2601:586:400:99B0:9076:1E54:B780:69BD

The Principate

27 BC–68 AD: Julio-Claudian dynasty

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Augustus IMPERATOR CAESAR DIVI FILIVS AVGVSTVS	September 23, 63 BC, Rome, Italia	Great-nephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar; became de facto emperor as a result of the 'first settlement' between himself and the Roman Senate.	January 16, 27 BC – August 19, 14 AD	40 years, 7 months and 3 days	August 19, 14 AD (aged 75) Natural causes
Tiberius TIBERIVS CAESAR DIVI AVGVSTI FILIVS AVGVSTVS	November 16, 42 BC, Rome, Italia	Natural son of Livia Drusilla, Augustus' third wife, by a previous marriage; stepbrother and third husband of Julia the Elder, daughter of Augustus; adopted by Augustus as his son and heir.	September 18, 14 AD – March 16, 37 AD	22 years, 5 months and 27 days	March 16, 37 AD (aged 77) Probably natural causes, possibly assassinated by Caligula or praetorian prefect Naevius Sutorius Macro
Caligula GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS	August 31, 12 AD, Antium, Italia	Great-nephew and adoptive grandson of Tiberius; natural son of Germanicus; great-grandson of Augustus.	March 18, 37 AD – January 24, 41 AD	3 years, 10 months and 6 days	January 24, 41 AD (aged 28) Assassinated in a conspiracy involving senators and Praetorian Guards.
Claudius TIBERIVS CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS	August 1, 10 BC, Lugdunum, Gallia Lugdunensis	Uncle of Caligula; brother of Germanicus; nephew of Tiberius; great-nephew and step-grandson of Augustus; proclaimed emperor by the Praetorian Guard.	January 25/26, 41 AD – October 13, 54 AD	13 years, 8 months and 18/19 days	October 13, 54 AD (aged 63) Probably poisoned by his wife Agrippina the Younger, in favour of her son Nero, possibly natural causes.
Nero NERO CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS	December 15, 37 AD, Antium, Italia	Great-nephew, stepson, son-in-law and adopted son of Claudius; nephew of Caligula; great-great-nephew of Tiberius; grandson of Germanicus; great-great-grandson of Augustus	October 13, 54 AD – June 9, 68 AD	13 years, 7 months and 27 days	June 9, 68 AD (aged 30) Committed suicide after being declared a public enemy by the Senate.

68–96: Year of the Four Emperors and Flavian dynasty

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Galba IMPERATOR SERVIVS GALBA CAESAR AVGVSTVS	December 24, 3 BC, Near Terrancilium, Italia	Seized power after Nero's suicide, with support of the Praetorian Guard	June 8, 68 AD – January 15, 69 AD	7 months and 7 days	January 15, 69 AD (aged 72) Murdered by Praetorian Guard in coup led by Otho
Otho IMPERATOR MARCVS SALVIVS OTHO CAESAR AVGUSTVS	April 28, 32 AD, Ferentinum, Italia	Appointed by Praetorian Guard	January 15, 69 AD – April 16, 69 AD	3 months and 1 day	April 16, 69 AD (aged 36) Committed suicide after losing Battle of Bedriacum to Vitellius
Vitellius IMPERATOR AVLVS VITELLIVS GERMANICVS AVGVSTVS	September 24, 15 AD, Rome, Italia	Seized power with support of German Legions (in opposition to Galba/Otho)	April 17, 69 AD – December 20, 69 AD	8 months and 3 days	December 20, 69 AD (aged 54) Murdered by Vespasian's troops
Vespasian IMPERATOR TITVS FLAVIVS CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVGVSTVS	November 17, 9 AD, Falacrine, Italia	Seized power with the support of the eastern Legions (in opposition to Marcillinus)	December 21, 69 AD – June 24, 79 AD	9 years, 6 months and 3 days	June 24, 79 AD (aged 69) Natural causes
Titus IMPERATOR TITVS FLAVIVS CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVGVSTVS	December 30, 39 AD, Rome, Italia	Son of Vespasian	June 24, 79 AD – September 13, 81 AD	2 years, 2 months and 20 days	September 13, 81 AD (aged 41) Natural causes (fever)
Domitian IMPERATOR TITVS FLAVIVS CAESAR DOMITIANVS AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS	October 24, 51 AD, Rome, Italia	Brother of Titus; son of Vespasian	September 14, 81 AD – September 18, 96 AD	15 years and 4 days	September 18, 96 AD (aged 44) Assassinated by court officials

96–192: Nerva–Antonine dynasty

Note: all dates AD hereafter.


Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Nerva IMPERATOR MARCVS COCCEIVS NERVA CAESAR AVGVSTVS	November 8, 30, Narni, Italia	Appointed by the Senate. First of the “Five Good Emperors”.	September 18, 96 – January 27, 98	1 year, 4 months and 9 days	January 27, 98 (aged 67) Natural causes
Trajan IMPERATOR CAESAR NERVA TRAIANVS DIVI NERVAE FILIVS AVGVSTVS	September 18, 53, Italica, Hispania Baetica	Adopted son and heir of Nerva. His reign marked the geographical peak of the empire	January 28, 98 – August 7, 117	19 years, 6 months and 10 days	August 7, 117 (aged 63) Natural causes
Hadrian IMPERATOR CAESAR PVBLIVS AELIVS TRAIANVS HADRIANVS AVGVSTVS	January 24, 76, Italica, Hispania Baetica (or Rome)	Adopted son and heir of Trajan	August 11, 117 – July 10, 138	20 years, 10 months and 30 days	July 10, 138 (aged 62) Natural causes
Antoninus Pius IMPERATOR CAESAR TITVS AELIVS HADRIANVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS PIVS	September 19, 86, Near Lanuvium, Italia	Adopted son and heir of Hadrian	July 10, 138 – March 7, 161	22 years, 6 months and 28 days	March 7, 161 (aged 74) Natural causes
Lucius Verus IMPERATOR CAESAR LVCIVS AVRELIVS VERVS AVGVSTVS	December 15, 130, Rome	Adopted son and heir of Antoninus Pius and son-in-law of Marcus Aurelius; Co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius until his death	March 7, 161 – ? March 169	8 years	March 169 (aged 39) Natural causes (Plague)
Marcus Aurelius IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS	April 26, 121, Rome	Adopted son, son-in-law and heir of Antoninus Pius; Co-emperor with Lucius Verus until 169. Last of the “Five Good Emperors”	March 7, 161 – March 17, 180	19 years and 10 days	March 17, 180 (aged 58) Natural causes
Commodus IMPERATOR CAESAR LUCIVS AELIVS AVRELIVS COMMODVS AVGVSTVS	August 31, 161, Lanuvium, Italia	Natural son of Marcus Aurelius; joint emperor from 177	March 17, 180 – December 31, 192	3 years as joint emperor, 12 years as sole emperor	December 31, 192 (aged 31) Assassinated in palace, strangled in his bath

193–235: Year of the Five Emperors and Severan dynasty

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Pertinax IMPERATOR CAESAR PVBLIVS HELVIVS PERTINAX AVGVSTVS	August 1, 126, Alba, Italia	Proclaimed emperor by Praetorian Guard	January 1, 193 – March 28, 193	2 months and 27 days (86 days)	March 28, 193 (aged 66) Murdered by Praetorian Guard
Didius Julianus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS DIDIVS SEVERVS IVLIANVS AVGVSTVS	133 or 137, Milan, Italia	Won auction held by the Praetorian Guard for the position of emperor	March 28, 193 – June 1, 193	2 months and 4 days (65 days)	June 1, 193 (aged 56 or 60) Executed on orders of the Senate
Septimius Severus IMPERATOR CAESAR LVCIVS SEPTIMIVS SEVERVS EVSEBES PERTINAX AVGVSTVS	April 11, 145, Leptis Magna, Libya	Seized power with support of Pannonian legions^[a]	April 9, 193 – February 4, 211	17 years, 9 months and 26 days	February 4, 211 (aged 65) Natural causes
Caracalla IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS	April 4, 188, Lugdunum, Gallia Lugdunensis	Son of Septimius Severus; co-emperor with Severus from 198; with Severus and Geta from 209 until February 211; co-emperor with Geta until December 211	February 4, 211 – April 8, 217	13 years as joint emperor 10 months with Geta 6 years as sole emperor	April 8, 217 (aged 29) Murdered by a soldier as part of a conspiracy involving Macrinus
Geta IMPERATOR CAESAR PVBLIVS SEPTIMIVS CETA AVGVSTUS	March 7, 189, Rome	Son of Septimius Severus; co-emperor with Severus and Caracalla from 209 until February 211; co-emperor with Caracalla until December 211	February 4, 211 – December 26, 211	2 years as joint emperor 10 months with Caracalla	December 19, 211 (aged 22) Murdered on the orders of Caracalla
Macrinus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS OPELLIVS SEVERVS MACRINVS AVGVSTVS with Diadumenian IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS OPELLIVS ANTONINVS DIADVMENIANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 165, Caesarea, Mauretania	Praetorian Prefect to Caracalla, probably conspired to have Caracalla murdered and proclaimed himself emperor after Caracalla's death; made his son Diadumenian (born on 14 September 208) co-emperor in May 218	April 11, 217 – June 8, 218	1 year, 1 month and 28 days	June 8, 218 (aged 53) Both executed in favour of Elagabalus
Elagabalus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS	c. 204, Emesa, Syria	Grandnephew of Septimius Severus, first cousin once removed and alleged illegitimate son of Caracalla; proclaimed emperor by Syrian legions	June 8, 218 – March 11, 222	3 years, 9 months and 3 days	March 11, 222 (aged 18) Murdered by Praetorian Guard
Severus Alexander IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS SEVERVS ALEXANDER AVGVSTVS	c. 208, Arca Caesarea, Syria	Grandnephew of Septimius Severus, cousin and adoptive heir of Elagabalus	March 13, 222 – March 18, 235	13 years and 5 days	March 18, 235 (aged 27) Murdered by the army

235–285: Gordian dynasty and Crisis of the Third Century

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Maximinus Thrax IMPERATOR CAESAR GAIVS IVLIVS VERVS MAXIMINVS AVGVSTVS	c. 173, Thrace or Moesia	Proclaimed emperor by Germanic legions after the murder of Severus Alexander	March 20, 235 – June 238	3 years, 3 months	June 238 (aged 65) Assassinated by his men during the siege of Aquileia
Gordian I IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS CORDIANVS SEMPRONIANVS ROMANVS AFRICANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 159, Phrygia?	Proclaimed emperor, whilst Pro-consul in Africa, during a revolt against Maximinus. Ruled jointly with his son Gordian II, and in opposition to Maximinus. Technically a usurper, but retrospectively legitimised by the accession of Gordian III	March 22, 238 – April 12, 238	21 days	April 238 (aged 79) Committed suicide upon hearing of the death of Gordian II.
Gordian II IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS CORDIANVS SEMPRONIANVS ROMANVS AFRICANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 192, ?	Proclaimed emperor, alongside father Gordian I, in opposition to Maximinus by act of the Senate.	March 22, 238 – April 12, 238	21 days	April 238 (aged 46) Killed during the Battle of Carthage, fighting a pro-Maximinus army
Pupienus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS CLODIVS PVPIENVS MAXIMVS AVGVSTVS	c. 165 or 170	Proclaimed joint emperor with Balbinus by the Senate in opposition to Maximinus; later co-emperor with Balbinus.	April 22, 238 – July 29, 238	3 months and 7 days	July 29, 238 (aged 68 or 73) Assassinated by the Praetorian Guard
Balbinus IMPERATOR CAESAR DECIMVS CAELIVS CALVINVS BALBINVS PIVS AVGVSTVS	178	Proclaimed joint emperor with Pupienus by the Senate after death of Gordian I and II, in opposition to Maximinus; later co-emperor with Pupienus and Gordian III	April 22, 238 – July 29, 238	3 months and 7 days	July 29, 238 (aged 60) Assassinated by Praetorian Guard
Gordian III IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS CORDIANVS PIVS AVGVSTVS	January 20, 225, Rome	Proclaimed emperor by supporters of Gordian I and II, then by the Senate; joint emperor with Pupienus and Balbinus until July 238; grandson and nephew of Gordian I and II, respectively	April 22, 238 – February 11, 244	5 years, 9 months and 20 days	February 11, 244 (aged 19) Unknown; possibly murdered on orders of Philip I
Philip the Arab IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS IVLIVS PHILIPPVS AVGVSTVS with Philip II IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS IVLIVS SEVERVS PHILLIPVS AVGVSTVS	c. 204, Shahba, Syria	Praetorian Prefect to Gordian III, took power after his death; made his son Philip II (born 237) co-emperor in summer 247	February 244 – September/October 249	5 years	September/October 249 (aged 45) Killed in the Battle of Verona by Decius, Philip II murdered by the Praetorian Guard
Decius IMPERATOR CAESAR CAIVS MESSIVS QVINTVS TRAIANVS DECIVS AVGVSTVS with Herennius Etruscus IMPERATOR CAESAR QVINTVS HERENNIVS ETRVSCVS MESSIVS DECIVS AVGVSTVS	c. 201, Budalia, Pannonia Inferior	Governor under Philip the Arab; proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions then defeating and killing Philip in the Battle of Verona; made his son Herennius Etruscus (born 227) co-emperor in early 251	September/ October 249 – June 251	2 years	June 251 (aged 50) Both killed in the Battle of Abrittus fighting against the Goths
Hostilian IMPERATOR CAESAR CAIVS VALENS HOSTILIANVS MESSIVS QVINTVS AVGVSTVS	Sirmium	Son of Decius, accepted as heir by the Senate	June 251 – late 251	4–5 months	September/October 251 (aged 21) Natural causes (plague)
Trebonianus Gallus IMPERATOR CAESAR GAIVS VIBIVS AFINIVS TREBONIANVS GALLVS AVGVSTVS with Volusianus IMPERATOR CAESAR GAIVS VIBIVS VOLVSIANVS AVGVSTVS	206, Italia	Governor of Moesia Superior, proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions after Decius's death (and in opposition to Hostilian); made his son Volusianus co-emperor in late 251.	June 251 – August 253	2 years	August 253 (aged 47) Assassinated by their own troops, in favour of Aemilian
Aemilian IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AEMILIVS AEMILIANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 207 or 213 Africa	Governor of Moesia Superior, proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions after defeating the Goths; accepted as emperor after death of Gallus	August 253 – October 253	2 months	September/October 253 (aged 40 or 46) Assassinated by his own troops, in favour of Valerian
Valerian IMPERATOR CAESAR PVBLIVS LICINIVS VALERIANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 195	Governor of Noricum and Raetia, proclaimed emperor by Rhine legions after death of Gallus; accepted as emperor after death of Aemilian	October 253 – 260	7 years	After 260 (aged at least 65) Captured in Battle of Edessa against Persians, died in captivity
Gallienus IMPERATOR CAESAR PVBLIVS LICINIVS EGNATIVS GALLIENVS AVGVSTVS with Saloninus IMPERATOR CAESAR CORNELIVS LICINIVS SALONINVS VALERIANVS PIVS FELIX INVICTVS AVGVSTVS	218	Son of Valerian, made co-emperor in 253; his son Saloninus (born c. 242) is very briefly co-emperor in c. July 260 before assassination by Postumus.	October 253 – September 268	15 years	September 268 (aged 50) Murdered at Aquileia by his own commanders.
Claudius Gothicus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS VALERIVS CLAVDIVS AVGVSTVS	May 10, 210, Sirmium	Victorious general at Battle of Naissus, seized power after Gallienus's death	September 268 – January 270	1 year, 4 months	January 270 (aged 60) Natural causes (plague)
Quintillus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS CLAVDIVS QVINTILLVS AVGVSTVS	c.210, Sirmium	Brother of Claudius II, seized power after his death	January 270 – September(?) 270	Unknown	270 (aged around 60) Unclear; possibly suicide or murder
Aurelian IMPERATOR CAESAR LVCIVS DOMITIVS AVRELIANVS AVGVSTVS	September 9, 214/215, Sirmium	Proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions after Claudius II's death, in opposition to Quintillus	September(?) 270 – September 275	5 years	September 275 (aged 60-61) Assassinated by Praetorian Guard
Ulpia Severina VLPIA SEVERINA PIA AVGVSTA	Unknown	Wife of Aurelian, there is evidence that she ruled in her own right during the interregnum between Aurelian's death and the election of Tacitus.^[1]^[2]	September 275	Briefly	Unknown
Tacitus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS CLAVDIVS TACITVS AVGVSTVS	c. 200, Interamna Nahars, Italia	Elected by the Senate to replace Aurelian, after a short interregnum	September 25, 275 – June 276	9 months	June 276 (aged 76) Natural causes (possibly assassinated)
Florianus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS ANNIVS FLORIANVS AVGVSTVS	?	Brother of Tacitus, elected by the army in the west to replace him	June 276 – September? 276	3 months	September? 276 (aged ?) Assassinated by his own troops, in favour of Probus
Probus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS PROBVS AVGVSTVS	232, Sirmium	Governor of the eastern provinces, proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions in opposition to Florian	September? 276 – September/ October 282	6 years	September/ October 282 (aged 50) Assassinated by his own troops, in favour of Carus
Carus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS CARVS AVGVSTVS	c. 230, Narbo, Gallia Narbonensis	Praetorian Prefect to Probus; seized power either before or after Probus was murdered; made his son Carinus co-emperor in early 283	September/ October 282 – late July/ early August 283	10–11 months	Late July/August 283 (aged 61) Probably natural causes (Possibly killed by lightning)
Carinus CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS CARINVS AVGVSTVS	?	Son of Carus, ruled shortly with him (from early 283) as co-emperor and then in his own right with his brother Numerian	Late July/early August 283 – 285	2 years	285 (aged ?) Probably died in battle against Diocletian
Numerian IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS NVMERIVS NVMERIANVS AVGVSTVS	?	Son of Carus, succeeded him jointly with his brother Carinus	Late July/early August 283 – 284?	1 year	284 (aged ?) Unclear; possibly assassinated

The Dominate

284–364: Tetrarchy and Constantinian dynasty

Note: To maintain control and improve administration, various schemes to divide the work of the Roman Emperor by sharing it between individuals were tried after 285. The "Tetrarchy" proclaimed by Diocletian in 293 split the empire into two halves each to be ruled separately by two emperors, a senior "Augustus", and a junior "Caesar".

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Diocletian IMPERATOR CAESAR CAIVS AVRELIVS VALERIVS DIOCLETIANVS AVGVSTVS (EAST and WEST) then, after 286 (EAST)	c. December 22, 244, Salona	Proclaimed emperor by army after death of Numerian, and in opposition to Carinus; adopted Maximian as senior co-emperor in 286	November 20, 284 – May 1, 305	20 years, 5 months and 11 days	3 December 311 (aged 67) Abdicated; died of natural causes in Aspalatos
Maximian IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS VALERIVS MAXIMIANVS HERCVLIVS AVGVSTVS (WEST)	c. 250, near Sirmium, Pannonia	Adopted as senior co-emperor ('Augustus') in the west by Diocletian in 286	April 1, 286 – May 1, 305	19 years and 1 month	310 (aged 60) Abdicated with Diocletian; twice tried to regain throne with, and then from Maxentius; captured by Constantine I and committed suicide at his behest
Galerius IMPERATOR CAESAR GAIVS GALERIVS VALERIVS MAXIMIANVS AVGVSTVS (EAST)	c. 250, Felix Romuliana, Moesia Superior	Adopted as junior co-emperor ('Caesar') and heir by Diocletian in 293. Also son-in-law of Diocletian.	May 1, 305 – May 311	6 years	311 (aged 61) Natural causes
Constantius Chlorus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS FLAVIVS VALERIVS CONSTANTIVS HERCVLIVS AVGVSTVS (WEST)	March 31, c. 250, Dardania, Moesia	Adopted as junior co-emperor ('Caesar') and heir by Maximian in 293	May 1, 305 – July 25, 306	1 year, 2 months and 24 days	306 (aged 56) Natural causes
Valerius Severus IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VALERIVS SEVERVS AVGVSTVS (WEST)	?	Adopted as junior co-emperor ('Caesar') and heir by Constantius Chlorus in 305; succeeded as Augustus in 306; opposed by Maxentius and Constantine I	Summer 306 – March/ April 307	1 year	September 16, 307 (aged ?) Captured by Maxentius and forced to commit suicide (or murdered)
Constantine the Great IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VALERIVS AVRELIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS (WEST) then, after 324 (EAST and WEST)	February 27, c. 272, Naissus, Moesia Superior	Son of Constantius I Chlorus, proclaimed emperor by his father's troops; accepted as Caesar (west) by Galerius in 306; promoted to Augustus (west) in 307 by Maximian after death of Severus II; refused relegation to Caesar in 309	July 25, 306 – May 22, 337	30 years, 9 months and 27 days	May 22, 337 (aged 65) Natural causes
Maxentius IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS VALERIVS MAXENTIVS AVGVSTVS (WEST)	c. 276	Son of Maximian, seized power in 306 after death of Constantius I Chlorus, in opposition to Severus and Constantine I; made Caesar (west) by Maximian in 307 after the death of Severus	October 28, 306 – October 28, 312	6 years	October 28, 312 (aged 36) Died at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, against Constantine I
Licinius IMPERATOR CAESAR CAIVS VALERIVS LICINIANVS LICINIVS AVGVSTVS (EAST) with Valerius Valens IMPERATOR CAESAR AVRELIVS VALERIVS VALENS AVGVSTVS and Martinian IMPERATOR CAESAR SEXTVS MARCIVS MARTININANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 263, Felix Romuliana, Moesia Superior	Son-in-law of Constantius Chlorus, appointed Augustus in the west by Galerius in 308, in opposition to Maxentius; became Augustus in the east in 311 after the death of Galerius (shared with Maximinus II); defeated Maximinus II in civil war to become sole eastern Augustus in 313; appointed Valerius Valens in 317, and Martinian in 324 as western Augustus, in opposition to Constantine, both being executed within weeks.	November 11, 308 – September 18, 324	15 years, 10 months and 7 days	325 (aged 61/62) Defeated in civil war against Constantine I in 324 and captured; executed on the orders of Constantine the next year
Maximinus II IMPERATOR CAESAR CAIVS CALERIVS VALERIVS MAXIMINVS AVGVSTVS (EAST)	November 20, c. 270, Dacia Aureliana	Nephew of Galerius, adopted as Caesar and his heir in 305; succeeded as Augustus (shared with Licinius I) in 311	May 1, 311 – July/August 313	2 years	July/August 313 (aged 42) Defeated in civil war against Licinius; probably committed suicide thereafter
Constantine II IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CLAVDIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS (WEST)	316, Arelate, Gallia Narbonensis	Son of Constantine I; appointed Caesar in 317, succeeded as joint Augustus with his brothers Constantius II and Constans I	May 22, 337 – 340	3 years	340 (aged 24) Died in battle against Constans I
Constantius II IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVLIVS CONSTANTIVS AVGVSTVS (EAST) then, after 353 (EAST and WEST)	August 7, 317, Sirmium, Pannonia	Son of Constantine I; succeeded as joint Augustus with his brothers Constantine II and Constans I; sole emperor from 350	May 22, 337 – November 3, 361	24 years, 5 months and 12 days	361 (aged 44) Natural causes
Constans I IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVLIVS CONSTANS AVGVSTVS (MIDDLE) then, after 340 (WEST)	c. 323	Son of Constantine I; succeeded as joint Augustus with his brothers Constantine II and Constantius II	May 22, 337 – 350	13 years	350 (aged 27) Assassinated on the orders of the usurper Magnentius
Vetranio IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VETRANIO AVGVSTVS (WEST)	?, Moesia	General of Constans, proclaimed Caesar against Magnentius and temporarily accepted as Augustus of the west by Constantius II.	March 1, 350 – December 25, 350	9 months and 24 days	c. 356 (aged ?) As a private citizen, after abdication.
Julian IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CLAVDIVS IVLIANVS AVGVSTVS (WEST) then, after 361 (EAST and WEST)	331/332, Constantinople, Thracia	Cousin of Constantius II; made Caesar of the west in 355; proclaimed Augustus by his troops in 360; sole emperor after the death of Constantius	February 360 – June 26, 363	3 years	June 26, 363 (aged 31/32) Mortally wounded in battle
Jovian IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IOVIANVS AVGVSTVS (EAST and WEST)	331, Singidunum, Moesia	General of Julian's army; proclaimed emperor by the troops on Julian's death	June 26, 363 – February 17, 364	7 months and 22 days	February 17, 364 (aged 33) Natural causes (suffocated on fumes)

364–392: Valentinian dynasty

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Valentinian I IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VALENTINIANVS AVGVSTVS (EAST and WEST) then (WEST)	321, Cibalae, Pannonia	Elected to replace Jovian by the army	February 26, 364 – November 17, 375	11 years, 8 months and 22 days	November 17, 375 (aged 54) Natural causes
Valens IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVLIVS VALENS AVGVSTVS (EAST)	328, Cibalae, Pannonia	Brother of Valentinian I, appointed co-augustus (for the east) by him	March 28, 364 – August 9, 378	14 years, 4 months and 12 days	August 9, 378 (aged 50) Killed in Battle of Adrianople against the Goths
Gratian IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS GRATIANVS AVGVSTVS (WEST)	April 18/May 23, 359, Sirmium, Pannonia	Son of Valentinian I, appointed junior Augustus by him in 367, became senior Augustus (for the west) after Valentinian's death.	August 4, 367 – August 25, 383	16 years and 21 days	August 25, 383 (aged 24) Murdered by rebellious army faction
Valentinian II IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VALENTINIANVS AVGVSTVS (WEST)	371, Milan, Italia	Son of Valentinian I, proclaimed emperor by Pannonian army after Valentinian's death; accepted as co-Augustus for the west by Gratian	November 17, 375 – May 15, 392	16 years, 5 months and 28 days	May 15, 392 (aged 21) Unclear; possibly murdered or committed suicide

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Magnus Maximus IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS MAGNVS MAXIMVS AVGVSTVS (WEST) with Victor IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VICTOR AVGVSTVS	c. 335, Hispania	Usurper in the West; legitimized along with his son Victor by Theodosius I as emperors of Britannia and Gaul.	383/384 – August 28, 388	4/5 years	August 28, 388 (aged 53) Executed by Theodosius I in Aquileia after the Battle of the Save; Victor killed by Arbogast

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Eugenius IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS EVGENIVS AVGVSTVS (WEST)	?	Usurper in the West; elevated to emperor by Arbogast.	August 22 392 – September 6, 394	2 years, 15 days	September 6, 394 Executed as a criminal by Theodosius I near the Frigidus river

Western Emperors

392–455: Theodosian dynasty

Note: Theodosius I was the last person to rule both halves of the Roman Empire, dividing the administration between his sons Arcadius and Honorius on his death.

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Theodosius I IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS THEODOSIVS AVGVSTVS	January 11, 347, Cauca or Italica, Hispania	Son-in-law of Valentinian I, appointed as Augustus for the east by Gratian after the death of Valens; became sole senior Augustus after death of Valentinian II (Eastern Emperor since 379)	May 15, 392 – January 17, 395	2 years, 8 months and 2 days	January 17, 395 (aged 48) Natural causes
Honorius IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS HONORIVS AVGVSTVS	September 9, 384	Son of Theodosius I; appointed as junior Augustus for the west by Theodosius on January 23, 393 (after the death of Valentinian II); became senior Augustus for the west after his father's death	January 17, 395 – August 15, 423	28 years, 6 months and 29 days	August 15, 423 (aged 38) Natural causes
Constantine III IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CLAVDIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS with Constans II IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANS AVGVSTVS	?	Usurper who declared himself emperor in the west in 407, recognized as co-emperor by Honorius in 409. Elevated his son Constans II to co-emperor in 409, who was not recognized by Honorius. Neither recognized by the Eastern Empire.	407/409 - August or September 411	2 years	August or September 411 (aged ?) Executed by Constantius III
Constantius III IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTIVS AVGVSTVS	?, Naissus, Moesia Superior	Married to Theodosius I's daughter Galla Placidia, elevated to co-Augustus for the west by Honorius; not recognized by the Eastern Empire	February 8, 421 – September 2, 421	6 months and 25 days	September 2, 421 (aged ?) Natural causes
Joannes IMPERATOR CAESAR IOHANNES AVGVSTVS	?	A senior civil servant under Honorius, proclaimed emperor by Castinus; not recognized by the Eastern Empire	August 27, 423 – May 425	2 years	June or July 425 (aged ?) Defeated in battle by Theodosius II and Valentinian III, captured and executed
Valentinian III IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS PLACIDIVS VALENTINIANVS AVGVSTVS	July 2, 419, Ravenna, Italia	Son of Constantius III, appointed Caesar for the west by Theodosius II after the death of Honorius, in opposition to the regime of Joannes; became Augustus for the west after the defeat of Joannes	October 23, 424 – March 16, 455	30 years, 4 months and 21 days	March 16, 455 (aged 35) Assassinated, possibly at the behest of Petronius Maximus

455–476: Last emperors of the Western Empire

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Petronius Maximus IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS ANICIVS PETRONIVS MAXIMVS AVGVSTVS	c. 396	Son-in-law of Theodosius II, proclaimed himself emperor with the support of the army, after the death of Valentinian III. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire. He appointed his son Palladius as caesar.	March 17, 455 – May 31, 455	2 months and 14 days	May 31, 455 (aged 58/59) Murdered, probably stoned to death by the Roman mob
Avitus IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS MAECILIVS FLAVIVS EPARCHIVS AVITVS AVGVSTVS	c. 385	Magister militum under Petronius Maximus, proclaimed emperor by the Visigoth king Theoderic II after Petronius's death. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire.	July 9, 455 – October 17, 456	1 year, 3 months and 8 days	after 17 October 456 (aged 71) Deposed by his Magister militum, Ricimer; became bishop of Placentia; murdered at some point afterwards
Majorian IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVLIVS VALERIVS MAIORIANVS AVGVSTVS	November 420	Proclaimed emperor by his troops. Recognized by the Eastern Empire at the behest of Ricimer.	April 457 – August 2, 461	4 years	August 7, 461 (aged 40) Deposed and beheaded on the orders of Ricimer.
Libius Severus IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS LIBIVS SEVERVS SERPENTIVS AVGVSTVS	?, Lucania, Italia	Appointed emperor by Ricimer. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire.	November 461 – August 465	4 years	August 465 (aged 45) Probably poisoned by Ricimer
Anthemius IMPERATOR CAESAR PROCOPIVS ANTHEMIVS AVGVSTVS	c. 420	Son-in-law of Marcian, appointed emperor by Leo I, with the consent of Ricimer.	April 12, 467 – July 11, 472	5 years, 2 months and 29 days	July 11, 472 (aged 52) Executed by Ricimer or Gundobad (Ricimer's nephew).
Olybrius IMPERATOR CAESAR ANICIVS OLYBRIVS AVGVSTVS	c. 420	Son-in-law of Valentinian III; appointed emperor by Ricimer. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire.	July 11, 472 – November 2, 472	3 months and 22 days	November 2, 472 (aged 41) Natural causes
Glycerius IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS GLYCERIVS AVGVSTVS	?	Appointed emperor by Gundobad (Ricimer's successor). Not recognized by the Eastern Empire.	March 473 – June 474	1 year	after 480 (aged ?) Deposed by Julius Nepos, became Bishop of Salona, time and manner of death unknown
Julius Nepos IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVLIVS NEPOS AVGVSTVS	c. 430	Nephew-in-law of the eastern emperor Leo I (and nephew of Marcellinus) appointed emperor in opposition to Glycerius	June 474 – August 28, 475 (in Italy); – spring 480 (in Gaul and Dalmatia)	1 year/6 years	480 (aged 50) Deposed in Italy by Orestes, ruled in balance of Western Empire until assassination in 480. Maintained as figurehead in Italy by Odoacer to his death in 480.
Romulus Augustulus IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS ROMVLVS AVGVSTVS	c. 460^[b]	Appointed by his father, Orestes. Listed as an emperor by historical convention. His rule never extended beyond portions of the Italian peninsula. Not recognized by Eastern Emperor Zeno.	October 31, 475 – September 4, 476 (in Italy)	10 months and 4 days	Unknown. Deposed by Odoacer, who then ruled in the name of Julius Nepos until the latter's death in 480, which formally ended the separate Western Empire; most likely lived out his life in obscurity on a private villa.

Note: The classical Roman Empire is usually said to have ended with the deposition of Romulus Augustulus, with its continuation in the East referred to by modern scholars as the Byzantine Empire.

Eastern Emperors

379–457: Theodosian dynasty

Note: Theodosius I was the last person to rule both halves of the Roman Empire, dividing the administration between his sons Arcadius and Honorius on his death.

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Theodosius I IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS THEODOSIVS AVGVSTVS	January 11, 347, Cauca or Italica, Hispania	Son-in-law of Valentinian I, appointed as Augustus for the east by Gratian after the death of Valens; became sole senior Augustus after death of Valentinian II	January 19, 379 – January 17, 395	16 years and 16 days	January 17, 395 (aged 48) Natural causes
Arcadius IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS ARCADIVS AVGVSTVS	c. 377, Hispania	Son of Theodosius I; appointed as junior Augustus for the east by Theodosius in January 383; became senior Augustus for the east after his father's death	January 17, 395 – May 1, 408	13 years	May 1, 408 (aged 31) Natural causes
Theodosius II IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS THEODOSIVS IVNIOR AVGVSTVS	April 10, 401, Constantinople	Son of Arcadius; appointed as junior Augustus for the east by Arcadius in 402; became senior Augustus for the east after his father's death	January 402 – July 28, 450	48 years	July 28, 450 (aged 49) Injuries suffered during a hunting accident
Pulcheria IMPERATRIX AELIA PVLCHERIA AVGVSTA	January 19, 398, Constantinople	Daughter of Arcadius and sister of Theodosius II; reigned as co-empress with the younger Theodosius II through his reign from 414 onwards, sole ruler of the empire upon his death as Augusta and Imperatrix	July 28, 450 – July, 453	3 years	July, 453 (aged 55) Cause unknown
Marcian IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS MARCIANVS AVGVSTVS	396, Thrace or Illyria	Nominated as successor (and husband) by Pulcheria, ruled alongside her 450-453 and later alone	November 25, 450 – January 25, 457	7 years	January 457 (aged 65) Gout

457–518: Leonid dynasty

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Leo I the Thracian IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VALERIVS LEO AVGVSTVS	c. 400, Dacia	Chosen by the army	7 February 457 – 18 January 474	17 years	18 January 474 (aged 73) Dysentery
Leo II IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS LEO AVGVSTVS	c. 467, Constantinople	Grandson of Leo I	18 January – 17 November 474	9 months	17 November 474 (aged 7) Cause unknown, possibly poisoned
Zeno IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS ZENO AVGVSTVS	c. 425, Isauria	Named co-emperor by his son Leo II on 9 February 474.	17 November 474 – 9 April 491	17 years	9 April 491 (aged 66) Dysentery or epilepsy
Basiliscus IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS BASILISCVS AVGVSTVS with Marcus IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS MARCVS AVGVSTVS	?	Seized throne from Zeno, Basiliscus appointed his son Marcus co-emperor at some point in 475.	9 January 475 – August 476	1 year, 7 months	476/477 Starved to death in Limnae (in Cappadocia) by Zeno
Anastasius I Dicorus IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS ANASTASIVS AVGVSTVS	c. 430, Dyrrhachium	Son-in-law of Leo I	11 April 491 – 9 July 518	27 years	9 July 518 (aged 87) Natural causes

518–602: Justinian dynasty

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Justin I IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVSTINVS AVGVSTVS	c. 450 at Bederiana (Justiniana Prima), Dardania	Elected by army	July 518 – 1 August 527	9 years	1 August 527 (aged 77) Natural causes
Justinian I IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS PETRVS SABBATIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 482 at Tauresium (Taor), Dardania	Nephew of Justin I	1 August 527 – 13/14 November 565	38 years	13/14 November 565 (aged 83) Natural causes
Theodora THEODORA AVGVSTA	c. 500, Cyprus	Wife of Justinian I, in some sources described as his co-regent. Theodora had her own court and imperial seal,^[3] participated in state councils and Justinian described her as "partner in my deliberations".^[4]	9 August 527 – 28 June 548	21 years	28 June 548 (aged 48) Cancer
Justin II IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVSTINVS IVNIOR AVGVSTVS	c. 520	Nephew of Justinian I	14 November 565 – 5 October 578	13 years	5 October 578 (aged 58) Natural causes, after insanity
Tiberius II Constantine IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS TIBERIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS	c. 535	Adopted son of Justin II, regent from 574	5 October 578 – 14 August 582	3 years, 10 months	14 August 582 (aged 62) Natural causes
Maurice IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS MAURICIVS TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS with Theodosius IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS THEODOSIVS AVGVSTVS	539 at Arabissus, Cappadocia	Son-in-law of Tiberius II, appointed his son Theodosius (born in August 4 583/585) co-emperor in 590	14 August 582 – 22 November 602	20 years	27 November 602 (aged 63) Executed, Theodosius executed a few days later by supporters of Phocas

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Phocas IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS PHOCAS AVGVSTVS	?	Seized throne	23 November 602 – 4 October 610	8 years	5 October 610 Executed

610–695: Heraclian dynasty

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Heraclius (Φλάβιος Ἡράκλειος Αὔγουστος) IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS HERACLIVS AVGVSTVS	c. 575, Cappadocia	Revolt	5 October 610 – 11 February 641	30 years	11 February, 641 (aged 65 or 66) Natural causes
Constantine III (Ἡράκλειος νέος Κωνσταντῖνος Αὔγουστος) HERACLIVS NOVVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS	3 May 612, Constantinople	Son of Heraclius	11 February – 24/26 May 641	3 months	24/26 May 641 (aged 28) Tuberculosis
Heraklonas (Φλάβιος Κωνσταντῖνος Ἡράκλειος Αὔγουστος) IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS HERACLIVS AVGVSTVS with Tiberius (Φλάβιος Τιβέριος Αὔγουστος) FLAVIVS TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS and Martinus (Φλάβιος Μαρτίνος Αὔγουστος) FLAVIVS MARTINVS AVGVSTVS	3 May 626, Constantinople	Son of Heraclius; his brothers Tiberius and Martinus briefly served as co-emperors.	11 February 641 – September 641	7 months	unknown, but probably before 642
Constans II (Φλάβιος Κωνσταντῖνος Αὔγουστος) IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS	7 November 630	Son of Constantine III. succeeded his uncle Heraklonas after he was deposed as emperor.	September 641 – 15 September 668	27 years	15 September 668 (aged 37) Assassinated
Constantine IV (Φλάβιος Κωνσταντῖνος Αὔγουστος) IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS with Heraclius (Φλάβιος Ἡράκλειος Αὔγουστος) FLAVIVS HERACLIVS AVGVSTVS and Tiberius (Φλάβιος Τιβέριος Αὔγουστος) FLAVIVS TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS	652, Constantinople	Oldest son of Constans II, co-emperor since 654. His brothers Heraclius and Tiberius, co-emperors since 659, served as co-emperors until they were mutilated and deposed by Constantine in 681.	15 September 668 – 14 September 685 659 – 681 (Heraclius & Tiberius)	17 years 22 years (Heraclius & Tiberius)	14 September 685 (aged 33) Dysentery
Justinian II (Φλάβιος Ἰουστινιανὸς Αὔγουστος) FLAVIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVS	668 or 669, Constantinople	Son of Constantine IV, co-emperor since 681	14 September 685–695	10 years (1st reign)	11 December 711 (aged 42) Killed by the army

695–717: Twenty Years' Anarchy

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Leontios (Λεόντιος Αὔγουστος) LEONTIVS AVGVSTVS^[5]	Isauria	Revolt	695–698	3 years	Executed in February 706
Tiberios III Apsimaros (Τιβέριος Αὔγουστος) TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS	Pamphylia	Revolt	698–705	7 years	Executed in February 706
Justinian II (Φλάβιος Ἰουστινιανὸς Αὔγουστος) FLAVIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVS (second reign) with Tiberius (Τιβέριος Αὔγουστος) TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS^[6]	668 or 669, Constantinople	Returned on the throne with Bulgar support. Named son Tiberius as co-emperor in 706.	August 705 – December 711	6 years (2nd reign)	11 December 711 (aged 42) Both killed by the army
Philippikos Bardanes (Φιλιππικὸς Αὔγουστος) FILEPICVS AVGVSTVS^[7]	Pergamon	Revolt	December 711 – 3 June 713	1 year, 6 months	713
Anastasios II (Αρτέμιος Ἀναστάσιος Αὔγουστος) ARTEMIVS ANASTASIVS AVGVSTVS^[8]	?	Bureaucrat and secretary under Philippikos, he was raised to the purple by the soldiers	June 713 – November 715	2 years, 5 months	718, during attempt to regain the throne
Theodosius III (Θεοδόσιος Αὔγουστος) THEODOSIVS AVGVSTVS^[9]	?	Chosen by troops	May 715 – 25 March 717	2 years	Unknown. Became a monk

717–802: Isaurian dynasty

Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
Leo III the Isaurian (Λέων)	c. 685, Germanikeia, Commagene	Rebellion	25 March 717 – 18 June 741	24 years	June 741 (age 56) Edema
Constantine V (Κωνσταντῖνος)	July 718, Constantinople	Son of Leo III	18 June 741 – 14 September 775	34 years	14 September 775 (aged 57) Carbuncle
Artabasdos (Ἀρτάβασδος) with Nikephoros (Νικηφόρος)	?	Son-in-law of Leo III. Usurped throne. Proclaimed his son Nikephoros as co-emperor in 741/742	June 741/742 – 2 November 743	1 year, 4 months	Unknown
Leo IV the Khazar (Λέων)	750, Constantinople	Son of Constantine V	14 September 775 – 8 September 780	5 years	780 (age 30) Tuberculosis
Constantine VI (Κωνσταντῖνος)	771, Constantinople	Son of Leo IV	8 September 780 – August 797	17 years	797 (age 26) After blinding by Irene

Frankish emperors

The rulers who were crowned as Roman emperors in Western Europe between AD 800 and 915 were as follows:

800–888: Carolingian dynasty

Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
Charles I, the Great (Charlemagne) (742–814)	25 December 800	28 January 814		King of the Franks King of the Lombards
Louis I, the Pious (778–840)	11 September 813^[10]	20 June 840	Son of Charles I	King of the Franks King of Italy King of Aquitaine
Lothair I (795–855)	5 April 823	29 September 855	Son of Louis I	King of Italy King of Middle Francia
Louis II (825–875)	29 September 855	12 August 875	Son of Lothair I	King of Italy
Charles II, the Bald (823–877)	29 December 875	6 October 877	Son of Louis I	King of West Francia King of Italy
Charles III, the Fat (839–888)	12 February 881	13 January 888	Grandson of Louis I	King of West Francia King of East Francia King of Italy

891–898: Widonid dynasty

	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
	Guy I (?–894)	891	12 December 894	Great-great grandson of Charles I	King of Italy Duke of Spoleto
	Lambert I (880–898)	30 April 892	15 October 898	Son of Guy I	King of Italy Duke of Spoleto

896–899: Carolingian dynasty

	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
	Arnulph (850–899)	22 February 896	8 December 899	Nephew of Charles III	King of Italy King of East Francia

901–905: Bosonid dynasty

	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
	Louis III, the Blind (880–928)	22 February 901	21 July 905	Grandson of Louis II	King of Italy King of Provence

915–924: Unruoching dynasty

	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
	Berengar I (845–924)	December 915	7 April 924	Grandson of Louis I	King of Italy Margrave of Friuli

Holy Roman Emperors

There was no emperor in the west between 924 and 962.

While earlier Germanic and Italian monarchs had been crowned as Roman emperors, the actual Holy Roman Empire is usually considered to have begun with the crowning of the Saxon king Otto I. It was officially an elective position, though at times it ran in families, notably the four generations of the Salian dynasty in the 11th century. From the end of the Salian dynasty through the middle 15th century, the emperors drew from many different German dynasties, and it was rare for the throne to pass from father to son. That changed with the ascension of the Austrian House of Habsburg, as an unbroken line of Habsburgs held the imperial throne until the 18th century. Later a cadet branch known as the House of Habsburg-Lorraine passed it from father to son until the abolition of the Empire in 1806. Notably, the Habsburgs were also dispensed with the requirement that emperors be crowned by the pope before exercising their office. Starting with Ferdinand I, all successive emperors forwent the traditional coronation.

962–1024: Ottonian dynasty

Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
Otto I, the Great (912–973)	2 February 962	7 May 973	Great-great-great grandson of Louis I	King of Italy King of Germany Duke of Saxony
Otto II, the Red (955–983)	25 December 967	7 December 983	Son of Otto I	King of Italy King of Germany
Otto III (980–1002)	21 May 996	23 January 1002	Son of Otto II	King of Italy King of Germany
Henry II^{[note 1]} (973–1024)	14 February 1014	13 July 1024	Second cousin of Otto III	King of Italy King of Germany Duke of Bavaria Duke of Carinthia

1027–1125: Salian dynasty

Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
Conrad II, the Elder^{[note 2]} (990–1039)	26 March 1027	4 June 1039	Great-great-grandson of Otto I	King of Burgundy King of Italy King of Germany
Henry III, the Black (1017–1056)	25 December 1046	5 October 1056	Son of Conrad II	King of Burgundy King of Italy King of Germany Duke of Bavaria Duke of Swabia Duke of Carinthia Margrave of Meissen
Henry IV (1050–1106)	5 October 1056	7 August 1106	Son of Henry III	King of Burgundy King of Italy King of Germany Duke of Bavaria
Henry V^[11] (1086–1125)	13 April 1111	23 May 1125	Son of Henry IV	King of Italy King of Germany King of Burgundy

1133–1137: Supplinburg dynasty

Portrait	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
	Lothair II^{[note 3]} (1075–1137)	4 June 1133	4 December 1137	Great-Grandnephew of Henry III	King of Italy King of Germany King of Burgundy Duke of Saxony

1155–1197: Staufen dynasty

Portrait	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
	Frederick I Barbarossa (1122–1190)	8 June 1155	10 June 1190	Great-grandson of Henry IV	King of Germany King of Italy King of Burgundy
	Henry VI (1165–1197)	14 April 1191	28 September 1197	Son of Frederick I	King of Germany King of Italy King of Burgundy Co-King of Sicily

1198–1215: Welf dynasty

Portrait	Coat of arms	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
		Otto IV (1175–1218)	9 June 1198	1215	Great-grandson of Lothair II	King of Germany King of Italy King of Burgundy

1220–1250: Staufen dynasty

Portrait	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
	Frederick II, Stupor Mundi (1194–1250)	22 November 1220	13 December 1250	Son of Henry VI	King of Germany King of Italy King of Sicily King of Jerusalem

The interregnum of the Holy Roman Empire is taken to have lasted from the deposition of Frederick II by Pope Innocent IV (1245, alternatively from the death of Frederick 1250 or the death of Conrad IV 1254) to the election of Rudolf I of Germany (1273). Rudolf was not crowned emperor, nor were his successors Adolf and Albert. The next emperor was Henry VII, crowned on 29 June 1312 by Pope Clement V.

1312–1313: House of Luxembourg

Portrait

Coat of arms

Name

Reign

Relationship with predecessor(s)

Other title(s)

Holy Roman Emperor

Coats of arms

Henry VII
(1274–1313)

29 June 1312

24 August 1313

Great x11 grandson of Charles II

1314–1347: House of Wittelsbach

Portrait

Coat of arms

Name

Reign

Relationship with predecessor(s)

Other title(s)

Holy Roman Emperor

Coats of arms

Louis IV, the Bavarian
(1282–1347)

October 1314

11 October 1347

Far descendant of Henry IV and great-great-great-great-grandson of Lothair II

1346–1437: House of Luxembourg

Portrait

Coat of arms

Name

Reign

Relationship with predecessor(s)

Other title(s)

Holy Roman Emperor

Coats of arms

Charles IV
(1316–1378)

11 July 1346

29 November 1378

Grandson of Henry VII

Holy Roman Emperor

Coats of arms

Sigismund
(1368–1437)

31 May 1433

9 December 1437

Son of Charles IV

1440–1740: House of Habsburg

In 1508, Pope Julius II allowed Maximilian I to use the title of Emperor without coronation in Rome, though the title was qualified as Electus Romanorum Imperator ("elected Emperor of the Romans"). Maximilian's successors adopted the same titulature, usually when they became the sole ruler of the Holy Roman Empire. Maximilian's first successor Charles V was the last to be crowned Emperor.

Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
Frederick III, the Peaceful (1415–1493)	2 February 1440	19 August 1493	second cousin of Albert II of Germany, Emperor designate.	King of Germany King of Italy Archduke of Austria
Maximilian I (1459–1519)	19 August 1493	12 January 1519	Son of Frederick III	King of Germany Archduke of Austria
Charles V (1500–1558)	28 June 1519 (crowned 1530)	27 August 1556	Grandson of Maximilian I	King of Germany King of Italy Archduke of Austria King of Spain Lord of the Netherlands and Duke of Burgundy
Ferdinand I (1503–1564)	27 August 1556 (crowned 1558)	25 July 1564	Brother of Charles V	King of Germany King of Bohemia King of Hungary King of Croatia Archduke of Austria
Maximilian II (1527–1576)	25 July 1564	12 October 1576	Son of Ferdinand I	King of Germany King of Bohemia King of Hungary King of Croatia Archduke of Austria
Rudolph II^{[note 4]} (1552–1612)	12 October 1576	20 January 1612	Son of Maximilian II	King of Germany King of Bohemia King of Hungary King of Croatia Archduke of Austria
Matthias (1557–1619)	13 June 1612	20 March 1619	Brother of Rudolf II	King of Germany King of Bohemia King of Hungary King of Croatia Archduke of Austria
Ferdinand II (1578–1637)	28 August 1619	15 February 1637	Cousin of Matthias	King of Germany King of Bohemia King of Hungary King of Croatia Archduke of Austria
Ferdinand III (1608–1657)	15 February 1637	2 April 1657	Son of Ferdinand II	King of Germany King of Bohemia King of Hungary King of Croatia Archduke of Austria
Leopold I (1640–1705)	18 July 1658	5 May 1705	Son of Ferdinand III	King of Germany King of Bohemia King of Hungary King of Croatia Archduke of Austria
Joseph I (1678–1711)	5 May 1705	17 April 1711	Son of Leopold I	King of Germany King of Bohemia King of Hungary King of Croatia Archduke of Austria
Charles VI (1685–1740)	12 October 1711	20 October 1740	Brother of Joseph I	Full list King of Germany King of Bohemia King of Hungary King of Croatia Archduke of Austria King of Naples King of Sicily King of Sardinia Duke of Luxemburg Duke of Teschen Duke of Parma and Piacenza Count of Flanders

1742–1745: House of Wittelsbach

Portrait	Coat of arms	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
		Charles VII (1697–1745)	12 February 1742	20 January 1745	Great-great grandson of Ferdinand II; Son-in-law of Joseph I	King of Bohemia Elector of Bavaria

1745–1765: House of Lorraine

Portrait	Coat of arms	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
		Francis I (1708–1765)	13 September 1745	18 August 1765	Great-grandson of Ferdinand III; Son-in-law of Charles VI	King of Germany Archduke of Austria Grand Duke of Tuscany Duke of Lorraine

1765–1806: House of Habsburg-Lorraine

Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
Joseph II (1741–1790)	18 August 1765	20 February 1790	Son of Empress Maria Theresa, de facto ruler of the empire, and Francis I.	King of Germany King of Bohemia King of Hungary and Croatia Archduke of Austria
Leopold II (1747–1792)	30 September 1790	1 March 1792	Son of Empress Maria Theresa,de facto ruler of the empire, and Francis I. Brother of Joseph II.	King of Germany King of Bohemia King of Hungary and Croatia Archduke of Austria Grand Duke of Tuscany
Francis II (1768–1835)	5 July 1792	6 August 1806	Son of Leopold II	King of Germany King of Bohemia King of Hungary and Croatia Archduke of Austria Emperor of Austria

Emperors of the French

First French Empire

Name	Lifespan	Reign start	Reign end	Notes	Family	Image
Napoleon I the Great	(1769-08-15)15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821(1821-05-05) (aged 51)	18 May 1804	11 April 1814	—	Bonaparte

Hundred Days

Regarded as a continuation of the First French Empire despite the brief exile of the Emperor Napoleon I

Name	Lifespan	Reign start	Reign end	Notes	Family	Image
Napoleon I the Great	(1769-08-15)15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821(1821-05-05) (aged 51)	20 March 1815	22 June 1815		Bonaparte
Napoleon II ^[12]	(1811-03-20)20 March 1811 – 22 July 1832(1832-07-22) (aged 21)	22 June 1815	7 July 1815	Son of Napoleon I	Bonaparte

Second French Empire

Name	Lifespan	Reign start	Reign end	Notes	Family	Image
Napoleon III	(1808-04-20)20 April 1808 – 9 January 1873(1873-01-09) (aged 64)	2 December 1852	4 September 1870	Nephew of Napoleon I Cousin of Napoleon II	Bonaparte

Emperors of Austria (1804–1918)

Name	Lifespan	Reign start	Reign end	Notes	Family
Francis I	(1768-02-12)12 February 1768 – 2 March 1835(1835-03-02) (aged 67)	11 August 1804	2 March 1835	The last Holy Roman Emperor; Son of Leopold II	Habsburg-Lorraine
Ferdinand I	(1793-04-19)19 April 1793 – 29 June 1875(1875-06-29) (aged 82)	2 March 1835	2 December 1848 (abdicated)	Son of Francis I	Habsburg-Lorraine
Francis Joseph I	(1830-08-18)18 August 1830 – 21 November 1916(1916-11-21) (aged 86)	2 December 1848	21 November 1916	Nephew of Ferdinand I; grandson of Francis I	Habsburg-Lorraine
Charles I the Blessed	(1887-08-17)17 August 1887 – 1 April 1922(1922-04-01) (aged 34)	21 November 1916	11 November 1918 (resigned)	Grand-Nephew of Francis Joseph I; great-great-grandson of Francis I	Habsburg-Lorraine

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

^ Watson, Alaric (1999). Aurelian and the Third Century. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07248-4. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
^ Körner, Christian (December 23, 2008). "Aurelian (A.D. 270-275)". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families. Retrieved January 6, 2011.
^ Anderson & Zinsser, Bonnie & Judith (1988). A History of Their Own: Women in Europe, Vol 1. New York, NY: Harper & Row. p. 47.
^ Diehl, Charles (1963). Byzantine Empresses. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf.
^ "(138) Leontius". www2.lawrence.edu. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
^ "Justinian II - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
^ "Philippicus - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
^ "Anastasius II - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
^ "Theodosius III - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
^ Egon Boshof: Ludwig der Fromme. Darmstadt 1996, p. 89
^ Barraclough, Geoffrey (1984). The Origins of Modern Germany. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-30153-3.
^ From 22 June to 7 July 1815, Bonapartists considered Napoleon II as the legitimate heir to the throne, his father having abdicated in his favor. However, the young child's reign was entirely fictional, as he was residing in Austria with his mother. Louis XVIII was reinstalled as king on 7 July.

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[watson-2] Watson, Alaric (1999). Aurelian and the Third Century. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07248-4. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[re-3] Körner, Christian (December 23, 2008). "Aurelian (A.D. 270-275)". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families. Retrieved January 6, 2011.

[5] Anderson & Zinsser, Bonnie & Judith (1988). A History of Their Own: Women in Europe, Vol 1. New York, NY: Harper & Row. p. 47.

[6] Diehl, Charles (1963). Byzantine Empresses. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf.

[7] "(138) Leontius". www2.lawrence.edu. Retrieved 2019-04-17.

[8] "Justinian II - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17.

[9] "Philippicus - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17.

[10] "Anastasius II - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17.

[11] "Theodosius III - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17.

[12] Egon Boshof: Ludwig der Fromme. Darmstadt 1996, p. 89

[15] Barraclough, Geoffrey (1984). The Origins of Modern Germany. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-30153-3.

[18] From 22 June to 7 July 1815, Bonapartists considered Napoleon II as the legitimate heir to the throne, his father having abdicated in his favor. However, the young child's reign was entirely fictional, as he was residing in Austria with his mother. Louis XVIII was reinstalled as king on 7 July.

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