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Common Security and Defence
Policy of the European Union
Arms of the Military Committee (l.) and its chairman (m.), as well as the Military Staff (r.)
Organisations
Council preparatory bodies
Equipment546 ships, 2,448 aircraft & 7,490 battle tanks
Founded1948 (as the Western Union)
1954 (as the Western European Union, WEU)
1996 (as the European Security and Defence Identity within the WEU)
1999 (as the European Security and Defence Policy of the European Union)
Current form2009 (Treaty of Lisbon)
HeadquartersKortenberg building, Brussels, Belgium (Military Planning and Conduct Capability)
Websiteeeas.europa.eu
Leadership
High Repr.Federica Mogherini
Director General of the Mil. StaffLt. Gen Esa Pulkkinen
Chairman of the Mil. CommitteeGeneral Michail Kostarakos
Personnel
Active personnel1,823,000 (2014)[1]
Expenditure
Budget$226.73 billion (2016)[1]
Percent of GDP1.42% (2014)[1]

The security and defence policy of the European Union (formally the Common Security and Defence Policy, CSDP) is the EU's course of action in the fields of defence and crisis management.

The Union's High Representative (HR/VP), currently Federica Mogherini, is responsible for proposing and implementing CSDP decisions. Such decisions are adopted by the Foreign Affairs Council (FAC), generally requiring unanimity. The CSDP structures, headed by the HR/VP, comprise relevant sections of the External Action Service (EEAS) - including the Military Staff (EUMS) with its operational headquarters (MPCC) - a number of FAC preparatory bodies - such as the Military Committee (EUMC) - as well as four Agencies, including the Defence Agency (EDA).

The implementation of the CSDP involves the deployment of military or civilian missions for peace-keeping, conflict prevention and strengthening international security in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter. The missions are carried out by EU forces established with contributions from the member states' armed forces. The CSDP also entails collective selv-defence amongst member states as well as a Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) in which 25 of the 28 national armed forces pursue structural integration.

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History

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Main article: History of the Common Security and Defence Policy

The post-war period saw several short-lived or ill-fated initiatives for European defence integration intended to protect against potential Soviet or German aggression: The Western Union and the proposed European Defence Community were respectively cannibalised by the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and rejected by the French Parliament. The largely dormant Western European Union (WEU) succeeded the Western Union's remainder in 1954.

In 1970 the European Political Cooperation (EPC) brought about the European Communities' (EC) initial foreign policy coordination. Opposition to the addition of security and defence matters to the EPC led to the reactivation of the WEU in 1984 by its member states, which were also EC member states.

After the end of the Cold War, European defence integration gained momentum: In 1992, the WEU was given new tasks, and the following year the Treaty of Maastricht founded the EU and replaced the EPC with the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) pillar. In 1996 NATO agreed to let the WEU develop a European Security and Defence Identity (ESDI).[2] The 1998 St. Malo declaration signalled that the traditionally hesitant United Kingdom was prepared to provide the EU with autonomous defence structures.[3] This facilitated the transformation of the ESDI into the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) in 1999, when it was transferred to the EU. In 2003 the EU deployed its first CSDP missions, and adopted the European Security Strategy identifying common threats and objectives. In 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon introduced the present name, CSDP, while establishing the EEAS, the mutual defence clause and enabling a subset of member states to pursue defence integration within PESCO. In 2011 the WEU, whose tasks had been transferred to the EU, was dissolved. In 2016 a new security strategy was introduced, which along with the Russian annexation of Crimea, the scheduled British withdrawal from the EU and the election of Trump as US President have given the CSDP a new impetus.

Structure

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The CSDP is a part of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), based on articles 42–46 of the Treaty on European Union (TEU)[4],

Article 42.2 of TEU states that the CSDP includes the 'progressive framing' of a common Union defence policy, and will lead to a common defence, when the European Council of national heads of state or government, acting unanimously, so decides.

class=notpageimage|
Location of decentralised CSDP agencies in addition to the Brussels-based External Action Service (EEAS), Defence Agency (EDA) and Council

The defence arrangements which have been established under the EU institutions are part of the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP), a branch of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). It should be noted that Denmark has an opt-out from the CSDP.[1]

The legal basis of the CSDP is Article 42 of the Treaty on European Union (TEU), as amended in 2009 by the Treaty of Lisbon.[5]

The relationship between the High Representative, the Military Staff and Military Committee as of November 2017:[6] Colour key:
  High Representative (a Vice-President of the Commission)
    Military Committee (EUMC; a Council body)
    Military Staff (EUMS; a Directorate-General of the External Action Service)

High Representative
 
Chairman EUMC
    
Working Group
 
 
Working Group/Headline Goal Task Force		Director General EUMS/
Director MPCC
   
Legal advisorDeputy Director General
  		Horizontal Coordination
Assistant Chief of Staff for SynchronisationEU cell at SHAPEEU Liaison at the UN in NYAssistant Chief of Staff for External RelationsNATO Permanent Liaison Team
Concepts & Capabilities
Directorate
 		Intelligence
Directorate
 		Operations
Directorate
 		Logistics
Directorate
 		Communications & Information Systems
Directorate
 		Military Planning and
Conduct Capability (MPCC)
Chief of Staff
 
Working Group
Current Operations


High Representative

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Main article: High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy
 
High Representative Mogherini

The High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, commonly referred to as the High Representative (HR/VP), is the chief co-ordinator and representative of the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), including the CSDP. The position is currently held by Federica Mogherini.

Where foreign matters is agreed between EU member states, the High Representative can speak for the EU in that area, such as negotiating on behalf of the member states.

Beside representing the EU at international fora and co-ordinating the CFSP and the CSDP, the HR/VP is:

External Action Service

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Main article: European External Action Service
 
Seat of the EEAS in Brussels
 
Military Staff Director General Pulkkinen

The European External Action Service (EEAS) is the diplomatic service and foreign and defence ministry of the EU. The EEAS is led by the HR/VP and seated in Brussels.

The EEAS does not propose or implement policy in its own name, but prepares acts to be adopted by the HR/VP, the European Commission or the Council.[7] The EEAS is also in charge of EU diplomatic missions (delegations)[8] and intelligence and crisis management structures.[9][10][11]

The following EEAS bodies take part in managing the CSDP:

Council preparatory bodies

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General Kostarakos has served as Chairman of the Military Committee since 2015

The Council of the European Union has the following, Brussels-based preparatory bodies in the field of CSDP:

Agencies

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The following agencies relate to the CSDP:

  • The Defence Agency (EDA), based in Brussels, facilitates the improvement of national military capabilities and integration. In that capacity, it makes proposals, coordinates, stimulates collaboration, and runs projects.
  • The Border and Coast Guard Agency (Frontex), based in Warsaw, Poland, leads the European coast guard that controls the borders of the Schengen Area.
  • The Institute for Security Studies (ISS), based in Paris, is an autonomous think tank that researches EU-relevant security issues. The research results are published in papers, books, reports, policy briefs, analyses and newsletters. In addition, the institute convenes seminars and conferences on relevant issues that bring together EU officials, national experts, decision-makers and NGO representatives from all Member States.
  • The Satellite Centre (SatCen), located in Torrejón de Ardoz, Spain, supports the decision-making by providing products and services resulting from the exploitation of relevant space assets and collateral data, including satellite and aerial imagery, and related services.

Permanent structured cooperation

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Main article: Permanent Structured Cooperation
 
  PESCO States
  Non-PESCO EU States

The Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) is the framework in which 25 of the 28 national armed forces pursue structural integration. Based on Article 42.6 and Protocol 10 of the Treaty on European Union, introduced by the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009, PESCO was first initiated in 2017.[22] The initial integration within the PESCO format is a number of projects planned to launch in 2018.[23]

PESCO is similar to enhanced co-operation in other policy areas, in the sense that integration does not require that all EU member states participate.

Relationship with NATO

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Main article: Berlin Plus agreement

The Berlin Plus agreement is the short title of a comprehensive package of agreements made between NATO and the EU on 16 December 2002.[24] These agreements were based on conclusions of NATO's 1999 Washington summit, sometimes referred to as the CJTF mechanism,[25] and allowed the EU to draw on some of NATO's military assets in its own peacekeeping operations.

 
Map showing European membership of the EU and NATO
  EU member only
  NATO member only
  Member of both

Out of the 28 EU member states, 22 are also members of NATO. Another three NATO members are EU applicants—Albania, Montenegro and Turkey. Two others—Iceland and Norway—have opted to remain outside of the EU, however participate in the EU's single market. The memberships of the EU and NATO are distinct, and some EU member states are traditionally neutral on defence issues. Several of the new EU member states were formerly members of the Warsaw Pact.

In 2012 then Director General of the Military Staff Lt. gen. Ton van Osch presented the following chart, illustrating a perceived utility of the European Union's Common Security and Defence Policy (civilian and military components) compared to that of NATO, depending on level of conflict:

 

According to this graph, CSDP action could be considered more effective or relevant given a level of conflict that is not too high - i which case NATO capabilities become more effective.

Strategy

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Main article: European Union Global Strategy

The European Union Global Strategy (EUGS) is the updated doctrine of the EU to improve the effectiveness of the CSDP, including the defence and security of the members states, the protection of civilians, cooperation between the member states' armed forces, management of immigration, crises etc. Adopted on 28 June 2016[26], it replaces the European Security Strategy of 2003. The EUGS is complemented by a document titled "Implementation Plan on Security and Defense" (IPSD)[27].

Missions

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Main article: Military operations of the European Union
 
Since 2002, the European Union has intervened abroad[28] thirty times in three different continents.

In the EU terminology, civilian CSDP interventions are called ‘missions’, regardless of whether they have an executive mandate such as EULEX Kosovo or a non-executive mandate (all others). Military interventions, however, can either have an executive mandate such as for example Operation Atalanta in which case they are referred to as ‘operations’ and are commanded at two-star level; or non-executive mandate (e.g. EUTM Somalia)in which case they are called ‘missions’ and are commanded at one-star level.

The first deployment of European troops under the ESDP, following the 1999 declaration of intent, was in March 2003 in the Republic of Macedonia. "EUFOR Concordia" used NATO assets and was considered a success and replaced by a smaller police mission, EUPOL Proxima, later that year. Since then, there have been other small police, justice and monitoring missions. As well as the Republic of Macedonia, the EU has maintained its deployment of peacekeepers in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as part of EUFOR Althea mission.[29]

Between May and September 2003 EU troops were deployed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) during "Operation Artemis" under a mandate given by UN Security Council Resolution 1484 which aimed to prevent further atrocities and violence in the Ituri Conflict and put the DRC's peace process back on track. This laid out the "framework nation" system to be used in future deployments. The EU returned to the DRC during July–November 2006 with EUFOR RD Congo, which supported the UN mission there during the country's elections.

 
Medal awarded to individuals who have served in CSDP missions

Geographically, EU missions outside the Balkans and the DRC have taken place in Georgia, Indonesia, Sudan, Palestine, and Ukraine–Moldova. There is also a judicial mission in Iraq (EUJUST Lex). On 28 January 2008, the EU deployed its largest and most multi-national mission to Africa, EUFOR Tchad/RCA.[30] The UN-mandated mission involves troops from 25 EU states (19 in the field) deployed in areas of eastern Chad and the north-eastern Central African Republic in order to improve security in those regions. EUFOR Tchad/RCA reached full operation capability in mid-September 2008, and handed over security duties to the UN (MINURCAT mission) in mid-March 2009.[31]

The EU launched its first maritime CSDP operation on 12 December 2008 (Operation Atalanta). The concept of the European Union Naval Force (EU NAVFOR) was created on the back of this operation, which is still successfully combatting piracy off the coast of Somalia almost a decade later. A second such intervention was launched in 2015 to tackle migration problems in the southern Mediterranean (EUNAVFOR Med), working under the name Operation SOPHIA.

Most of the CSDP missions deployed so far are mandated to support Security Sector Reforms (SSR) in host-states. One of the core principles of CSDP support to SSR is local ownership. The EU Council defines ownership as "the appropriation by the local authorities of the commonly agreed objectives and principles".[32] Despite EU's strong rhetorical attachment to the local ownership principle, research shows that CSDP missions continue to be an externally driven, top-down and supply-driven endeavour, resulting often in the low degree of local participation.[33]

Forces

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Main article: Defence forces of the European Union

National

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National armed forces' personnel combined (2016)[34]

The CSDP is implemented using civilian and military contributions from member states' armed forces, which also are obliged to collective self-defence based on Treaty on European Union (TEU).

Six EU states host nuclear weapons: France and the United Kingdom each have their own nuclear programmes, while Belgium, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands host US nuclear weapons as part of NATO's nuclear sharing policy. Combined, the EU possesses 525 warheads, and hosts between 90 and 130 US warheads. The EU has the third largest arsenal of nuclear weapons, after the United States and Russia.

Multinational

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Established at Union level

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Irish Army personnel from the Nordic Battle Group at an exercise in 2010

The Helsinki Headline Goal Catalogue is a listing of rapid reaction forces composed of 60,000 troops managed by the European Union, but under control of the countries who deliver troops for it.

Forces introduced at Union level include:

  • The battle groups (BG) adhere to the CSDP, and are based on contributions from a coalition of member states. Each of the eighteen Battlegroups consists of a battalion-sized force (1,500 troops) reinforced with combat support elements.[35][36] The groups rotate actively, so that two are ready for deployment at all times. The forces are under the direct control of the Council of the European Union. The Battlegroups reached full operational capacity on 1 January 2007, although, as of January 2013 they are yet to see any military action.[37] They are based on existing ad hoc missions that the European Union (EU) has undertaken and has been described by some as a new "standing army" for Europe.[36] The troops and equipment are drawn from the EU member states under a "lead nation". In 2004, United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan welcomed the plans and emphasised the value and importance of the Battlegroups in helping the UN deal with troublespots.[38]
  • The Medical Corps (EMC) is an incident response team that was launched on 15 February 2016 by the European Union to provide an emergency response force to deal with outbreaks of epidemic disease anywhere in the world.[39] The EMC was formed after the 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa when the WHO was criticized for a slow and insufficient response in the early stages of the Ebola outbreak.[40] The EMC is part of the emergency response capacity of European countries.[41] Teams from nine EU member states—Belgium, Luxembourg, Spain, Germany, the Czech Republic, France, the Netherlands, Finland, and Sweden — are available for deployment in an emergency. The EMC consist of medical teams, public health teams, mobile biosafety laboratories, medical evacuation capacities, experts in public health and medical assessment and coordination, and technical and logistics support.[42] Any country in need of assistance can make a request to Emergency Response Coordination Centre, part of the European Commission's Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection department.[43] The first deployment of the EMC was announced by the European Commissioner for Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection on 12 May 2016, a response to the outbreak of yellow fever in Angola in 2016.[44] An earlier concept of an emergency medical response team was Task Force Scorpio formed by the United Nations during the first Gulf War.
  • The Medical Command (EMC) is a planned medical command centre in support of EU missions, formed as part of the Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO).[45] The EMC will provide the EU with a permanent medical capability to support operations abroad, including medical resources and a rapidly deployable medical task force. The EMC will also provide medical evacuation facilities, triage and resuscitation, treatment and holding of patients until they can be returned to duty, and emergency dental treatment. It will also contribute to harmonising medical standards, certification and legal (civil) framework conditions.[46]
  • The Force Crisis Response Operation Core (EUFOR CROC) is a flagship defence project under development as part of the Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) facility. EURFOR CROC will contribute to the creation of a "full spectrum force package" to speed up provision of military forces and the EU's crisis management capabilities.[47] Rather than creating a standing force, the project involves creating a concrete catalogue of military force elements that would speed up the establishment of a force when the EU decides to launch an operation. It is land-focused and aims to generate a force of 60,000 troops from the contributing states alone. While it does not establish any form of "European army", it foresees an deployable, interoperable force under a single command.[48] Germany is the lead country for the project, but the French are heavily involved and it is tied to President Emanuel Macron's proposal to create a standing intervention force. The French see it as an example of what PESCO is about.[49]

Provided through Article 42.3 TEU

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Personnel of the European Corps in Strasbourg, France, during a change of command ceremony in 2013

This section presents an incomplete list of forces and bodies established intergovernmentally amongst a subset of member states. The military forces that have been established are typically dedicated in priority to the European Union (EU) through Article 42.3 of TEU, but may also be deployed either in a NATO environment, acting as part of the European branch of NATO, acting upon the mandate of the participating countries, or acting upon the mandate of other international organisations, such as United Nations, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, or any other international entity.

Terrestrial:

Aerial:

  • The European Air Transport Command (EATC) is the command centre that exercises the operational control of the majority of the aerial refueling capabilities and military transport fleets of its participating nations. Located at Eindhoven Airbase in the Netherlands, the command also bears a limited responsibility for exercises, aircrew training and the harmonisation of relevant national air transport regulations.[51][52] The command was established in 2010 with a view to provide a more efficient management of the participating nations' assets and resources in this field.

Naval:

Multi-component:

  • The Combined Joint Expeditionary Force (CJEF), is a Franco-British military force. It draws upon both the British Armed Forces and the French Armed Forces to field a deployable force with land, air and maritime components together with command and control and supporting logistics. It is distinct from the similarly named UK Joint Expeditionary Force. The Combined Joint Expeditionary Force (or CJEF) is envisaged as a deployable, combined Franco-British military force for use in a wide range of crisis scenarios, up to and including high intensity combat operations. As a joint force it involves all three armed Services: a land component composed of formations at national brigade level, maritime and air components with their associated Headquarters, together with logistics and support functions. The CJEF is not conceived as a standing force but rather as available at notice for UK-French bilateral, NATO, European Union, United Nations or other operations. Combined air and land exercises commenced during 2011 with a view towards developing a full capability. The CJEF is also seen as a potential stimulus towards greater interoperability and coherence in military doctrine, training and equipment requirements.

Equipment

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Main article: Military equipment of the European Union
 
Charles de Gaulle, a French aircraft carrier

The CSDP is implemented with equipment owned by member states' armed forces.

EU-developed infrastructure for military use include:

Defence fund

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Main article: European Defence Fund

The European Defence Fund is an EU-managed fund for coordinating and increasing national investment in defence research and improve interoperability between national forces. It was proposed in 2016 by President Jean-Claude Juncker and established in 2017 to a value of €5.5 billion per year. The fund has two stands; research (€90 million until the end of 2019 and €500 million per year after 2020) and development & acquisition (€500 million in total for 2019–20 then €1 billion per year after 2020).[56]

Together with the Coordinated Annual Review on Defence and Permanent Structured Cooperation it forms a new comprehensive defence package for the EU.[57]

See also

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Other defence-related EU initiatives:

Other Pan-European defence organisations (intergovernmental):

Regional, integorvernmental defence organisations in Europe:

Atlanticist intergovernmental defence organisations:

Notes

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References

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  1. ^ a b c d Defence Data Portal, Official 2012 defence statistics from the European Defence Agency
  2. ^ https://eur-lex.europa.eu/summary/glossary/european_security_defence_identity.html
  3. ^ https://euobserver.com/foreign/138147
  4. ^ Article 42, Treaty on European Union
  5. ^ "Treaty of Lisbon". EU. Archived from the original on 15 May 2011.
  6. ^ "Impetus" (PDF). eeas.europa.eu. Retrieved 21 April 2023.
  7. ^ Gatti, Mauro (2016). European External Action Service : Promoting Coherence through Autonomy and Coordination. Leiden: Brill. p. 148. ISBN 9789004323612. OCLC 951833456.
  8. ^ Art. 5 of COUNCIL DECISION establishing the organisation and functioning of the European External Action Service PDF, Council of the European Union, 20 July 2010
  9. ^ "The Crisis Management and Planning Directorate (CMPD)".
  10. ^ "The Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability (CPCC)".
  11. ^ "The European Union Military Staff (EUMS)".
  12. ^ https://euobserver.com/foreign/137127
  13. ^ http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2017/06/08/military-mpcc-planning-conduct-capability/
  14. ^ https://isnblog.ethz.ch/defense/permanent-structured-cooperation-an-institutional-pathway-for-european-defence
  15. ^ SCADPlus: European Security and Defence College (ESDC) Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Retrieved on 4 March 2008
  16. ^ (en) Sylvain Paile, Europe for the Future Officers, Officers for the Future Europe – Compendium of the European Military Officers Basic Education, Department of Science and Military Education – Ministry of Defence of Poland, 2011, 226 p., DWS SG WP. Zam. 1168. 2011
  17. ^ France-Diplomatie: The main bodies specific to the CFSP: The Political and Security Committee, accessed on 21 April 2008
  18. ^ http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-13-593_en.htm?locale=en
  19. ^ The Council of the European Union: ESDP Structures, accessed on 21 April 2008
  20. ^ Preparatory document related to CESDP: Establishment of a European Union committee for civilian crisis management (Press Release: Brussels 10/3/2000)
  21. ^ http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/council-eu/preparatory-bodies/politico-military-group/
  22. ^ Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) - Factsheet, European External Action Service
  23. ^ http://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/32079/pesco-overview-of-first-collaborative-of-projects-for-press.pdf
  24. ^ NATO, Berlin Plus agreement, 21 June 2006."Archived copy". Archived from the original on 17 August 2007. Retrieved 19 August 2007.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  25. ^ Heritage Foundation report, 4 October 2004 : "Through the CJTF mechanism, NATO member states do not have to actively participate actively in a specific mission if they do not feel their vital interests are involved, but their opting out [...] would not stop other NATO members from participating in an intervention if they so desired." [1]
  26. ^ Stratégie globale de l'Union européenne, p. 1
  27. ^ Conclusions du Conseil du 14 novembre 2016
  28. ^ You want know more about the mission and receive news ? Bruxelles2.eu and Le Club
  29. ^ Christopher S. Chivvis, "Birthing Athena. The Uncertain Future of ESDP" Archived 2008-06-27 at the Wayback Machine, Focus stratégique, Paris, Ifri, March 2008.
  30. ^ "EUFOR Tchad/RCA" consilium.europa.eu
  31. ^ Benjamin Pohl (2013) The logic underpinning EU crisis management operations Archived 2014-12-14 at the Wayback Machine, European Security, 22(3): 307–325, DOI:10.1080/09662839.2012.726220, p. 311.
  32. ^ http://www.ifp-ew.eu/resources/EU_Concept_for_ESDP_support_to_Security_Sector_Reform.pdf
  33. ^ Filip Ejdus, ‘Here is your mission, now own it!’ the rhetoric and practice of local ownership in EU interventions’, European Security, published online 6 June 2017 http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09662839.2017.1333495
  34. ^ European Defence Agency: DEFENCE DATA 2006-2016
  35. ^ http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/Battlegroups.pdf
  36. ^ a b New force behind EU foreign policy BBC News – 15 March 2007
  37. ^ Charlemagne: Europe in a foreign field
  38. ^ Value of EU 'Battlegroup' plan stressed by Annan forumoneurope.ie 15 October 2004
  39. ^ "European Commission - PRESS RELEASES - Press release - EU launches new European Medical Corps to respond faster to emergencies". europa.eu. Retrieved 13 May 2016.
  40. ^ Moon, Suerie; et al. (28 November 2015). "Will Ebola change the game? Ten essential reforms before the next pandemic. The report of the Harvard-LSHTM Independent Panel on the Global Response to Ebola" (PDF). The Lancet. 386 (10009): 2204–2221. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00946-0. PMC 7137174. PMID 26615326. Retrieved 13 May 2016.
  41. ^ "European Emergency Response Capacity - Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection - European Commission". Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection. Retrieved 13 May 2016.
  42. ^ "European Medical Corps part of the European Emergency Response Capacity" (PDF). Retrieved 13 May 2016.
  43. ^ "Emergency Response Coordination Centre (ERCC) - Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection - European Commission". Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection. Retrieved 13 May 2016.
  44. ^ "EU sends new medical corps team to Angola yellow fever outbreak". EurActiv.com. Retrieved 13 May 2016.
  45. ^ https://ec.europa.eu/epsc/publications/strategic-notes/defence-europe_en
  46. ^ http://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/32079/pesco-overview-of-first-collaborative-of-projects-for-press.pdf
  47. ^ Project outlines
  48. ^ European Defence: What’s in the CARDs for PESCO?
  49. ^ Barigazzi, Jacopo (10 December 2017). "EU unveils military pact projects". Politico. Retrieved 29 December 2017.
  50. ^ "Eurocorps' official website / History". Retrieved 23 February 2008.
  51. ^ Eindhoven regelt internationale militaire luchtvaart (in Dutch)
  52. ^ "Claude-France Arnould Visits EATC Headquarters". Eda.europa.eu. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
  53. ^ EUROMARFOR – At Sea for Peace pamphlet[permanent dead link]. Retrieved 11 March 2012.
  54. ^ Biscop, Sven (2003). Euro-Mediterranean security: a search for partnership. Ashgate Publishing. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-7546-3487-4.
  55. ^ EUROMARFOR Retrospective – Portuguese Command[permanent dead link], page 12. Retrieved 11 March 2012.
  56. ^ http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-17-1508_en.htm
  57. ^ Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) – Factsheet, European External Action Service
  58. ^ Finabel information folder: "Finabel: Contributing to European Army Interoperability since 1953" Archived 20 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine

Further reading

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