This is a list of obsolete occupations. To be included in this list an occupation must be completely, or to a great extent, obsolete. For example, there are still a few lamplighters retained for ceremonial or tourist purposes, but in the main the occupation is now obsolete. Similarly, there are still some manual switchboard operators and elevator operators which are required for historic equipment or security reasons, but these are now considered to be obsolete occupations. Occupations which appear to be obsolete in industrialized countries may still be carried out commercially in other parts of the world, for example charcoal burner.
To be included in this list an obsolete occupation should in the past have employed significant numbers of workers (hundreds or thousands as evidenced by, for example, census data).[1][2] Some rare occupations are included in this list, but only if they have notable practitioners, for example alchemist or phrenologist.
Terms which describe groups of people carrying out a variety of roles, but which are not specific occupations, are excluded from this list even if they are obsolete, for example conquistador or retinue. Terms describing positions which have a modern equivalent, and are thus not obsolete occupations, are excluded from this list, for example a dragoman would now be termed a diplomat; similarly a cunning woman would now be termed a practitioner of folk medicine. Terms describing a state of being rather than an occupation are excluded, for example castrato. Specialist terms for an occupation, even if they are obsolete, are excluded, for example the numerous historic terms for cavalry and courtesan. Foreign language terms for existing occupations are excluded, for example korobeinik or Laukkuryssä which are types of peddler. All types of forced labour, such as slavery and penal labour are excluded from this list as they are not paid occupations.
Only occupations which are notable, well-defined, and adequately documented in secondary sources are included in this list.
Reasons for occupations to become obsolete
edit- Technological/scientific/process efficiency change,[3][4] for example making lime in factories on a large scale rather than by lime-burners on a small scale. Another example is the continuous changes in occupations in the textile industry in the 19th century caused by mechanization.[5]: 247 In recent times, the workplace impact of artificial intelligence has arisen as a concern for widespread job changes and/or decline.[6][7]
- Cultural/fashion change, for example hoop skirt and crinoline manufacturers were significant employers in the 1850s and 1860s but they declined significantly in later years as fashions changed.[8]
- Safety/security change, for example climbing boys became politically unacceptable because of the danger to children involved in the job.[9]
- Social change, e.g. the Workhouse as a way of dealing with the poor, or the elimination of much child labour so that they could attend school.[10]
- Debunked as pseudoscience, for example phrenologists[11]: 266 [12]: 137
- Environmental change: over-farming, over-exploitation and deforestation. For example, the trading of ivory has become heavily restricted over recent decades, especially in the Western world, following the international CITES agreement and local legislation, which has put ivory carvers out of work.[13]
- Legal/regulatory change, for example the Victorian-era law that made available more cadavers to medical schools, thus signalling the death-knell to body snatchers;[14] or the passing of the 18th (1919) and 21st (1933) amendments to the US constitution leading to the rise and fall of the bootlegger trade.[15]
List of obsolete occupations
editThe table lists information about obsolete occupations
- Occupation: name of the occupation
- Group: occupational group from the 1900 US Census[16]
- Agric. - Agricultural pursuits
- Manuf. - Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits
- Pers. - Domestic and personal service
- Profes. - Professional service
- Trade - Trade and transportation
- Description: description of the occupation
- Reason: reason for occupation becoming obsolete
- Start: century that the occupation started, for example -3 indicates 3rd century BC and -99 indicates prehistoric
- End: century that the occupation ended, for example 15 indicates 15th century AD
- Image: image of the occupation
Key: Common occupation Rare occupation
Occupation | Group | Description | Reason | Start | End | Image |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alchemist | Profes. | Alchemists attempted to create and purify certain materials. Common aims were the transmutation of "base metals" (e.g., lead) into "noble metals" (particularly gold); the creation of an elixir of immortality; and the creation of panaceas able to cure any disease. | The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for "ancient wisdom". Alchemy was pushed aside by chemistry by the middle of the 18th century.[17] | 3[18]: 10 | 20 | |
Alewife | Trade | An alewife, also brewess[19]: 21, 87 or brewster,[20] was a woman who brewed, and often also sold, ale as a trade. The word alewife is first recorded in England in c. 1400[21]. Women have been active in brewing since ancient times. | In medieval times men entered the brewing trade previously dominated by women. Unlike women, men had the legal, capital, social, and cultural resources to command a quickly commercializing industry.[20]: 75 | -70 | 17 | |
Alnager | Profes. | An alnager was an official responsible for the inspection of the shape and quality of manufactured woolen cloth. Their duty was to measure each piece of cloth, and to affix a stamp to show that it was of the necessary size and quality.[22] | Some alnagers collected their fees without carrying out their inspections, and some accepted bribes to pass inferior cloth. The alnage system was eventually abolished for being corrupt and ineffective.[23] | 12 | 18 | |
Armourer (chain mail) | Manuf. | Armourers constructed chain mail by riveting together iron or steel rings. Chain mail was more flexible and less tailored to an individual than the later plate armour. | For the wealthy, plate armour was preferred to chain mail as it provided better protection, however chain mail continued to be used by other soldiers until modern firemans rendered it ineffective in preventing serious injury.[24] | -3 | 17 | |
Armourer (plate armour) | Manuf. | Armourers constructed a suit of armour by fitting armour to the individual wearer like a tailor. A full suit of high quality fitted armour was very expensive and restricted their clientele exclusively to the wealthy. | The development of powerful firearms made all but the finest and heaviest plate armour obsolete.[25] | 14 | 17 | |
Between maid | Pers. | A between maid (or 'tweeny') combined the duties of a housemaid with those of a kitchen maid. She was the most junior member of staff and did all of the least desirable jobs. [26]: 22, 72, 197 [27]: 38 | The between maid was paid the least of all the domestic staff.[26]: 151 The reduction in domestic staffs and the availability of better paid and more desirable employment ended the occupation. | 14 | 20 | |
Body snatcher | Trade | Body snatchers, also known as resurrectionists, illicitly removed corpses from burial sites for subsequent sale to, for example, anatomy schools.[28][29]: 144–146 | Legal changes, and embalming, which was in regular use by the 1880s and which enabled medical schools to keep bodies for months, led to the demise of body snatching.[30] | 14 | 19 | |
Buckle-maker | Manuf. | Buckle-makers made metal buckles for shoes and other uses. | Separate buckles remained fashionable until they were abandoned in the years after the French Revolution.[8]: 322 [31] | 17 | 19 | |
Cavalryman | Profes. | A cavalryman was a soldier who fought mounted on horseback. Until the 20th century, cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms. | The first engagements of World War I showed that cavalry were ineffective against modern infantry and artillery. During the 20th century all cavalry, apart from ceremonial units, were phased out or mechanized.[32]: 250 | -15 | 20 | |
Coach-maker | Manuf. | A coach-maker was a person who constructed horse-drawn passenger-carrying vehicles.[33] Typically the wheels for the coach or carriage were made separately by a wheelright. | When horse-drawn coaches were superseded by motor cars and coaches, the number of coach-makers greatly reduced, and their number shrank to very small numbers when handmade motor coachwork gave way to mass-produced vehicles.[34] | 14 | 20 | |
Coachman | Trade | A coachman was an employee who drove a coach or carriage, a horse-drawn vehicle designed for the conveyance of passengers. A coachman could be assisted by a footman or a postilion. | In the 20th century cars and buses replaced horse-drawn coaches making the occupation of coachman obsolete except for ceremonial and tourist purposes.[35]: 173 | 14 | 20 | |
Computer | Trade | A (human) computer performed calculations for mathematical tables, in astronomy, in weather forecasting and other fields.[36] Some computers transitioned to being programmers.[37] | As calculators, and later (machine) computers, became more prevalent (human) computers were replaced as being slower, more expensive, and more prone to error. | 17 | 20 | |
Cooper | Manuf. | A cooper was a craftsman who produced wooden casks, barrels, and other similar containers from timber staves.[38][39] | The demand for wooden barrels for beer fell after the 1940s, as they were replaced by metal drums and glass bottles. This led to a large decline in the need for coopers.[39]: 175–177 | -26 | 20 | |
Cork-cutter | Manuf. | A cork-cutter cut bottle corks (and other items such as flotation devices) from sheets of cork.[40]: 83 | In the middle of the 19th century mechanization of the cork cutting process rendered individual cork cutting uneconomic.[41] | 17 | 19[42] | |
Dog whipper | Profes. | A dog whipper was a church official who removed unruly dogs from church grounds during services. They were most prominent in areas of England and continental Europe.[43][29]: 123–125 | As bringing dogs to religious services became less acceptable, and with the later advent of animal shelters, the occupation of dog whipper became obsolete.[44]: 12 | 16 | 19 | |
Drummer (military) | Profes. | A drummer was responsible for the military drums used on the battlefield. Drums, often accompanied by fifers, were used for the men to march in step, and were also used to signal different commands from officers to troops.[45]: 19 | In 1914 drums were still in use by the Austro-Hungarian army. The unsuitability of drums for modern warfare was quickly realised and in September 1914 the drums were withdrawn, and the drummers transferred to other duties.[46] | 13[Note 1] | 20 | |
Drysalter | Trade | A drysalter was a dealer in chemical products that were used in other local occupations, especially the dyeing of cloth.[47][48] They might also have sold pickles, dried meat or related items.[49] | As local manufacturing businesses consolidated into larger regional factories[50]: 83 , the need for local supply by drysalters declined, leading to the occupation becoming obsolete. | 18 | 20 | |
Elevator operator | Trade | An elevator operator ran a manually operated elevator. Elevator operators still work in some historic or specialist installations and fill modern niches, such as in luxury hotels and Japanese department stores.[51] | The introduction of automated elevators combined with operator strikes led to the almost complete elimination of elevator operators.[52] | 19 | 20 | |
Elocutionist | Profes. | An elocutionist was a speaker, entertainer, and teacher of elocution. The elocutionist's performances featured the reading of passages from literature with appropriate gestures. | Elocutionists started to fall into disrepute at the end of the 19th century. Elocution declined because of changing public tastes, a new academic approach to speech, and doubtful practices of less skillful readers and "entertainers".[53]: 491 | 18 | 20 | |
Escheator | Profes. | The escheator was the official responsible for enforcing the rights of the Crown as feudal lord. The escheator would claim and administer real property if a person died intestate or committed a felony.[54][55]: 21–25 | The escheator's inquisition process was vulnerable to malpractice, and they were suspected of sometimes defrauding the Crown by returning inaccurate valuations or revenues.[56] The Tenures Abolition Act 1660 ended feudal land tenure. | 12 | 17 | |
Expressman | Trade | An expressman was the person with the duty of packing, managing, and ensuring the delivery of any valuable cargo. An expressman travelled on horseback, by stagecoach, and later by train.[57] | Government postal workers, and eventually parcel workers, took over the management of mail and packages on trains in the early 20th century replacing expressmen. | 19 | 20 | |
Fifer | Profes. | A fifer was a non-combatant foot soldier who originally played the fife during combat. The fifer sounded signals and also kept time during marches with the drummers. Fifers were often boys too young to fight.[58] | The concept of unarmed children on the battlefield became unacceptable in the 19th century, leading to the occupation of fifer becoming obsolete. | 18 | 19 | |
Footman | Pers. | A footman was a male domestic worker employed to wait at table and to ride on, or run beside, his employer's coach or carriage to provide security and assistance with baggage. A footman could perform other duties, such as being a guest's valet, as directed by the butler.[59] | Footmen were something of a luxury as they performed a less essential role than the cook, maid or butler. Once a common position in great houses, the footman became much rarer after World War I as fewer households could afford a large staff. The role of footman is now largely a historic one. | 14 | 20[60] | |
Garden hermit | Pers. | A garden hermit was an employee dwelling alone in a small building on the estate of a landowner. The hermit would be contracted to remain on site for a long period, and would be cared for, consulted for advice, or viewed for entertainment.[61] | Keeping a garden hermit had practical problems for both the employer and the employee, and went out fashion in the middle of the 19th century. [29]: 146–149 | 18 | 19 | |
Gladiator | Profes. | A gladiator was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. | Gladiatorial games were gradually phased out because of their high cost, and because they were disapproved of by Christians like Augustine of Hippo.[62] | -3 | 5 | |
Hall boy | Pers. | The hall boy was the most junior male member of staff and was assigned the dirtiest and heaviest jobs. He usually slept in the servants' hall.[27]: 41 [63] His female equivalents were the between maid and the scullery maid. | Long hours, poor pay and conditions,[64] and better employment opportunities outside domestic service combined to eliminate this occupation. | 14 | 20 | |
Ice cutter | Trade | An ice cutter collected surface ice from lakes and rivers during the Winter for storage in an ice house. The ice was later delivered to customers by an iceman. | The era of widespread mechanical refrigeration and air conditioning technology largely put an end to the ice trade.[65] | 17 | 20 | |
Iceman | Trade | An iceman sold or delivered ice from a wagon, cart, or motor-truck. In the Winter many icemen were employed as ice cutters. | The introduction of the refrigerator allowed customers to make and store their own ice, so that delivery by an iceman was no longer economic.[65] | 17 | 20 | |
Illuminator of manuscripts | Profes. | An illuminator of manuscripts, sometimes called a limner, created copies of books and manuscripts by lettering and illuminating the text. In the early period the illuminator normally mixed their own pigments.[66][67] | With the invention of the printing press, copies of books could be produced more quickly and less expensively than those produced by the scribe and illuminator. This technological change led to the occupation becoming obsolete.[68][69]: 256 | -19[68]: 20 | 16 | |
Ivory carver | Manuf. | Ivory carvers carved animal teeth or tusks, generally by using sharp cutting tools, to produce decorative objects. | As ivory-producing species have become endangered through hunting, legislation has reduced the availability of ivory and hence the demand for ivory carvers.[13] | -99 | 20 | |
Keypunch operator | Trade | Keypunch operators keyed data or programs onto physical media, for example punched cards, so that it could be read by machines, for example computers. | Keypunch operators were made obsolete by data entry systems which allowed data and program originators to enter it directly instead of writing it on forms to be entered by keypunch operators.[70] | 19 | 20 | |
Kitchen maid | Pers. | The kitchen maid assisted the cook with the preparation of meals and was responsible for numerous cleaning tasks.[26]: 225 [27]: 36 In houses with large domestic staffs she was assisted by the scullery maid. | Attitudes to domestic work changed in the late 19th century as other employment opportunities arose.[26]: 171 As domestic staffs shrank the cook would often be retained at the expense of the kitchen maid. | 14 | 20 | |
Knocker-up | Pers. | A knocker-up's job was to rouse sleeping people so they could get to work on time. A knocker-up was often employed to wake up workers on shifts, particularly in factory areas, but was also sometimes self-employed.[40]: 164 | As alarm clocks became less expensive and more reliable, there was no longer a need to pay a knocker-up.[71][72] | 18 | 20 | |
Lady's companion | Pers. | A lady's companion was a woman of genteel birth who lived with a woman of rank or wealth. A lady's companion usually took up the occupation in order to earn a living[73] and have somewhere to live.[74] | The occupation of lady's companion became obsolete because upper-class women no longer primarily stayed in the home, and also because of the many other employment opportunities open to modern women. | 18 | 20 | |
Lamplighter | Pers. | Lamplighters toured public streets at dusk, lighting outdoor fixtures by means of a wick on a long pole. At dawn, the lamplighter would return to put them out using a small hook on the same pole. | Electric street lighting, which does not require lamplighters, replaced candles and oil and gas lamps. Additionally, gas lighting is more expensive than electric lighting.[75][76] | 16 | 20 | |
Leech collector | Trade | A leech collector was a person occupied with procuring medicinal leeches. Leach collecting was an unpleasant and poorly paid occupation. Leeches were in demand by medical practitioners for bloodletting.[77][29]: 54–56 | Leeches were promoted by François Broussais and other physicians. After Broussais died in 1838 the enthusiasm for leeches rapidly faded away, leading to a drop in the demand for leeches,[78]: 120 [79]: 10 and the employment of collectors. | 18 | 20 | |
Legger | Pers. | A legger used his legs to move a boat through a canal tunnel or adit without a towpath. The occupation was arduous and sometimes dangerous.[80][81] | Originally canal boats were horse-drawn. After boats were fitted with motors there was no longer any requirement for legging through tunnels. | 18 | 19 | |
Limeburner | Manuf. | Limeburners loaded, fired, cooled and unloaded a lime kiln in a one-week cycle. The work was physically strenuous and somewhat dangerous as the end-product (lime or CaO) is caustic. Lime was used as a building material. | Local small-scale kilns became increasingly unprofitable, and they gradually died out through the 19th century. They were replaced by larger industrial plants with more efficient kilns.[82] | -7 | 20 | |
Link-boy | Pers. | A link-boy was a boy who carried a flaming torch to light the way for pedestrians at night. Linkboys were common in London in the days before street lighting. | The introduction of gas lighting in the 19th century rendered the occupation of link-boy obsolete.[83] | 15 | 19 | |
Matchgirl | Trade | A matchgirl was a street vendor of matches. As matches were an inexpensive product, with little profit margin, they were often sold by children. | In common with other child labour occupations, laws progressively banned work by children and redirected them into compulsory education.[84] | 17 | 20 | |
Match maker | Manuf. | A match maker (not to be confused with matchmaking) was a worker in match manufacturing. The occupation was badly paid and also unsafe because of exposure to white phosphorous leading to phosphorus necrosis of the jaw.[29]: 180–182 [85] | Initially matches and matchboxes[40]: 182 were produced locally on a small scale. The industry progressively became industrialized, and following a match workers' strike and greater automation, there was a decline in employment of match makers.[86] | 5 | 20 | |
Mudlark | Trade | A mudlark is someone who scavenges the banks of rivers for items of value. The occupation was adopted by people, often children, in poverty and with a lack of skills. Work conditions were filthy and uncomfortable.[87][88] | Although in 1904 a person could still claim "mudlark" as an occupation, by then it seems to have been no longer viewed as an acceptable or lawful pursuit.[89] Mudlarking today is more of a hobby than an occupation. | 18 | 20 | |
Mule scavenger | Manuf. | Scavengers were employed in cotton mills to clean and recoup the area underneath a spinning mule. The cotton wastage was seen as too valuable for the owners to leave and so they employed young children to work under the machinery.[90]: 99 [29]: 164–167 | The Sadler report brought to light the poor working conditions in factories for children, including mule scavengers.[91] The occupation was recognised as being dangerous for child workers and became obsolete. | 18 | 20 | |
Mute | Pers. | A mute stood at funerals with a sad, pathetic face. A symbolic protector of the deceased, the mute would wear sombre clothing including a black cloak, a top hat with trailing hatbands, and gloves. | Child mutes were present at some Victorian funerals, as described in Dickens's Oliver Twist and Martin Chuzzlewit, but have since fallen out of fashion.[92]. Other types of professional mourners are still employed in some Asian countries. | 17 | 20 | |
Ninja | Profes. | A ninja was an infiltration agent, mercenary, or guerrilla warfare fighter, and later bodyguard in feudal Japan. A ninja's activities included espionage, reconnaissance, ambush, and agitprop.[93]: 5, 9 [94] | Following the Tokugawa shogunate in the 17th century, the ninja faded into practical obscurity.[95][93]: 55 | 12 | 18 | |
Oakum picker | Manuf. | Oakum, a preparation of hemp or jute used to seal gaps, was recycled from old tarry ropes, which were unravelled and reduced to fibre. This was a common occupation in prisons and workhouses, where inmates who could not do heavy labour were put to work picking oakum. | The Poor Relief Act 1601 had provided for a "convenient stock of Flax, Hemp ... to set the poor on work". The activity became uneconomic as free workhouse labour was phased out and the cost of paid labour exceeded the value of the recycled material.[96][97] | 16 | 19 | |
Phrenologist | Profes. | A phrenologist purported to measure bumps on the skull to predict mental traits. This was a rare occupation: for example, there were only 27 phrenologists in England and Wales listed in the 1861 United Kingdom census.[98] | Phrenology has now been debunked as pseudoscience. The central phrenological notion that measuring the contour of the skull can predict personality traits has been discredited by empirical research.[11]: 266 [12][99] | 18 | 20 | |
Pin boy | Trade. | Pin boys were boys or young men hired at bowling alleys to manually reset pins and return balls to the player. | Replacing pin boys with automatic pinsetting machinery allowed bowling alleys to operate 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.[100] | 19 | 20 | |
Plague doctor | Profes. | A plague doctor was a physician who treated victims of bubonic plague during epidemics. They were hired by cities to treat infected patients, especially the poor.[101] | As the occupation was unpleasant and dangerous, the physicians appointed as plague doctors tended to be inexperienced and second-rate.[102][103] As the plague receded the need for plague doctors fell. | 14 | 17 | |
Postilion | Pers. | A postilion was a person who guided a horse-drawn coach (or other wheeled vehicle such as a gun carriage) while mounted on a horse.[104] By contrast, a coachman controls the horses from the vehicle itself. | As horse-drawn vehicles were replaced by motorized vehicles in the first half of the 20th century the need for postilions was eliminated. A few postilions are still used at occasions of ceremonial importance such as state funerals. | 14 | 20 | |
Poundmaster | Agric. | A poundmaster (or pinder)[40]: 216, 226 was a local government official responsible for the care of stray livestock. This was a common occupation in colonial America.[105] | Since the need to deal with stray livestock today is now rare, the function has evolved into the modern dog-catcher or animal control officer. Stray pets are sent to animal shelters. | 18 | 19 | |
Powder monkey | Profes. | A powder monkey manned naval guns as a member of a warship's crew, primarily during the Age of Sail. His chief role was to ferry gunpowder from the powder magazine in the ship's hold to the artillery pieces.[106][107][29]: 163–164 | Developments in naval gunnery, and the phasing out of child labour during the 19th century, eliminated the position of powder boy.[108] | 17 | 19 | |
Priest hunter | Profes. | desc | reason | 16 | 19 | |
Printer's devil | Manuf. | desc | reason | 17 | 19 | |
Privateer | Profes. | desc | reason | 16 | 19 | |
Punkah wallah | Pers. | desc | reason | 18 | 20 | |
Reeve | Profes. | desc | reason | 7 | 15 | |
Resident minister | Profes. | desc | reason | 18 | 20 | |
Resin worker | Manuf. | desc | reason | 16 | 20 | |
Riding officer | Profes. | A riding officer patrolled the coast to suppress smuggling. The occupation was uncomfortable, poorly-paid, dangerous, and unpopular with the local people who often supported the smugglers.[29]: 134–7 | Riding officers proved to be ineffective at suppressing smuggling. With the reduction in import taxes smuggling declined, and riding officers were phased out in the early 19th century. | 17 | 19 | |
Samurai | Profes. | desc | reason | 12 | 19 | |
Sawyer | Manuf. | A sawyer sawed wood using a pitsaw, either in a saw pit, or with a log on trestles above ground. | The sawyer cut lumber to length for the building market (now done more efficiently in a sawmill), and for the consumer market (now often done in a home improvement store).[109]: 60 | 18 | 20 | |
Scribe | Profes. | desc | reason | -3 | 20 | |
Scullery maid | Pers. | The scullery maid was the lowest in the hierarchy of female servants. She was assigned tasks by the cook and the kitchen maid.[27]: 39 | Scullery maids worked long hours and were poorly paid. Other more favourable employment opportunities caused them to leave the occupation.[26]: 188 | 14 | 20 | |
Seneschal | Profes. | desc | reason | 12 | 19 | |
Slave catcher | Profes. | desc | reason | 16 | 19 | |
Soda jerk | Pers. | desc | reason | 20 | 20 | |
Still room maid | Pers. | The still room maid was a middle-ranking female servant who worked in the still room making foodstuffs, candles, and home remedies. She also prepared and served afternoon tea.[27]: 42 | Still room maids were only employed in houses with large staffs. As specialists, they were amongst the first to go as employers downsized to the essentials of butler, housekeeper and cook. | 14 | 20 | |
Stocking weaver | Manuf. | A stocking weaver made stockings using silk, wool, linen or cotton and was paid on the basis of piece work. | Stockings made inexpensively in factories from artificial fabrics (rayon in the 1920s, then nylon in the 1940s) have eliminated the occupation of stocking weaver.[109]: 68 [110] | 16 | 20 | |
Sutler | Trade | Vivandière Camp follower | reason | 17 | 19 | |
Switchboard operator | Trade | A switchboard operator connected calls by inserting a pair of phone plugs into the appropriate jacks on a manual telephone switchboard. | Switchboard operators were gradually phased out and replaced by automated systems, first those allowing direct dialing within a local area, then for long-distance and international direct dialing.[111][112] | 19 | 20 | |
Tallow chandler | Manuf. | A tallow chandler made and sold tallow candles, which were a less expensive, but lower quality, alternative to wax candles. | Tallow candles were replaced first by wax candles and then by electric lighting.[109]: 74 [113][114] | 13 | 20 | |
Telegraph operator | Trade | A telegraph operator used telegraphy to send and receive messages over long distances. A variety of methods have been employed, such as optical, electrical, wireless (or radio), and reflected sunlight. | Competition from the telephone, which had a speed advantage, drove the telegraph into decline from 1920 onwards. The few remaining telegraph applications were largely taken over by alternatives on the internet towards the end of the 20th century.[115][116] | 18 | 20 | |
Thief-taker | Pers. | desc | reason | 17 | 19 | |
Tondenhei | Pers. | desc | reason | 19 | 20 | |
Tosher | Pers. | desc | reason | 19 | 20 | |
Town crier | Pers. | desc | reason | -8 | 20 | |
Water carrier | Pers. | desc | reason | 16 | 20 | |
Wheelwright | Manuf. | A wheelwright was an artisan who built or repaired spoked wooden wheels.[33] Wheelwrights established associations to control the trade, for example the Worshipful Company of Wheelwrights.[117] | In the United Kingdom census there were over 26,000 wheelwrights in 1841,[118] and over 30,000 in 1871.[119] By the late 20th century, wheelwright employment had faded away due to a lack of demand for wooden wheels.[120] | -20[Note 2] | 20 | |
Wire-drawer | Manuf. | A wire-drawer produced metal wires used in further manufacturing processes. The wire-drawer reduced the cross-section of a wire by pulling it through one or more dies. | Increasing demand for wire and the development of rolling mills using greater force and higher temperatures made the production of wire by individual wire-drawers uneconomic.[121][122] | 9[123] | 20 | |
Wool comber | Manuf. | A wool comber cleaned and prepared wool into a state ready for it to be spun into worsted. The wool comber used heated metal combs to comb the wool. | The invention of the wool combing machine in the late 18th century and its progressive use in factories rendered manual wool combing inefficient.[109]: 90 [124] | -99 | 19 |
See also
editNotes
edit- ^ In early medieval Europe (5th to 10th century), the Byzantine Empire made use of military drums to indicate marching and rowing cadence. Pryor, John H.; Jeffries, Elizabeth M. (2006). The Age of the ΔΡΟΜΩΝ: The Byzantine Navy ca 500-1204. Brill. ISBN 978-904740993-9.
- ^ Refers to wheels with spokes rather than earlier solid wooden wheels
References
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- ^ "Comparative Occupation Statistics 1870–1930" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. 1930. Retrieved 2024-09-25.
- ^ Autor, David H. (2015-08-01). "Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? The History and Future of Workplace Automation". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 29 (3): 3–30. doi:10.1257/jep.29.3.3.
- ^ Bix, Amy Sue (2000). Inventing Ourselves Out of Jobs? Americas Debate over Technological Unemployment, 1929- 1981. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6244-2.
- ^ Thompson, E.P. (1963). The Making of the English Working Class. London: Gollancz. Retrieved 2024-09-10.
- ^ Howard, John (2019-11-01). "Artificial intelligence: Implications for the future of work". American Journal of Industrial Medicine. 62 (11): 917–926. doi:10.1002/ajim.23037. ISSN 0271-3586. PMID 31436850. S2CID 201275028.
- ^ "Impact of AI on Jobs: Jobocalypse on the Horizon?". 14 July 2023.
- ^ a b Tortora, Phyllis G.; Marcketti, Sara B. (2015). Survey of Historic Costume (6th ed.). Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-62892-167-0.
- ^ Phillips, George Lewis (1949). Climbing Boys: A Study of Sweeps' Apprentices 1772–1875. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. Retrieved 2024-09-10.
- ^ Longmate, Norman (1974). The Workhouse. London: Temple Smith. ISBN 978-0-7126-0637-0. Retrieved 2024-09-11.
- ^ a b Williams, William F., ed. (2000). Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience. New York: Facts on File, Inc. ISBN 0-8160-3351-X.
- ^ a b Hines, Terence (2002). Pseudoscience and the Paranormal: a critical examination of the evidence. New York: Prometheus Books. Retrieved 2024-09-10.
- ^ a b Lemieux, A. M.; Clarke, R. V. (2009). "The International Ban on Ivory Sales and its Effects on Elephant Poaching in Africa". British Journal of Criminology. 49 (4): 451. doi:10.1093/bjc/azp030.
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The end of the first world conflict sounded the final trumpet call for the British cavalry in war. The advent of the tank and fast motor vehicles made mechanisation inevitable and by the outbreak of World War 2 most of the cavalry regiments of the major powers were mounted on the war horse of the 20th century: the armoured car and the battle tank.
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The use of machinery for this industry, introduced in this country in 1853, has proved a great saving of hand labor.
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Many a drysalter is a man, of substance, and sometimes he is a millionnaire, his wealth being acquired from dealing in saline substances, drugs, dry-stuffs, and even pickles and sauces.
- ^ Roser, Christoph. "Faster, Better, Cheaper" in the History of Manufacturing: From the Stone Age to Lean Manufacturing and Beyond. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4987-5630-3.
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Given their major role in the crown's handling of the lands of its most important subjects, it is hardly surprising that escheators, like other royal officials in the localities, should have come in for serious criticism and accusations of corruption.
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Except at public functions, the last time I saw a footman in livery was in 1921.
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The printers could produce books more accurately and more cheaply for about one fifth to one tenth of the price of a manuscript. In the event, accuracy and price were more important than script and illumination, and we have been printing books ever since.
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For the unfortunate minority who did not marry and who had no male relative to support them, there was always recourse to the acceptably genteel and domestic positions of governess or lady's companion.
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- ^ "Leech collectors". Science Museum. Retrieved 2024-10-02.
In early modern Europe, leeches were in high demand for their medicinal uses in bloodletting, a demand which only increased during a 'leech craze' in the first half of the 1800s. To meet this demand there was a whole profession devoted to the collection of leeches. Collectors, mostly women, waded into ponds populated by leeches, and attracted the worms with their bare legs. Some used animals instead, for example horses that were too old for hard physical labour. While this work was not physically demanding, leech collectors suffered from the loss of blood and frequently from infections they caught from the leeches.
- ^ Duke, Martin (1991). The Development of Medical Techniques and Treatments: From Leeches to Heart Surgery. International Universities Press. ISBN 0-8236-1232-5. Retrieved 2024-10-02.
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- ^ Carran, D.; Hughes, J.; Leslie, A.; Kennedy, C. (2012). "A Short History of the Use of Lime as a Building Material Beyond Europe and North America". International Journal of Architectural Heritage. 6 (2): 117–146. doi:10.1080/15583058.2010.511694. S2CID 111165006.
- ^ "Old links with London's link boys". New York Times. March 8, 1964. p. 18. Retrieved 2024-09-17.
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- Crass, M.F. Jr. (1941). "A History of the Match Industry". Journal of Chemical Education
- "Part I - Chemical fire making prior to the invention of the friction match". 18 (3): 116-120. doi:10.1021/ed018p116
- "Part III - Phosphorus matches". 18 (6): 277-282. doi:10.1021/ed018p277
- "Part V - Safety on strike-on-box matches". 18 (7): 316-319. doi:10.1021/ed018p316
- "Part VIII - Early manufacturing procedure". 18 (8): 380-384. doi:10.1021/ed018p380
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- ^ Mayhew, Henry (1985) [1861]. "Of the mud-larks". In Neuberg, Victor (ed.). London labour and the London poor. Penguin Classics. pp. 209–218. ISBN 978-0-14043-241-1.
- ^ "Explore the History: Find Out About the Rich History of Mudlarking". Thames Festival Trust. Retrieved 2024-10-04.
- ^ "The Police Courts". The Times. No. 37339. 11 March 1904. p. 11, col F.
A 21-year-old man, Robert Harold, "describing himself as a mudlark", was convicted and sentenced to one month in prison for unlawful possession of a length of chain he had dug out from the Thames foreshore, despite the police being unable to cite any owner for the chain.
- ^ Clarke, Allen (1985) [1899]. The effects of the factory system. ISBN 0 946571 05 8. Retrieved 2024-10-05.
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9961. Will you explain the nature of the work that a scavenger has to do? - The scavenger has to take the brush and sweep under the wheels, and to be under the direction of the spinners and piecers generally. 9962. Is it an employment that requires constant activity and vigilance? - It is. 9963. Does it expose to more than ordinary danger the child that is so engaged? - Particularly so.
- ^ Puckle, Bertram S. (1926). Funeral Customs: Their Origin and Development. London: T. W. Laurie, Ltd. Retrieved 2024-09-11.
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- ^ public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Oakum". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 935. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the
- ^ "Poor Law 1601". Socialist Health Association. Retrieved 2024-09-11.
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- ^ Parker Jones, O.; Alfaro-Almagro, F.; Jbabdi, S. (2018). "An empirical, 21st century evaluation of phrenology". Cortex. 106: 26–35. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2018.04.011. PMC 6143440. PMID 29864593.
- ^ Weiskopf, Herm (1978). The perfect game: the world of bowling. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. p. 72. ISBN 9780136570158. Retrieved 2024-10-05.
In the December 12, 1955, issue of Sports Illustrated, Victor Kalman described the immediate impact of the automatic pinsetter. "Many alleys [had been] forced to operate part time because [pinboys] were not available," Kalman wrote. "With 'automatics' an establishment [could] operate 24 hours a day, 365 days a year—and many did....
- ^ Cipolla, Carlo M. (1977). "A plague doctor". In Miskimin, Harry A.; Herlihy, David; Udovitch, A.L. (eds.). The Medieval City. pp. 65–72. ISBN 0-300-02081-3. Retrieved 2024-10-05.
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- ^ "Let there be light – The City of London and the Tallow Candle Trade". Retrieved 2024-09-09.
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- ^ "History". Worshipful Company of Wheelwrights. Retrieved 2024-09-21.
- ^ "Census of 1841 – Occupations". Ditto Books. Retrieved 2024-09-21.
- ^ 1871 census, England and Wales; ages, civil condition, occupations and birthplaces. Shannon: Irish University Press. 1970 [1873]. ISBN 9780716511953.
- ^ Bulliet, Richard W. (2016). The Wheel: Inventions & Reinventions. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231173384.
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- ^ Sherwood, Craig (November 20, 2021). "Wire Drawing". Warrington Museum & Art Gallery. Retrieved 2024-09-21.
- ^ Newbury, Brian D.; Notis, Michael R. (February 2004). "The history and evolution of wiredrawing techniques". Journal of Metals. 56 (2): 33–37. doi:10.1007/s11837-004-0142-2.
- ^ Burnley, James (1889). The history of wool and woolcombing. London: S. Low, Marston, Searle and Rivington. Retrieved 2024-09-19.
Further reading
edit- Ministry of Labour (November 2016) [1927]. Christian, Peter (ed.). A Dictionary of Occupational Terms Based on the Classification of Occupations used in the Census of Population, 1921. HMSO. Retrieved 2024-10-01. Also available at "A Dictionary of Occupational Terms Based on the Classification of Occupations used in the Census of Population, 1921". Internet Archive. Retrieved 2024-10-01.
- Van Leeuwen, M.H.D.; Maas, I.; Miles, A. (2002). HISCO - historical international standard classification of occupations. Leuven University Press. ISBN 90 5867 196 8. Retrieved 2024-09-11.
- "Histpop - The Online Historical Population Reports Website". University of Essex. Retrieved 2024-09-22.
- Hewitt, Jane; Hewitt, Paul Jack. "Dictionary of Old Occupations: A-Z Index". Family Researcher. Retrieved 2024-10-01.
Talk page section: Defining an obsolete occupation
The existing Obsolete occupations category has been assembled in a haphazard manner. This list attempts to define obsolete occupations in a consistent manner using a flowchart of yes/no questions to determine inclusions and exclusions. The result is that certain occupations currently in the category are not included in the list. Similarly, some occupations included in the list are not included in the category. In order to maintain consistency, before adding new rows to the table, please use the flowchart to determine if the occupation should be included in the list.