The Declaration of Constitutional Principles (known informally as the Southern Manifesto) was a document written in February and March 1956, during the 84th United States Congress, in opposition to racial integration of public places.[1] The manifesto was signed by 19 US Senators and 82 Representatives from the Southern United States. The signatories included the entire congressional delegations from Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Virginia, most of the members from Florida and North Carolina, and several members from Tennessee and Texas. All of them were from the former Confederate states.[1] 97 were Democrats; 4 were Republicans.
The Manifesto was drafted to support reversing the landmark Supreme Court 1954 ruling Brown v. Board of Education, which determined that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional. School segregation laws were some of the most enduring and best-known of the Jim Crow laws that characterized the South at the time.[2]
"Massive resistance" to federal court orders requiring school integration was already being practiced across the South, and was not caused by the Manifesto. Senator J. William Fulbright of Arkansas had worked behind the scenes to tone down the original harsh draft. The final version did not pledge to nullify the Brown decision, nor did it support extralegal resistance to desegregation. Instead, it was mostly a states' rights attack against the judicial branch for overstepping its role.[3]
The Southern Manifesto accused the Supreme Court of "clear abuse of judicial power" and promised to use "all lawful means to bring about a reversal of this decision which is contrary to the Constitution and to prevent the use of force in its implementation."[4] It suggested that the Tenth Amendment should limit the reach of the Supreme Court on such issues.[5] Senators in the Southern Caucus led the opposition, with Strom Thurmond writing the initial draft and Richard Russell the final version.[6]
Three Democratic Senators from the former Confederate states (all of whom had Presidential ambitions[7]) did not sign:
- Al Gore Sr. and Estes Kefauver of Tennessee
- Senate Majority Leader Lyndon Johnson of Texas
The following Democratic Representatives from the former Confederate states also did not sign:
- 16 of 21 Democrats from Texas, including Speaker of the House Sam Rayburn and future Speaker Jim Wright
- 1 of 7 Democrats from Tennessee
- 3 of 11 Democrats from North Carolina
- 1 of 7 Democrats from Florida (Dante Fascell)
Also, none of the 12 U.S. Senators or 39 U.S. House Representatives from the states of Delaware, Maryland, West Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, and Oklahoma signed the Manifesto despite all requiring segregation in their public school systems prior to the Brown v. Board decision.[8]
There were seven Republican Representatives and three Senators from former Confederate states. Only four signed the Manifesto: Charles Jonas of North Carolina, William Cramer of Florida, Joel Broyhill and Richard Poff of Virginia.[9]
Key quotes
edit- "The unwarranted decision of the Supreme Court in the public school cases is now bearing the fruit always produced when men substitute naked power for established law."
- "The original Constitution does not mention education. Neither does the 14th Amendment nor any other amendment. The debates preceding the submission of the 14th Amendment clearly show that there was no intent that it should affect the system of education maintained by the States."
- "This unwarranted exercise of power by the Court, contrary to the Constitution, is creating chaos and confusion in the States principally affected. It is destroying the amicable relations between the white and Negro races that have been created through 90 years of patient effort by the good people of both races. It has planted hatred and suspicion where there has been heretofore friendship and understanding."[10]
Signatories and non-signatories
editIn many southern States, signing was much more common than not signing, with signatories including the entire delegations from Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Virginia. Those from southern states who refused to sign are noted below.[1]
United States Senate (in state order)
edit| Signatories | Non-signatories |
|---|---|
|
|
United States House of Representatives
editSee also
edit- American Civil Rights Movement
- Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
- Brown v. Board of Education
- 1957 Georgia Memorial to Congress
- Massive resistance
- Racial segregation in the United States
- Solid South
- Southern Democrats
- Conservative Democrat
- 84th United States Congress
References
edit- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y Badger, Tony (June 1999). "Southerners Who Refused to Sign the Southern Manifesto". The Historical Journal. 42 (2): 517–534. doi:10.1017/S0018246X98008346. JSTOR 3020998. S2CID 145083004.
- ^ John Kyle Day, The Southern Manifesto: Massive Resistance and the Fight to Preserve Segregation (Univ. Press of Mississippi, 2014).
- ^ Brent J. Aucoin, "The Southern Manifesto and Southern Opposition to Desegregation". Arkansas Historical Quarterly 55#2 (1996): 173-193.
- ^ James T. Patterson,Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945-1974 (1996), p. 398
- ^ Zornick, George. "Republican race to turn on 'Tentherism?'" CBS News, 20 May 2011.
- ^ "The Southern Manifesto". Time. March 26, 1956. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved August 10, 2007.
- ^ Caro, Robert (2002). "34. Finesses". Master of the Senate: The Years of Lyndon Johnson. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-394-52836-0.
- ^ "Senate – March 12, 1956" (PDF). Congressional Record. 102 (4). U.S. Government Printing Office: 4459–4461. Retrieved April 12, 2023.
- ^ "Southern Congressmen Present Segregation Manifesto". CQ Almanac. 1956. Retrieved January 3, 2024.
- ^ "Southern Manifesto on Integration (March 12, 1956)". Thirteen.org. June 25, 2020. Archived from the original on May 28, 2020. Retrieved June 25, 2020.
Further reading
edit- Aucoin, Brent J. (1996). "The Southern Manifesto and Southern Opposition to Desegregation". The Arkansas Historical Quarterly. 55 (2). Arkansas Historical Association: 173–193. doi:10.2307/40030963. JSTOR 40030963.
- Badger, Tony (1999). "Southerners Who Refused to Sign the Southern Manifesto". The Historical Journal. 42 (2). Cambridge University Press: 517–534. doi:10.1017/S0018246X98008346. JSTOR 3020998. S2CID 145083004.
- Henderson, Cheryl Brown; Brown, Steven M. (2016). "The Southern Manifesto: A Doctrine of Resistance 60 Years Later". Journal of School Choice. 10 (4). Taylor & Francis: 412–419. doi:10.1080/15582159.2016.1238732. S2CID 151491215.
- Day, John Kyle (2015) [2014]. The Southern Manifesto: Massive Resistance and the Fight to Preserve Segregation. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1496804501.
External links
edit- Manifesto text and signers from the Congressional Record
- 102 Congressional Record (Bound) - Volume 102, Part 4 (March 12, 1956), Congressional Record Senate March 12 statement pp. 4459–4461
- Southern Congressmen Present Segregation Manifesto An article from CQ Almanac 1956 which includes the Representatives that signed on after the Manifesto was read into the Congressional Record.