higher learning in Jerusalem are the Jerusalem Academy of Music and Dance[293] and Bezalel Academy of Art and Design,[294][295] whose buildings are located on the campuses of the Hebrew University.
Arab schools
Israel's public schools for Arabs in Jerusalem and other parts of the country have been criticized for offering a lower quality education than those catering to Israeli Jewish students.[296] While many schools in the heavily Arab East Jerusalem are filled to capacity and there have been complaints of overcrowding, the Jerusalem Municipality is building over a dozen new schools in the city's Arab neighbourhoods.[297] Schools in Ras el-Amud and Umm Lison opened in 2008.[298] In March 2007, the Israeli government approved a five-year plan to build 8,000 new classrooms in the city, 40 percent in the Arab sector and 28 percent in the Haredi sector. A budget of 4.6 billion shekels was allocated for this project.[299] In 2008, Jewish British philanthropists donated $3 million for the construction of schools for Arabs in East Jerusalem.[298] Arab high school students take the Bagrut matriculation exams, so that much of their curriculum parallels that of other Israeli high schools and includes certain Jewish subjects.[296]
Culture
Although Jerusalem is known primarily for its religious significance, the city is also home to many artistic and cultural venues. The Israel Museum attracts nearly one million visitors a year, approximately one-third of them tourists.[300] The 8 ha (20-acre) museum complex comprises several buildings featuring special exhibits and extensive collections of Judaica, archaeological findings, and Israeli and European art. The Dead Sea scrolls, discovered in the mid-20th century in the Qumran Caves near the Dead Sea, are housed in the Museum's Shrine of the Book.[301] The Youth Wing, which mounts changing exhibits and runs an extensive art education programme, is visited by 100,000 children a year. The museum has a large outdoor sculpture garden and includes the Holyland Model of Jerusalem, a scale-model of the city during the late Second Temple period.[300] The Ticho House in downtown Jerusalem houses the paintings of Anna Ticho and the Judaica collections of her husband, an ophthalmologist who opened Jerusalem's first eye clinic in this building in 1912.[302]
Next to the Israel Museum is the Bible Lands Museum, near The National Campus for the Archaeology of Israel, which includes the Israel Antiquities Authority offices. A World Bible Centre is planned to be built adjacent to Mount Zion at a site called the "Bible Hill". A planned World Kabbalah Centre is to be located on the nearby promenade, overlooking the Old City. The Rockefeller Museum, located in East Jerusalem, was the first archaeological museum in the Middle East. It was built in 1938 during the British Mandate.[303][304] In 2006, a 38 km (24 mi) Jerusalem Trail was opened, a hiking trail that goes to many cultural sites and national parks in and around Jerusalem. The Jerusalem Biblical Zoo has ranked consistently as Israel's top tourist attraction for Israelis.[305][306] The national cemetery of Israel is located at the city's western edge, near the Jerusalem Forest on Mount Herzl. The western extension of Mount Herzl is the Mount of Remembrance, where the main Holocaust museum of Israel is located. Yad Vashem, Israel's national memorial to the victims of the Holocaust, houses the world's largest library of Holocaust-related information.[307] It houses an estimated 100,000 books and articles. The complex contains a state-of-the-art museum that explores the genocide of the Jews through exhibits that focus on the personal stories of individuals and families killed in the Holocaust. An art gallery featuring the work of artists who perished is also present. Further, Yad Vashem commemorates the 1.5 million Jewish children murdered by the Nazis, and honours the Righteous among the Nations.[308]
The Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra, established in the 1940s,[309] has appeared around the world.[309] The International Convention Centre (Binyanei HaUma) near the entrance to city houses the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra. The Jerusalem Cinemateque, the Gerard Behar Centre (formerly Beit Ha'Am) in downtown Jerusalem, the Jerusalem Music Centre in Yemin Moshe,[310] and the Targ Music Centre in Ein Kerem also present the arts. The Israel Festival, featuring indoor and outdoor performances by local and international singers, concerts, plays, and street theatre has been held annually since 1961, and Jerusalem has been the major organizer of this event. The Jerusalem Theatre in the Talbiya neighbourhood hosts over 150 concerts a year, as well as theatre and dance companies and performing artists from overseas.[311] The Khan Theatre, located in a caravanserai opposite the old Jerusalem train station, is the city's only repertoire theatre.[312] The station itself has become a venue for cultural events in recent years as the site of Shav'ua Hasefer (an annual week-long book fair) and outdoor music performances.[313] The Jerusalem Film Festival is held annually, screening Israeli and international films.[314] In 1974 the Jerusalem Cinematheque was founded. In 1981 it was moved to a new building on Hebron Road near the Valley of Hinnom and the Old City.
Jerusalem was declared the Capital of Arab Culture in 2009.[315] Jerusalem is home to the Palestinian National Theatre, which engages in cultural preservation as well as innovation, working to rekindle Palestinian interest in the arts.[316] The Edward Said National Conservatory of Music sponsors the Palestine Youth Orchestra[317] which toured Arab states of the Persian Gulf and other Middle East countries in 2009.[318] The Islamic Museum on the Temple Mount, established in 1923, houses many Islamic artifacts, from tiny kohl flasks and rare manuscripts to giant marble columns.[319] Al-Hoash, established in 2004, is a gallery for the preservation of Palestinian art.[320] While Israel approves and financially supports some Arab cultural activities,[321] Arab Capital of Culture events were banned because they were sponsored by the Palestine National Authority.[315] In 2009, a four-day culture festival was held in the Beit 'Anan suburb of Jerusalem, attended by more than 15,000 people[322]
Palestinian cinema is based in the city.[323] Jerusalem has been location for "Jerusalem Arab Film Festival", for exhibiting Palestinian films.[324] The city is home to numerous artists, singers, actors, actresses and filmmakers.[325] Established in 1991, Riwaq have been working on various projects to restore cultural and historical sites across Palestine.[326] Difficulties to operate in the annexed areas of Palestinian Jerusalem, it have successfully worked across those neighborhoods, rural and suburban area and Jerusalem Mountains (Jibal al-Quds), where the Palestinian government has control.[327] So far, the organization have restored a number of sites across neighborhoods of Kafr 'Aqab, Al Jib, Jaba and Qalandia.[328] Those restored structures serves as local community centers, cultural sites and headquarters of several NGOs and cultural groups.[328] Yabous Cultural Center is the largest cultural center in the city, opened by Palestinian groups in 1997.[329] Edward Said National Conservatory of Music have a branch in Jerusalem.
Hadassah Medical Center and the Hebrew University have unveiled a "Tree of Peace" statue at the Al Quds University School of Dental Medicine.[330] The Museum on the Seam, which explores issues of coexistence through art, is situated on the road dividing eastern and western Jerusalem.[331] The Abraham Fund and the Jerusalem Intercultural Centre (JICC) promote joint Jewish-Palestinian cultural projects. The Jerusalem Centre for Middle Eastern Music and Dance[332] is open to Arabs and Jews and offers workshops on Jewish-Arab dialogue through the arts.[333] The Jewish-Arab Youth Orchestra performs both European classical and Middle Eastern music.[334] In 2008, the Tolerance Monument, an outdoor sculpture by Czesław Dźwigaj, was erected on a hill between Jewish Armon HaNetziv and Arab Jebl Mukaber as a symbol of Jerusalem's quest for peace.[335]
Media
The headquarters of the Israel Broadcasting Authority and its successor Israeli Public Broadcasting Corporation are located in Jerusalem, as well as television and radio studios for Channel 12, Channel 13, and part of the radio studios of BBC News. The Jerusalem Post and The Times of Israel are also headquartered in Jerusalem. Local newspapers include the Israeli Kol Ha'ir and the Palestinian Jerusalem Times. God TV, an international Christian television network, is also based in the city. PYALARA, an organisation based in Jerusalem, transformed Jaba into a digital hub, which is the Middle East's first digital village and is also home to first Media Interactive Learning Center in the Middle East.[336]
Sports
The two most popular sports are football (soccer) and basketball.[337] Beitar Jerusalem Football Club is one of the most well known in Israel. Fans include political figures who often attend its games.[338] Jerusalem's other major football team, and one of Beitar's top rivals, is Hapoel Jerusalem F.C. Whereas Beitar has been Israel State Cup champion seven times,[339] Hapoel has won the Cup only once. Beitar has won the top league six times, while Hapoel has never succeeded. Beitar plays in the more prestigious Ligat HaAl, while Hapoel is in the second division Liga Leumit. Since its opening in 1992, Teddy Stadium has been Jerusalem's primary football stadium, with a capacity of 31,733[340]
The most popular Palestinian football club is Jabal Al Mukaber (since 1976) which plays in West Bank Premier League. The club hails from Mount Scopus at Jerusalem, part of the Asian Football Confederation, and plays at the Faisal Al-Husseini International Stadium at Al-Ram, across the West Bank Barrier.[341][342]
In basketball, Hapoel Jerusalem is one of the top teams in the top division. The club has won Israel's championship in 2015, the State Cup four times, and the ULEB Cup in 2004.[343]
The Jerusalem Marathon, established in 2011, is an international marathon race held annually in Jerusalem in the month of March. The full 42-kilometre race begins at the Knesset, passes through Mount Scopus and the Old City's Armenian Quarter, and concludes at Sacher Park. In 2012, the Jerusalem Marathon drew 15,000 runners, including 1,500 from fifty countries outside Israel.[344][345][346][347][348]
A popular non-competitive sports event is the Jerusalem March, held annually during the Sukkot festival.
Twin towns – sister cities
Jerusalem is twinned with:
Niterói, Brazil[349]- Rio de Janeiro, Brazil[350]
- Salvador, Brazil[351]
Cairo, Egypt[352]
Jakarta, Indonesia[353]
Tehran, Iran[354]
Ayabe, Kyoto Prefecture, Japan[355]
Nouakchott, Mauritania[356]
Fez, Morocco[357]- Oujda, Morocco[358]
Cusco, Peru[359]
Jersey City, New Jersey, United States[360]- New York City, New York, United States[361]
See also
Notes
- ^ The State of Palestine (according to the Basic Law of Palestine, Title One: Article 3) regards Jerusalem as its capital.[1] However, the documents of the PLO's Negotiations Affairs Department (NAD) often refer to East Jerusalem (rather than the whole of Jerusalem) as a future capital, and sometimes as the current capital. One of its 2010 documents, described as "for discussion purposes only", says that Palestine has a '"vision"' for a future in which "East Jerusalem ... shall be the capital of Palestine, and West Jerusalem shall be the capital of Israel",[2][3] and one of its 2013 documents refers to "Palestine's capital, East Jerusalem", and states that "Occupied East Jerusalem is the natural socio-economic and political center for the future Palestinian state", while also stating that "Jerusalem has always been and remains the political, administrative and spiritual heart of Palestine" and that "The Palestinian acceptance of the 1967 border, which includes East Jerusalem, is a painful compromise".[4]
- ^ /dʒəˈruːsələmˌ -zə-/ jə-ROO-sə-ləm, -zə-; Hebrew: יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, romanized: Yerushaláyim, pronounced [jeʁuʃaˈlajim] ; Arabic: القُدس, romanized: al-Quds, pronounced [al.quds] , local pronunciation: [il.ʔuds][5][6][7]
In other languages:
Official Arabic in Israel: Arabic: أورشليم القدس, romanized: ʾŪršalīm al-Quds (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names)
Ancient Greek: Ἱερουσαλήμ/Ἰεροσόλυμα, romanized: Hierousalḗm, Hierosóluma
Armenian: Երուսաղեմ, romanized: Erusałēm - ^ Jerusalem is the capital under Israeli law. The presidential residence, government offices, supreme court and parliament (Knesset) are there. The State of Palestine (according to the Basic Law of Palestine, Title One: Article 3) regards Jerusalem as its capital.[1] The UN and most countries do not recognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital, taking the position that the final status of Jerusalem is pending future negotiations between Israel and the Palestinian Authority. Most countries maintain their embassies in Tel Aviv and its suburbs or suburbs of Jerusalem, such as Mevaseret Zion (see CIA Factbook and "Map of Israel" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 June 2020. Retrieved 28 June 2017. (319 KB)) See Status of Jerusalem for more information.
- ^ Statistics regarding the demographics of Jerusalem refer to the unified and expanded Israeli municipality, which includes the pre-1967 Israeli and Jordanian municipalities as well as several additional Palestinian villages and neighborhoods to the northeast. Some of the Palestinian villages and neighborhoods have been relinquished to the West Bank de facto by way of the Israeli West Bank barrier,[16] but their legal statuses have not been reverted.
- ^ a b Much of the information regarding King David's conquest of Jerusalem comes from Biblical accounts, but some modern-day historians have begun to give them credit due to a 1993 excavation.[18]
- ^ West Jerusalem comprises approximately one third of the municipal area of Jerusalem, with East Jerusalem comprising approximately two-thirds. On the annexation of East Jerusalem, Israel also incorporated an area of the West Bank into the Jerusalem municipal area which represented more than ten times the area of East Jerusalem under Jordanian rule.[34][35][36]
References
- ^ a b 2003 Amended Basic Law Archived 11 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Basic Law of Palestine. Retrieved 9 December 2012.
- ^ "Jerusalem Non-Paper" (PDF). PLO-NAD. June 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 February 2012. Retrieved 25 July 2018.
- ^ "Statements and Speeches". nad-plo.org. p. 2. Archived from the original on 18 April 2016. Retrieved 25 November 2014.
This paper is for discussion purposes only. Nothing is agreed until everything is agreed. Palestinian vision for Jerusalem...Pursuant to our vision, East Jerusalem, as defined by its pre-1967 occupation municipal borders, shall be the capital of Palestine, and West Jerusalem shall be the capital of Israel, with each state enjoying full sovereignty over its respective part of the city.
- ^ "East Jerusalem today – Palestine's Capital: The 1967 border in Jerusalem and Israel's illegal policies on the ground" (PDF). PLO-Negotiations Affairs Department (NAD). August 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 25 November 2014.
- ^ A-Z Guide to the Qur'an: A Must-have Reference to Understanding the Contents of the Islamic Holy Book by Mokhtar Stork (1999): "JERUSALEM: Referred to in Arabic as Baitul Muqaddas (The Holy House) or Baitul Maqdis (The House of the Sanctuary)".
- ^ Pan-Islamism in India & Bengal by Mohammad Shah (2002), p. 63: "... protector of Mecca, Medina and Baitul Muqaddas, the sacred places of pilgrimage of the Muslim world"
- ^ a b Elihay, Yohanan (2011). Speaking Arabic: a course in conversational Eastern (Palestinian) Arabic. Rothberg International School ([2009 ed.], reprinted with corr. 2011 ed.). Jerusalem: Minerva. p. 36. ISBN 978-965-7397-30-5. OCLC 783142368.
- ^ Smith, William (6 December 2017). "Donald Trump confirms US will recognise Jerusalem as capital of Israel". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 13 May 2017.
- ^ "Do We Divide the Holiest Holy City?". Moment Magazine. Archived from the original on 3 June 2008. Retrieved 5 March 2008. According to Eric H. Cline's tally in Jerusalem Besieged.
- ^ Greenberg, Raphael; Mizrachi, Yonathan (10 September 2013). "From Shiloah to Silwan – A Visitor's Guide". Emek Shaveh. Archived from the original on 15 August 2022. Retrieved 25 July 2018.
- ^ Sergi, Omer (2023). The Two Houses of Israel: State Formation and the Origins of Pan-Israelite Identity. SBL Press. p. 197. ISBN 978-1-62837-345-5. Archived from the original on 24 October 2023. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ Ben-Arieh, Yehoshua (1984). Jerusalem in the 19th Century, The Old City. Yad Izhak Ben Zvi & St. Martin's Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-312-44187-6.
- ^ a b Teller, Matthew (2022). Nine Quarters of Jerusalem: A New Biography of the Old City. Profile Books. p. Chapter 1. ISBN 978-1-78283-904-0. Archived from the original on 9 June 2023. Retrieved 30 May 2023.
What wasn't corrected, though - and what, in retrospect, should have raised much more controversy than it did (it seems to have passed completely unremarked for the last 170-odd years) – was [Aldrich and Symonds's] map's labelling. Because here, newly arcing across the familiar quadrilateral of Jerusalem, are four double labels in bold capitals. At top left Haret En-Nassara and, beneath it, Christian Quarter; at bottom left Haret El-Arman and Armenian Quarter; at bottom centre Haret El-Yehud and Jews' Quarter; and at top right – the big innovation, covering perhaps half the city – Haret El-Muslimin and Mohammedan Quarter, had shown this before. Every map has shown it since. The idea, in 1841, of a Mohammedan (that is, Muslim) quarter of Jerusalem is bizarre. It's like a Catholic quarter of Rome. A Hindu quarter of Delhi. Nobody living there would conceive of the city in such a way. At that time, and for centuries before and decades after, Jerusalem was, if the term means anything at all, a Muslim city. Many people identified in other ways, but large numbers of Jerusalemites were Muslim and they lived all over the city. A Muslim quarter could only have been dreamt up by outsiders, searching for a handle on a place they barely understood, intent on asserting their own legitimacy among a hostile population, seeing what they wanted to see. Its only purpose could be to draw attention to what it excludes.
- ^ "Old City of Jerusalem and its Walls". UNESCO World Heritage Convention. Archived from the original on 4 August 2017. Retrieved 11 September 2010.
- ^ "Selected Data on the Occasion of Jerusalem Day, 2022". cbs.gov.il. 26 May 2022. Archived from the original on 28 May 2023. Retrieved 30 March 2023.
- ^ a b Laub, Karin (2 December 2006). "Jerusalem Barrier Causes Major Upheaval". The Washington Post. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 7 April 2019. Retrieved 10 March 2007.
- ^ a b c d "Table III/9 – Population in Israel and in Jerusalem, by Religion, 1988 – 2020" (PDF). jerusaleminstitute.org.il. 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 27 December 2022.
- ^ Pellegrino, Charles R. (1995). Return to Sodom & Gomorrah (Second revised ed.). Harper Paperbacks. p. 271. ISBN 978-0-380-72633-2.
[see footnote]
- ^ Tubb (1998), pp. 13–14.
- ^ Mark Smith in "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" states "Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000 BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" (Eerdman's)
- ^ a b Since the 10th century BCE:
- "Israel was first forged into a unified nation from Jerusalem some 3,000 years ago, when King David seized the crown and united the twelve tribes from this city... For a thousand years Jerusalem was the seat of Jewish sovereignty, the household site of kings, the location of its legislative councils and courts. In exile, the Jewish nation came to be identified with the city that had been the site of its ancient capital. Jews, wherever they were, prayed for its restoration." Roger Friedland, Richard D. Hecht. To Rule Jerusalem, University of California Press, 2000, p. 8. ISBN 978-0-520-22092-8
- "The centrality of Jerusalem to Judaism is so strong that even secular Jews express their devotion and attachment to the city, and cannot conceive of a modern State of Israel without it.... For Jews Jerusalem is sacred simply because it exists... Though Jerusalem's sacred character goes back three millennia...". Leslie J. Hoppe. The Holy City: Jerusalem in the theology of the Old Testament, Liturgical Press, 2000, p. 6. ISBN 978-0-8146-5081-3
- "Ever since King David made Jerusalem the capital of Israel 3,000 years ago, the city has played a central role in Jewish existence." Mitchell Geoffrey Bard, The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Middle East Conflict, Alpha Books, 2002, p. 330. ISBN 978-0-02-864410-3
- "Jerusalem became the center of the Jewish people some 3,000 years ago" Moshe Maoz, Sari Nusseibeh, Jerusalem: Points of Friction – And Beyond, Brill Academic Publishers, 2000, p. 1. ISBN 978-90-411-8843-4
- ^ "Basic Facts you should know: Jerusalem". Anti-Defamation League. 2007. Archived from the original on 4 January 2013. Retrieved 28 March 2007.
The Jewish people are inextricably bound to the city of Jerusalem. No other city has played such a dominant role in the history, politics, culture, religion, national life and consciousness of a people as has Jerusalem in the life of Jewry and Judaism. Since King David established the city as the capital of the Jewish state circa 1000 BCE, it has served as the symbol and most profound expression of the Jewish people's identity as a nation."
- ^ Reinoud Oosting, The Role of Zion/Jerusalem in Isaiah 40–55: A Corpus-Linguistic Approach, p. 117, at Google Books Brill 2012 pp. 117–18. Isaiah 48:2; 51:1; Nehemiah 11:1, 18; cf. Joel 4:17: Daniel 5:24. The Isaiah section where they occur belong to deutero-Isaiah.
- ^ Shalom M. Paul, Isaiah 40–66, p. 306, at Google Books The 'holiness' (qodesh) arises from the temple in its midst, the root q-d-š referring to a sanctuary. The concept is attested in Mesopotamian literature, and the epithet may serve to distinguish Babylon, the city of exiles, from the city of the Temple, to where they are enjoined to return.
- ^ Golb, Norman (1997). "Karen Armstrong's Jerusalem – One City, Three Faiths". The Bible and Interpretation. Archived from the original on 11 October 2013. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
The available texts of antiquity indicate that the concept was created by one or more personalities among the Jewish spiritual leadership, and that this occurred no later than the 6th century B.C.
- ^ Isaiah 52:1 πόλις ἡ ἁγία.
- ^ Joseph T. Lienhard, The Bible, the Church, and Authority: The Canon of the Christian Bible in History and Theology, Liturgical Press, 1995 pp. 65–66: 'The Septuagint is a Jewish translation and was also used in the synagogue. But at the end of the first century C.E. many Jews ceased to use the Septuagint because the early Christians had adopted it as their own translation, and it began to be considered a Christian translation.'
- ^ a b Third-holiest city in Islam:
- Esposito, John L. (2002). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-0-19-515713-0.
The Night Journey made Jerusalem the third holiest city in Islam
- Brown, Leon Carl (2000). "Setting the Stage: Islam and Muslims". Religion and State: The Muslim Approach to Politics. Columbia University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-231-12038-8.
The third holiest city of Islam—Jerusalem—is also very much in the center...
- Hoppe, Leslie J. (2000). The Holy City: Jerusalem in the Theology of the Old Testament. Michael Glazier Books. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-8146-5081-3.
Jerusalem has always enjoyed a prominent place in Islam. Jerusalem is often referred to as the third holiest city in Islam...
- Esposito, John L. (2002). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-0-19-515713-0.
- ^ Middle East peace plans by Willard A. Beling: "The Aqsa Mosque on the Temple Mount is the third holiest site in Sunni Islam after Mecca and Medina".
- ^ Lewis, Bernard; Holt, P. M.; Lambton, Ann, eds. (1986). Cambridge History of Islam. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Quran 17:1–3
- ^ Buchanan, Allen (2004). States, Nations, and Borders: The Ethics of Making Boundaries. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52575-6. Retrieved 9 June 2008.
- ^ Kollek, Teddy (1977). "Afterword". In John Phillips (ed.). A Will to Survive – Israel: the Faces of the Terror 1948-the Faces of Hope Today. Dial Press/James Wade.
about 91 hectares (225 acres)
- ^ Walid Khalidi (1996) Islam, the West and Jerusalem. Center for Contemporary Arab Studies & Center for Muslim–Christian Understanding, Georgetown University, quotes the breakdown as follows: West Jerusalem in 1948: 16,261 dunums (14%); West Jerusalem added in 1967: 23,000 dunums (20%); East Jerusalem under Jordanian rule: 6,000 dunums (5%); West Bank area annexed and incorporated into East Jerusalem by Israel: 67,000 dunums (61%)
- ^ Aronson, Geoffrey (1995). "Settlement Monitor: Quarterly Update on Developments". Journal of Palestine Studies. 25 (1). University of California Press, Institute for Palestine Studies: 131–40. doi:10.2307/2538120. ISSN 0377-919X. JSTOR 2538120.
West Jerusalem: 35%; East Jerusalem under Jordanian rule: 4%; West Bank area annexed and incorporated into East Jerusalem by Israel: 59%
- ^ Benvenisti, Meron (1976). Jerusalem, the Torn City. Books on Demand. p. 113. ISBN 978-0-7837-2978-7.
East Jerusalem under Jordanian rule: 6,000 dunums; West Bank area annexed and incorporated into East Jerusalem by Israel: 67,000
- ^ "Resolution 298 September 25, 1971". United Nations. 25 September 1971. Archived from the original on 19 August 2013. Retrieved 25 July 2018.
Recalling its resolutions... concerning measures and actions by Israel designed to change the status of the Israeli-occupied section of Jerusalem,...
- ^ "The status of Jerusalem" (PDF). The Question of Palestine & the United Nations. United Nations Department of Public Information. 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 August 2019.
East Jerusalem has been considered, by both the General Assembly and the Security Council, as part of the occupied Palestinian territory.
- ^ "Israeli authorities back 600 new East Jerusalem homes". BBC News. 26 February 2010. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 18 September 2013.
- ^ "Israel plans 1,300 East Jerusalem Jewish settler homes". BBC News. 9 November 2010. Archived from the original on 19 November 2018. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
East Jerusalem is regarded as occupied Palestinian territory by the international community, but Israel says it is part of its territory.
- ^ Meir Ben-Dov, Historical Atlas of Jerusalem, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2002, p. 23.
- ^ a b Binz, Stephen J. (2005). Jerusalem, the Holy City. Connecticut: Twenty-Third Publications. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-58595-365-3. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
- ^ G. Johannes Bottereck, Helmer Ringgren, Heinz-Josef Fabry, (eds.) Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, tr. David E. Green, vol. XV, pp. 48–49 William B. Eeerdmanns Co. Grand Rapids, Michigan/Cambridge UK 2006, pp. 45–46
- ^ Elon, Amos (1996). Jerusalem. HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. ISBN 978-0-00-637531-9. Archived from the original on 10 March 2003. Retrieved 26 April 2007.
The epithet may have originated in the ancient name of Jerusalem–Salem (after the pagan deity of the city), which is etymologically connected in the Semitic languages with the words for peace (shalom in Hebrew, salam in Arabic).
- ^ Ringgren, H., Die Religionen des Alten Orients (Göttingen, 1979), 212.
- ^ Hastings, James (2004). A Dictionary of the Bible: Volume II: (Part II: I – Kinsman), Volume 2. Honolulu, Hawaii: Reprinted from 1898 edition by University Press of the Pacific. p. 584. ISBN 978-1-4102-1725-7. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
- ^ a b Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (2007). Historic cities of the Islamic world. The Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill NV. pp. 225–226. ISBN 978-90-04-15388-2. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
- ^ a b Denise DeGarmo (9 September 2011). "Abode of Peace?". Wandering Thoughts. Center for Conflict Studies. Archived from the original on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
- ^ Marten H. Wouldstra, The Book of Joshua, William B. Eerdmanns Co. Grand Rapids, Michigan (1981) 1995, p. 169 n.2
- ^ Bosworth, Francis Edward (1968). Millennium: a Latin reader, A. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. p. 183. ASIN B0000CO4LE. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
- ^ Wallace, Edwin Sherman (August 1977). Jerusalem the Holy. New York: Arno Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-405-10298-1.
A similar view was held by those who give the Hebrew dual to the word
- ^ Smith, George Adam (1907). Jerusalem: The Topography, Economics and History from the Earliest Times to A.D. 70. Hodder and Stoughton. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-7905-2935-6.
The termination -aim or -ayim used to be taken as the ordinary termination of the dual of nouns, and was explained as signifying the upper and lower cities
(see Jerusalem: The Topography, Economics and History from the Earliest Times to A.D. 70, Volume 1, p. 251, at Google Books) - ^ Sethe, Kurt (1926) "Die Ächtung feindlicher Fürsten, Völker und Dinge auf altägyptischen Tongefäßscherben des Mittleren Reiches nach den Originalen im Berliner Museum herausgegeben und erklärt" in Abhandlungen der Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1926 issue, philosophisch-historische Klasse, number 5, page 53
- ^ Hoch, James E (1994). Semitic Words in Egyptian Texts of the New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
- ^ David Noel Freedman; Allen C. Myers; Astrid B. Beck (2000). Eerdmans dictionary of the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 694–95. ISBN 978-0-8028-2400-4. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023. Retrieved 19 August 2010.
- ^ G. Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren (eds.) Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, (tr. David E. Green) William B. Eerdmann, Grand Rapids Michigan, Cambridge, UK 1990, Vol. VI, p. 348
- ^ Vaughn, Andrew G.; Ann E. Killebrew (1 August 2003). "Jerusalem at the Time of the United Monarchy". Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: the First Temple Period. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. pp. 32–33. ISBN 978-1-58983-066-0. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 10 May 2016.
- ^ Shalem, Yisrael (3 March 1997). "History of Jerusalem from its Beginning to David". Jerusalem: Life Throughout the Ages in a Holy City. Bar-Ilan University, Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies. Archived from the original on 17 January 2007. Retrieved 18 January 2007.
- ^ "The El Amarna Letters from Canaan". TAU.ac.il. Archived from the original on 14 February 2013. Retrieved 11 September 2010.
- ^ Ginzberg, Louis (1909). The Legends of the Jews Volume I: The Akedah Archived 13 March 2020 at the Wayback Machine (Translated by Henrietta Szold) Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society.
- ^ Writing, Literacy, and Textual Transmission: The Production of Literary by Jessica N. Whisenant p. 323
- ^ King Manasseh and Child Sacrifice: Biblical Distortions of Historical Realities by Francesca Stavrakopoulou p. 98
- ^ Oral World and Written Word: Ancient Israelite Literature by Susan Niditch p. 48
- ^ The Mountain of the Lord by Benyamin Mazar p. 60
- ^ Blessing and Curse in Syro-Palestinian Inscriptions by T. G Crawford p. 137
- ^ Discovering the World of the Bible by LaMar C. Berrett p. 178
- ^ Ahituv, S., Klein, E. and Ganor, A. 2016. To Jerusalem: A Seventh Century BCE Shipping Certificate. In: Stiebel, G.D., Uziel, J., Citryn-Silverman, K., Re’em, A. and Gadot, Y., eds. New Studies in the Archaeology of Jerusalem and Its Region 10: 239–251 (In Hebrew)
- ^ a b Baruch, Yuval; Levi, Danit; Reich, Ronny (2020). "The Name Jerusalem in a Late Second Temple Period Jewish Inscription". Tel Aviv. 47 (1): 108–18. doi:10.1080/03344355.2020.1707452. S2CID 219879544.
- ^ Judges 19:10: יְב֔וּס הִ֖יא יְרוּשָׁלִָ֑ם: "Jebus, it [is] Jerusalem"
- ^ "Bible, King James Version". umich.edu. Archived from the original on 11 December 2015. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
- ^ The Oxford encyclopedia of ancient Greece and Rome, Volume 1, p. 113, at Google Books, p. 113
- ^ 2 Samuel 5:7,9. Cited in Finkelstein, Israel; Mazar, Amihai (2007). Brian B. Schmidt (ed.). The Quest for the Historical Israel: Debating Archaeology and the History of Early Israel. Society of Biblical Literature. p. 127. ISBN 978-1-58983-277-0. Archived from the original on 6 July 2023. Retrieved 9 January 2022.
- ^ Bar-Kochva, Bezalel (2002). Judas Maccabeus: The Jewish Struggle Against the Seleucids. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 447. ISBN 978-0-521-01683-4.
- ^ Mazar, Eilat (2002). The Complete Guide to the Temple Mount Excavations. Jerusalem: Shoham Academic Research and Publication. p. 1. ISBN 978-965-90299-1-4.
- ^ a b c Brenk, Frederick E. (2011). ""Hierosolyma". The Greek Name of Jerusalem". Glotta. 87 (1–4): 1–22. doi:10.13109/glot.2011.87.14.1. ISSN 0017-1298. JSTOR 41416798. Retrieved 7 November 2024.
- ^ Genesis 14:18
- ^ For example:
- Book of Jubilees 30:1.
- (See: The text translated by R.H. Charles, with introduction and notes – The book of Jubilees, or The little Genesis. London: A. & C. Black. 1902. p. 178: Chapter 30, verse 1.
- the Septuagint version of Jer 48:5 (as Συχὲμ Sukhèm)
- and possibly the Masoretic text of Genesis 33:18 (see KJV and the margin translation of the Revised Version).
- Book of Jubilees 30:1.
- ^ E.g., the Vulgate and Peshitta versions. J.A. Emerton, "The site of Salem: the City of Melchizedek (Genesis xiv 18)," pp. 45–72 of Studies in the Pentateuch ed. by J.A. Emerton, vol. 41 of Supplements to Vetus Testamentum (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1990) ("Emerton"), p. 45. See also John 3:23 where "Salim" or "Sylem" (Συχὲμ) is said to be near Ænon, thought to be in the valley of Mount Ebal, one of two mountains in the vicinity of Nablus.
- ^ Onklelos, Pseudo-Jonathan and Neofiti I. Emerton, p. 45.
- ^ Genesis 12:6–7 (where Abram built an altar), Genesis 33:18–20, Deuteronomy 11:29 & 28:11, Joshua 8:33, 1 Kings 12. Emerton, p. 63.
- ^ Paul Winter, "Note on Salem – Jerusalem", Novum Testamentum, vol. 2, pp. 151–152 (1957).
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In the year 1923, [Jerusalem] became the capital of the British Mandate in Palestine
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The three decades of British rule in Palestine (1917/18–1948) were a highly significant phase in the development, with indelible effects on the urban planning and development of the capital – Jerusalem.
is a professor in the Department of Geography at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. - Dumper, Michael (1996). The Politics of Jerusalem Since 1967. Columbia University Press. p. 59. ISBN 978-0-231-10640-5.
the city that was to become the administrative capital of Mandate Palestine...
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- ^ Jerusalem: Opposition to mooted Trump Israel announcement grows Archived 6 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine"Israeli sovereignty over Jerusalem has never been recognised internationally"
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- ^ "UN General Assembly Resolution 181 recommended the creation of an international zonea, or corpus separatum, in Jerusalem to be administered by the UN for a 10-year period, after which there would be referendum to determine its future. This approach applies equally to West and East Jerusalem and is not affected by the occupation of East jerusalem in 1967. To a large extent it is this approach that still guides the diplomatic behaviour of states and thus has greater force in international law" (Susan M. Akram, Michael Dumper, Michael Lynk, Iain Scobbie (eds.), International Law and the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: A Rights-Based Approach to Middle East Peace, Routledge, 2010 p.119. )
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- ^ a b In the Palestine Liberation Organization's Palestinian Declaration of Independence of 1988, Jerusalem is stated to be the capital of the State of Palestine. In 1997, the Palestinian Legislative Council passed the Palestinian Basic Law (ratified by Chairman Yasser Arafat in 2002), designating the city as such. Article 3: "Jerusalem is the capital of Palestine."
See 2003 Amended Basic Law Archived 11 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2 June 2013; Arafat Signs Law Making Jerusalem Palestinian Capital Archived 30 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine, People's Daily, published 6 October 2002; Arafat names Jerusalem as capital Archived 16 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine, BBC News, published 6 October 2002. - ^ Moshe Amirav (2009). Jerusalem Syndrome: The Palestinian-Israeli Battle for the Holy City. Sussex Academic Press. pp. 28–29. ISBN 978-1-84519-347-8. Retrieved 3 June 2014.
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The international community has taken a critical view of both deportations and settlements as being contrary to international law. General Assembly resolutions have condemned the deportations since 1969, and have done so by overwhelming majorities in recent years. Likewise, they have consistently deplored the establishment of settlements, and have done so by overwhelming majorities throughout the period (since the end of 1976) of the rapid expansion in their numbers. The Security Council has also been critical of deportations and settlements; and other bodies have viewed them as an obstacle to peace, and illegal under international law... Although East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights have been brought directly under Israeli law, by acts that amount to annexation, both of these areas continue to be viewed by the international community as occupied, and their status as regards the applicability of international rules is in most respects identical to that of the West Bank and Gaza.
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Thus, for instance, the distance between the four large metropolitan regions are—39 miles
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But it may not have been Aldrich and Symonds. Below the frame of their map, printed in italic script, a single line notes that 'The Writing' had been added by 'the Revd. G. Williams' and 'the Revd. Robert Willis'… Some sources suggest [Williams] arrived before [Michael] Alexander, in 1841. If so, did he meet Aldrich and Symonds? We don't know. But Williams became their champion, defending them when the Haram inaccuracy came up and then publishing their work. The survey the two Royal Engineers did was not intended for commercial release (Aldrich had originally been sent to Syria under 'secret service'), and it was several years before their military plan of Jerusalem came to public attention, published first in 1845 by their senior officer Alderson in plain form, without most of the detail and labelling, and then in full in 1849, in the second edition of Williams's book The Holy City. Did Aldrich and/or Symonds invent the idea of four quarters in Jerusalem? It's possible, but they were military surveyors, not scholars. It seems more likely they spent their very short stay producing a usable street-plan for their superior officers, without necessarily getting wrapped up in details of names and places. The 1845 publication, shorn of street names, quarter labels and other detail, suggests that… Compounding his anachronisms, and perhaps with an urge to reproduce Roman urban design in this new context, Williams writes how two main streets, north-south and east-west, 'divide Jerusalem into four quarters.' Then the crucial line: 'The subdivisions of the streets and quarters are numerous, but unimportant.' Historians will, I hope, be able to delve more deeply into Williams's work, but for me, this is evidence enough. For almost two hundred years, virtually the entire world has accepted the ill-informed, dismissive judgementalism of a jejune Old Etonian missionary as representing enduring fact about the social make-up of Jerusalem. It's shameful… With Britain's increased standing in Palestine after 1840, and the growth of interest in biblical archaeology that was to become an obsession a few decades later, it was vital for the Protestant missionaries to establish boundaries in Jerusalem… Williams spread his ideas around. Ernst Gustav Schultz, who came to Jerusalem in 1842 as Prussian vice-consul, writes in his 1845 book Jerusalem: Eine Vorlesung ('A Lecture'): 'It is with sincere gratitude I must mention that, on my arrival in Jerusalem, Mr Williams ... willingly alerted me to the important information that he [and] another young Anglican clergyman, Mr Rolands, had discovered about the topography of [Jerusalem].' Later come the lines: 'Let us now divide the city into quarters,' and, after mentioning Jews and Christians, 'All the rest of the city is the Mohammedan Quarter.' Included was a map, drawn by Heinrich Kiepert, that labelled the four quarters, mirroring Williams's treatment in The Holy City.
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was housed in the most important church in Christendom, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.
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From the earliest extant Muslim texts, it becomes clear that a group of Muslims from the beginning interpreted the 'furthest place of prayer' (al-masjid al-aqṣā) with the city of Jerusalem in general and its Herodian/Solomonic Temple in particular... Eventually, a general consensus formed around the idea that Muhammad's journey did indeed take him to Jerusalem.
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Bibliography
- Gilbert, Martin (1978). Jerusalem: Illustrated History Atlas. New York: Macmillan Publishing.
- Kellerman, Aharon (1993). Society and Settlement: Jewish Land of Israel in the Twentieth Century. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-1295-4.
Further reading
- Cheshin, Amir S.; Bill Hutman and Avi Melamed (1999). Separate and Unequal: the Inside Story of Israeli Rule in East Jerusalem. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-80136-3.
- Cline, Eric (2004). Jerusalem Besieged: From Ancient Canaan to Modern Israel. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-11313-2.
- Collins, Larry, and La Pierre, Dominique (1988). O Jerusalem!. New York: Simon & Schuster ISBN 978-0-671-66241-7.
- Gold, Dore (2007) The Fight for Jerusalem: Radical Islam, The West, and the Future of the Holy City. International Publishing Company J-M, Ltd. ISBN 978-1-59698-029-7.
- Köchler, Hans (1981) The Legal Aspects of the Palestine Problem with Special Regard to the Question of Jerusalem Vienna: Braumüller ISBN 978-3-7003-0278-0.
- The Holy Cities: Jerusalem produced by Danae Film Production, distributed by HDH Communications; 2006
- Wasserstein, Bernard (2002) Divided Jerusalem: The Struggle for the Holy City New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09730-6.
- "Keys to Jerusalem: A Brief Overview Archived 22 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine", The Royal Islamic Strategic Studies Center, Amman, Jordan, 2010.
- Montefiore, Simon Sebag (2011) Jerusalem: The Biography, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, ISBN 978-0-297-85265-0.
- Young, Robb A (2012) Hezekiah in History and Tradition Brill Global Oriental Hotei Publishing, Netherlands.
- Klein, Konstantin M.: Wienand, Johannes (2022) (eds.): City of Caesar, City of God: Constantinople and Jerusalem in Late Antiquity. De Gruyter, Berlin 2022, ISBN 978-3-11-071720-4. doi:10.1515/9783110718447.
- John D. Hosler, _Jerusalem Falls: Seven Centuries of War and Peace_ (London and New Haven: Yale University Press, 2022), ISBN 978-0-300-25514-0
External links
Definitions from Wiktionary
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- Official website of the Jerusalem Municipality
- What makes Jerusalem so holy? Archived 31 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine BBC
- The Status of Jerusalem Archived 26 May 2023 at the Wayback Machine. United Nations document related to the dispute over the city
- Jerusalem Virtual Library, joint project by Al-Quds University and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem
- Official website Archived 6 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, the city's foremost institution of higher education
- Official website Archived 6 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine of Al-Quds University, the only Palestinian university in Jerusalem
Geographic data related to Jerusalem at OpenStreetMap
