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Meitei culture

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"Manipuri civilization" redirects here. For the overall cultural heritage of Manipur, see Culture of Manipur.
Meetei Mayek
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The culture of Meitei civilization evolved over thousands of years, beginning in Ancient Kangleipak, continuing most notably into Medieval Kangleipak, while influencing the neighboring states and kingdoms, till present times.

Pakhangba Temple, Kangla, in the classical Meitei architecture, affiliated to the traditional Meitei religion (Sanamahism)
Armenian stamp illustrating Manipuri classical dance, the "national dance" of India,[a] the highest spiritual expression of the worship of Hindu deity Krishna,[4] as well as an intangible cultural heritage of Meitei civilization[5]
The crest of Indian missile destroyer, INS Imphal, illustrating the Kangla Sanathong (Meitei for 'Kangla Golden Gate') and the Kanglasha dragon lion, two of the most remarkable cultural heritages of the Meitei civilization

Animals and birds

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Main article: Animals in Meitei civilization
Further information: Meitei horse

Dogs are mentioned as friends or companions of human beings, in many ancient Meitei tales and texts. In many cases, when dogs died, they were given respect by performing elaborate death ceremonies, equal to that of human beings.[6]

Being wise is appreciated in Meitei sociaty, but cunning is treated with suspicion. If a person is very cunning, they may be pejoratively be called foxy.[7] Foxes appear in a number of Meitei folktales, including The Clever Fox (ꯂꯝꯍꯨꯢ ꯂꯧꯁꯤꯡ, Lamhui Loushing),[8] The Fox and the Jackal (ꯂꯝꯍꯨꯢ ꯑꯃꯁꯨꯡ ꯀꯩꯁꯥꯜ, Lamhui amashung Keishal),[9] and The Fox's Trick (ꯂꯝꯍꯨꯢ ꯒꯤ ꯇꯥꯠ, Lamhui gi Tat).[10]

Crows

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Further information: Kwaak Taanba

Goddess of doves and pigeons

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Further information: Khunu Leima
 
Khunu Leima, the Meitei goddess of doves and pigeons

In Meitei mythology and religion, Khunu Leima (Meitei: ꯈꯨꯅꯨ ꯂꯩꯃ, romanized: /khoo-noo lei-ma/), also known as Khunureima (Meitei: ꯈꯨꯅꯨꯔꯩꯃ, romanized: /khoo-noo-rei-ma/), is a goddess associated with pigeons and doves. She is one of the three dearest daughters of the sky god. Along with her two sisters, Nganu Leima and Shapi Leima, she got married the same person, who is a mortal.[11]

Pigeon in the story of Sandrembi and Chaisra

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In the Meitei folktale of Sandrembi and Chaisra, Lady Sandrembi, after being killed by her stepsister and stepmother, transformed herself into a pigeon and flew into the Royal Garden of the king, her husband. She perched on a tree branch and told the Royal Gardener, about the forgetfulness of the King about his wife Queen Sandrembi, the animal epidemic happened in the kingdom, the grievances of the Prince (Sandrembi's son) and the loss of the gardener's own sickle in a recent past. Sandrembi told him to report these words to the King. The king, on hearing the news, came by himself, to the pigeon in the garden. Holding some grains of paddy in his hands, the King brought and kept the supernatural bird (Sandrembi's bird form) in his custody. Even as a pigeon, she took care of the Prince. During the King's absence, Chaisra (the imposter and Sandrembi's stepsister) slaughtered the pigeon and cooked a nice meal from the meat.[12] Upon knowing that the food was made of the very pigeon, the king refused to dine it and buried the pigeon's remains in the ground behind the Royal Kitchen.[12]

Hornbills

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Further information: Uchek Langmeitong
 
"Hayainu" as the "Uchek Langmeitong" flying high up the sky

The Meitei folktale of Uchek Langmeitong (Uchek Langmeidong), also known as Chekla Langmeitong (Chekla Langmeidong), of Ancient Kangleipak (early Manipur),[13][14] narrates the tragic story of a mortal girl named "Hayainu" (alias Nongdam Atombi), who turned herself into a Langmeitong (Meitei for 'hornbill bird') as she was unable to suffer the ill treatments of her cruel and selfish stepmother, in her father's absence.[13][14][15][16][17]

Sanagi Tenawa : Golden parrot

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"Te Te Tenawaa" (lit. "Te Te Parrot") - a traditional Meitei children's song of Kangleipak

In a Meitei folktale of a Sanagi Tenawa (Meitei for 'golden parrot'), a divine golden parrot used to live in a land of rocks. It possessed magical spells, due to which it made all the trees of the land able to talk and move like animals. The parrot was famous far and wide. In a far away kingdom, a courageous and clever prince got the news of the parrot, which he wanted to be brought to his kingdom. Henceforth, in the dead of the night, the prince and his friend, who was a minister's son, proceeded to find the parrot, without informing his father, the king. For three full moons of phase, they travelled until they finally reached the land of rocks. Surprised to see the rocks and the talking trees, and wandering around, they found out a door way to go inside a cave. When the prince was about to go inside the cave, he heard a loud sound. The voice from unknown source asked him to stop going inside the cave for the parrot. Upon investigated, they found the voice was from a tree monster at the door.[18]

The monster warned them of asking them three questions before they enter. If answered incorrectly, they would turn into stones. The first question was 'Who is the happiest man alive?' The prince's answer was 'One who owes no debt to anyone and who is healthy and free from any illness.' The second question was 'What are the main qualities of a king?' The prince's answer was 'A king should conduct according to the wishes of the people, should take care of the poor and destitute, and should treat everyone equally.' The final question was 'Name the gods one can see one's own eyes?' The final answer was 'One's birth parents are one's gods that they can see with their eyes.'[18]

The tree monster was satisfied with all the correct answers and it praised the prince for his wisdom and intelligence. It allowed the prince for entry and was vanished from the spot as it was waiting for someone who could answer all the questions correctly before he leave. Inside the cave, the golden parrot was found sitting on a golden plate, as was once being under captivity of the tree monster. The prince was told by the parrot about the way to change the stones into princes. He had to sprinkle water of the golden pond on them. The prince did and undo the spells/curses of the stones, bringing them back to life. The princes thanked the prince and went back to their respective kingdoms. Finally, the parrot was brought by the prince and his friend to their kingdom.[18]

Waterfowl

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Further information: Nganu Leima
 
Nganu Leima, the Meitei goddess of waterfowls

In Meitei mythology and religion, Nganu Leima (Meitei: ꯉꯥꯅꯨ ꯂꯩꯃ, romanized: /ngaa-noo lei-ma/), also known as Nganureima (Meitei: ꯉꯥꯅꯨꯔꯩꯃ, romanized: /ngaa-noo-rei-ma/), is a goddess associated with ducks and other water birds . She is one of the three dearest daughters of the sky god. Along with her two sisters, Khunu Leima and Shapi Leima, she married to the same person.[19]

Arts

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Classicism in Meitei culture
(Classicalism in Meitei culture)
 
 
 
 
 
Clockwise from top: the depiction of Lai Haraoba classical performance[b] on the Republic Day of India,[20] the Khamba Thoibi classical dance,[b][c] the Thang-Ta classical martial art,[d] the ancient Meitei language text Numit Kappa, Armenian stamp illustrating Manipuri classical dance as the "national dance" of India,[e][f]
Cultural originsMeitei culture
Related topics
Intangible cultural heritage of Meitei civilization

Architecture

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Main article: Meitei architecture
 
The architecture of the Inner Entrance Gate, along with the statues of a pair of Kanglashas, the dragon lions, inside the Kangla, the old metropolis of Ancient Kangleipak

The architectural works of the Meitei ethnicity is best known through its Meitei temples as well as ancient buildings including palaces, court halls, offices, entrance gates and so on.

Notable structures

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Further information: Hiyangthang Lairembi Temple; Ima Market; Kangla fort; Kangla Nongpok Thong; Kangla Sanathong; Kanglasha; Lainingthou Sanamahi Kiyong; Mount Manipur Memorial; Pakhangba Temple, Kangla; Sanggai Yumpham; and Thangjing Temple, Moirang

Cinema

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Main article: Meitei cinema
Further information: List of Meitei-language films and Cinema of Manipur

Ishanou (Meitei for 'The Chosen One'), a 1990 Indian Meitei language film, was screened in the Un Certain Regard section in the 1991 Cannes Film Festival,[29] and again after a gap of 33 years, it was recognized as a "World Classic" in the 2023 Cannes Film Festival. Notably, it was the only film selected from India for the event in that year.[30][31][32]

Dance

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The steps, gaits and poses of using thang (Meitei for 'sword') and ta (Meitei for 'spear') in the traditional Meitei dance-cum-martial art form of Thang-Ta form the basic foundation of the classical choreographic steps of Lai Haraoba, Manipuri Raas Leela, Meitei Sankirtana and Pung Cholom.[33]

The Manipuri classical dance, also known as the Manipuri Raas Leela (Meitei: ꯖꯒꯣꯏ ꯔꯥꯁ/ꯔꯥꯁ ꯖꯒꯣꯏ, romanized: Jagoi Raas/Raas Jagoi[34][35][36]), is a jagoi and is one of the major Indian classical dance drama forms, originating from Kangleipak (Meitei for 'Manipur').[37] Formally developed by Meitei Hindu King Ching Thang Khomba (Meitei for 'Rajarshi Bhagyachandra') of Manipur Kingdom in the 18th century CE,[38][39][40] the Manipuri classical dance form, which is considered to be the highest spiritual expression of the worship of Hindu deity Krishna,[41] spreads across the Indian subcontinent in subsequent centuries.[42] Owing to its huge influences on the diverse cultural heritages across India, it is recognised by the Sangeet Natak Akademi of the Ministry of Culture of the Government of India as one of the few primary classical dance forms of the Republic of India,[43] and is honoured with the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award for Manipuri every year.[44]

Pung Cholom and Meitei Nata Sankirtana are the other classical dance forms, which are also related to the Manipuri Raas Leela.[45]

The ritualistic and theatrical dances of the Lai Haraoba, in general and one of its primary forms, the Khamba Thoibi Jagoi (Meitei for 'Khamba Thoibi dance') in particular, are also considered to be classical dances.[46] Notably, Lai Haraoba's Khamba Thoibi Jagoi (Meitei for 'Khamba Thoibi dance') is one of the cultural elements, giving inspirations to the development of the Manipuri Raas Leela classical dance drama form.[47]

Dance and Music

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Further information: Manipuri classical dance, Jagoi, Music of Manipur, Pena (musical instrument), Moirang Sai, and Festival of Moirang Shai

“Dance and music play a vital role in the life span of Manipuri people. The most flourishing branch of Manipuri culture is dance. The Manipuri synonym of dance is jagoi and in this dance, body movements create either circle or ellipse. Rasa dance is the finest product of Manipuri culture. Maharaj Bhagyachandra innovated it and it was first performed in Manipur in 1779 in the fullmoon of Kartik.”

— Banglapedia[48]

Music

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Nat (a shortened form of Meitei Nat Sankirtan)[49] is a classical form of music of Manipur. It is a product of the Sanskritisation of traditional Meitei culture with Hindu culture by the Brahmanas, having 6 ragas and 36 raginis.[50]

Contrasting to the other forms of Indian classical music, which are performed by sitting, in the Meitei Nata-Sankirtana, artists perform musical instruments as well as sing songs, simultaneously performing the delicate movements of the body and hands, based on the form of Khuthek Anoi (Meitei for 'language of hand movements'), aligning to different footsteps, based on the Khongthang Anoi (Meitei for 'language of footsteps').[51]

Martial arts

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Further information: Huiyen Lallong
See also: Arambai


Sculptures

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Further information: Kanglasha, Marjing Polo Statue, and Statue of Meidingu Nara Singh

Theatre

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Further information: Shumang Kumhei

Notable productions

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Further information: Bacchae (Thiyam play), Hojang Taret, Lairembigee Eshei, and Yamata Amasung Keibu Keioiba

Notable personalities

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See also: Ratan Thiyam, Heisnam Kanhailal, and Sabitri Heisnam

Meitei adaptations of classical Greco-Roman plays

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Numerous theatrical plays based on Antigone, a princess from ancient Greek mythology, was and is frequently produced in Meitei language in its own adaptation,[52][53][54] in Imphal.[55] Malemnganbi is a Meitei adaptation of Sophocles' ancient Greek tragedy play named Antigone, rescripted by Makhonmani Mongsaba and directed by Chanam Nillabira Meitei.[56] In 1985–86, Lengshonnei, a play based on Antigone, adapted into Meitei language, by Ratan Thiyam, was performed in Imphal.[57][58] Some sources say that he adapted from Antigone (Sophocles play)[59][60] while some others assert that it was from Antigone (Brecht play).[61][62][63]

Hojang Taret is a classical Meitei language play based on Euripides's ancient Greek tragedy named "The Phoenician Women".[64] Directed by Oasis Sougaijam and produced by The Umbilical Theatre in Imphal,[65][66][67] the play shows the moral uncertainty of the royal sibling rivalry that led to the destruction of the ancient city of Thebes, Greece.[68][69][70]

Bacchae (Thiyam play) is a classical Meitei language play, based on the eponymous ancient Greek tragedy, authored by Euripides (480-406 BCE), one of the 3 tragedians of classical Athens. Directed by Thawai Thiyam, the Meitei play shows the story of king Pentheus of Thebes and Olympian god Dionysus.[71][72]

Meitei adaptations of classical Sanskrit plays

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Classical Sanskrit plays such as Urubhangam (originally authored by Bhasa in 2nd-3rd century CE) was reproduced into its Meitei version by Ratan Thiyam, shown in Imphal,[73][74] Panaji,[75] Edinburgh,[76] as well as in Athens.[77] Its another Meitei version was directed by Uttamkumar Naorem, shown in Kakching.[78]

Others include Shakuntala (based on Kalidas' Abhigyanam Shakuntalam), directed by Kshetri Jugindro, shown in the Jawaharlal Nehru Dance Academy in Imphal.[79] Bhagwatajjukiyam (based on Bodhayana's Bhagavadajjukam) was produced in a Meitei version, directed by Kshetri Jugindro, under the "Manipuri Ensemble", notably staged in the 2023 Bharat Rang Mahotsav.[80][81]

Clothing

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Further information: Kajenglei, Kokyet, Moirang Phee, Phanek, Shaphee Lanphee, and Wangkhei Phee

Constitutionalism

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Main article: Constitutionalism in Meitei civilization
Further information: Loiyumba

Cuisine

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Further information: Meitei cuisine, Singju, and Emoinu Fish Fest

Education

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Further information: Manipur University of Culture

Hills and mountains

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"Ching", a Meitei language root word for "hill" or "mountain"

Many Chings (Meitei for 'hills and mountains') play significant role in different elements of Meitei culture, including but not limited to Meitei folklore, Meitei folktales, Meitei literature, Meitei mythology and Meitei religion (Sanamahism) of Kangleipak (Meitei for 'Manipur').

Terms in Meitei language (officially called 'Manipuri') Translation(s) Notes/References
"Ching" (Meitei: ꯆꯤꯡ) either a hill or a mountain [82]
"Cingjāo" (Meitei: ꯆꯤꯡꯖꯥꯎ, lit. 'hill/mountain‑to be large') a high mountain [82]
"Cingdum" (Meitei: ꯆꯤꯡꯗꯨꯝ, lit. 'hill‑sth rounded') a hillock; mound [82]
"Cingsāng" (Meitei: ꯆꯤꯡꯁꯥꯡ, lit. 'hill/mountain‑to be long') the range of a hill or mountain [82]

Heingang Ching

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Main article: Heingang Ching
 
The Marjing Polo Statue inside the Marjing Polo Complex in November, 2022

In Meitei mythology and religion (Sanamahism), the Heingang Ching (Meitei: ꯍꯩꯉꯥꯡ ꯆꯤꯡ) is a sacred mountain and the home of God Marjing, the ancient Meitei deity of Sagol Kangjei (Meitei for 'polo'), Khong Kangjei (Meitei for 'hockey') and Meitei horse (Manipuri pony).[83][84]

The Government of Manipur developed Marjing Polo Statue, the world's tallest equestrian statue of a player of Sagol Kangjei (Meitei for 'polo game'), riding a Meitei horse (Manipuri pony),[85][83] standing inside the Marjing Polo Complex, the sacred sports site dedicated to God Marjing, which is on the hilltop of the Heingang Ching, being historically, mythologically and religiously associated with the game of polo (Meitei: Sagol Kangjei).[86][87] It is built to commemorate the game of "modern polo" being originated from Kangleipak (Meitei for 'Manipur').[88]

Koupalu Ching

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The Koupalu Ching (Meitei: ꯀꯧꯄꯂꯨ ꯆꯤꯡ), also known as the Koubaru Ching (Meitei: ꯀꯧꯕꯔꯨ ꯆꯤꯡ) or the Koubru Ching (Meitei: ꯀꯧꯕ꯭ꯔꯨ ꯆꯤꯡ), in the Northwest of Kangleipak, is a sacred mountain and a divine abode of Koupalu (Koubru), the ancient Meitei deity, who protects the Northwest direction. Innumerable shrines and holy sites dedicated to Him are located in its mountainous realms, where Meitei people regularly visit and worship Him. Many ancient Meitei language texts including but not limited to the Chinglon Laihui, the Chinggoirol, the Chingsatlon, the Nunglon mentioned about the Koupalu Ching (Koubru Ching).[89]

Kounu Ching

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The "Kounu Ching" (Meitei: ꯀꯧꯅꯨ ꯆꯤꯡ, lit. 'Mount Kounu'), located in the Senapati district of Manipur, is a sacred mountain as well as a divine abode of ancient Meitei goddess Kounu, the consort of God Koupalu (Koubru). Numerous shrines and sacred sites dedicated to her are found scattered across the mountain. Meitei people regularly visit and worship her in her holy sanctuaries.[90]

Langkol Ching

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The Langgol Chinggoiba is an ancient Meitei language text which is a description for the Langkol Ching (Meitei: ꯂꯥꯡꯀꯣꯜ ꯆꯤꯡ), also called the Langgol Ching (Meitei: ꯂꯥꯡꯒꯣꯜ ꯆꯤꯡ), a hill situated in the north of Imphal. According to the text, the Langkol Ching is the first perfect creation of seven goddesses and eighteen gods.[91]

When Panthoibi, the Meitei princess, was sporting with her paramour Nongpok Ningthou, she reminded him of the crack of dawn and of the fear of them being seen by her mother-in-law Manu Tekngā. Henceforth the slope has been known as Chingnung Shoy.

— Langkol Chingkoipa (Langgol Chinggoiba)[g][91]

And this is the place where Nungpan Choupri maintained his kiddle for which he laid a wooden beam across the stream and erected strong reeds densely beneath it to block the passage of fishes. He handed over regularly to his wife those caught in daytime. But for some successive nights no fish could be found in the trap for which his wife developed suspicion of his having illicit relation with another woman. He sincerely pleaded that some evil spirits might have gobbled them up during the night. The fisherman invoked the god of the sky to save him from this predicament. Blessed as he was, he kept a night-long vigil on the top of a tree and could dispel with his sharp sword a rabble of goblins who clambered up to devour him. Therefore the place took the name of Laihat Shoy and also Aham Shoy as the fisherman returned home with an empty creel.

— Langkol Chingkoipa (Langgol Chinggoiba)[g][92]

Nongmaiching Ching

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Main article: Nongmaiching Ching
 
The Lainingthou Sanamahi Kiyong shrine is the central body of the University of Sanamahi Culture, in the hilltop of the Nongmaiching Ching.[93]

Nongmaiching Chingkoipa

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The Nongmaijing Chinggoiba (also called, "Nongmaijing Chinggoiba") is an ancient Meitei language text. It describes the sprawling branches of the Nongmaiching mountain (Meitei: ꯅꯣꯡꯃꯥꯏꯆꯤꯡ ꯆꯤꯡ), which extends from the North to the South of the Imphal Valley of Kangleipak.[94] The opening lines of the text describes the Nongmaiching to a king as follows:

O King, the mountain situated in the east and beyond the river is the abode of Kainou Chingsomba, lord of the Langmais. They attain majestic heights, are washed by seven streams, project into nine ranges and abound with deep gorges and sun-drenched ridges... They catch first the sight of every onlooker and stand steadfast unshaken by great earthquakes as if held by strong iron pegs and with their peaks kissed by white flakes of cloud. Their slopes are smoothly carpeted green with pennyworts under the shadow of tall and robust plants of cane and they are also dotted with dense growth of tall reeds. And the gorges reverberate against the strong current of wind. Of these mountain ranges the bard would like to sing.

— Nongmaiching Chingkoipa (Nongmaijing Chinggoiba)[94]

Following these lines, the author describes on many cliffs, slopes and its peripheral areas of the Nongmaiching mountain.[94]

Panthoibi Naheirol

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See also: Panthoibi § Panthoibi Naheirol, and Nongmaiching Ching § Panthoibi Naheirol

The "Panthoibi Naheirol" (Meitei: ꯄꯥꯟꯊꯣꯏꯕꯤ ꯅꯥꯍꯩꯔꯣꯜ, romanized: pānthoibī nāheirōl) is an ancient Meitei language text. According to it, ancient Meitei goddess Panthoibi pretended to be unwell in front of her mother, just to make her mother call physician Nongpok Ningthou (her secret paramour) for the treatment of her fake illness.[95] While telling her mother about Nongpok Ningthou, princess Panthoibi mentioned the Nongmaiching (aka Langmai Ching) as follows:

As I told you there is one who is reigning supreme in the Langmai Hills on whose slope the sun shines first.

— Panthoibi to her mother in the "Panthoibi Naheirol"[95]


Meitei people

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Main article: Meitei people
Further information: Yek Salai, Yumnak Sagei, Mangang, Luwang, Khuman Salai, Angom, Kha Nganpa, Moilang, and Salai Leishangthem
See also: List of Meitei people and List of Meitei kings

Language

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Main article: Meitei language
Further information: Meitei language in Bangladesh and Meitei language in India

Meitei language (Meitei: ꯃꯩꯇꯩꯂꯣꯟ/মৈতৈলোন, romanized: Meiteilon), also known as Manipuri language (Meitei: ꯃꯅꯤꯄꯨꯔꯤ/মণিপুরী), is a classical language of Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan linguistic family, having a literary tradition of not less than 2000 years.[96] Some of the early literary works include the Ougri (c. 1st century CE musical composition),[97] the Numit Kappa (c. 1st century CE narrative work),[98] the Poireiton Khunthok (c. 3rd century CE narrative work),[99] the Khencho (pre-7th century CE musical composition),[100] 6th-7th century CE copper plate inscriptions of king Khongtekcha,[101] the Panthoibi Khonggul (c. 8th century CE narrative work),[102] the Loiyumpa Silyel (c. 11th-12th century CE written Constitution, drafted in 429 CE), etc.[103] Besides, Meitei language is best known for its classical association with the Manipuri classical dance and other intangible cultural heritages of Meitei civilization.[104]

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Observances

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Further information: Meitei language day, Meitei poetry day, and Meitei language festival

Linguistic movements

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Main article: Meitei language movement
Further information: Meitei scheduled language movement, Meitei classical language movement, Meitei associate official language movement, and Meitei linguistic purism movement

Literature

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"The beginning of this old Manipuri literature (as in the case of Newari) may go back to 1500 years, or even 2000 years, from now."[105]

—Suniti Kumar Chatterji, Padma Vibhushan awardee Indian scholar
Further information: Ancient Meitei literature and Meitei literature

Meitei literature dates back right from the 15th century BC, during the era of Tangcha Lee La Pakhangpa (Tangja Leela Pakhangba) (1445 BC-1405 BC) in Ancient Manipur. The Puya (Meitei texts) account for most of the accounts for the literary works till Medieval Manipur.[106]

Khamba Thoibi Sheireng (Meitei for 'Epic of Khamba and Thoibi'), the third longest Indian epic poem, next to the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, is a classical Meitei epic poem,[107] having 39,000 lines, and is regarded as the national epic of the Manipuris.[108] The Meitei classic tale of Khamba and Thoibi became an Assamese classic as well, after being translated into Assamese language as "Khamba Thoibir Sadhukatha", by Assamese author and anthropologist Rajanikanta Bordoloi (1869-1939).[109][110]

Besides the Khamba Thoibi, other notable ancient Meitei narrative literary works which are considered to be classics, include the Nungpan Ponpi Luwaopa, the Chainarol and the story of Petanga.[111]

The tales of Meitei folklore, which are considered to be classical in heights, include the stories of Sandrembi and Cheisra,[112] Emoinu (Imoinu),[113] Hanuba Hanubi Paan Thaaba, Pebet and Hoidong Lamboiba, Thabaton and Keibu Keioiba, Lai Khutshangbi, Uchek Langmeidong, Eeta Thangmei and Tapta.[114]

Since ancient times, it was continuously used to be the sole "court language" of the Durbar (court) as well as all the other courts in the Kingdom of Manipur,[115] later even officially declared as such in the Manipur State Constitution Act 1947, before Manipur became a territory of the Republic of India.[116]

Owing to its huge literary heritage of ancient and medieval eras written in traditional Meitei script,[117] it was recognised by the Sahitya Akademi of the Ministry of Culture of the Government of India as one of the major advanced languages of India in 1972, and since then, it was honoured annually with the Sahitya Akademi Award for Meitei, the Sahitya Akademi Translation Prize for Meitei, the Yuva Puraskar for Meitei and the Bal Sahitya Puraskar Award for Meitei.[118] Later, it was again recognised by the Government of India as an official scheduled language, enlisted in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India in 1992.[119] Since 2013,[120] Meitei classical language movement for the official recognition of Meitei as a "classical language" is carried out widespreadly, in Manipur, Assam and Tripura, endorsed by the Government of Manipur, several civil society organizations and various language experts.[121]

Some of the most prominent Puyas, written in Meitei language (Manipuri language),[122] are given below in alphabetical order:

Mythology and folklore

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Main articles: Meitei mythology and Meitei folklore
Further information: Meitei folktales
See also: Khamba and Thoibi and Khamba Thoibi Sheireng

Literary awards

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Further information: List of Sahitya Akademi Award winners for Meitei, List of Sahitya Akademi Translation Prize winners for Meitei, List of Bal Sahitya Puraskar winners for Meitei, List of Yuva Puraskar winners for Meitei, and Meitei language day awards

Philosophy

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Main article: Meitei philosophy
Further information: Eyes in Meitei culture

Plants

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Main article: Plants in Meitei civilization

Public holidays and festivals

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Further information: Meitei festivals

Important days fall in different times of a year according to Meitei calendar. Some are as follows in alphabetical order:

Religion

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Main article: Meitei religion
Further information: Meitei deities and List of deities in Sanamahism
 
The Iputhou Pakhangba Laishang, an ancient temple, inside the Kangla.

Sanamahism, the Meitei religion, has thousands of Meitei deities.The List of figures in Meitei mythology accounts for the characters in Meitei mythology, the receptacle of the Meitei religion.

Lai Haraoba

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Further information: Lai Haraoba

The "Lai Haraoba" festival is an ancient ritualistic music and dance festival, often performed in order to please the Umang Lais and the Lam Lais, whose pantheons are found scattered in the plains of Manipur still today.[123][124][125][126][127][128]

Jagoi, originally spelled as Chatkoi, is the traditional form of dancing, performed by the devotees to please the deities. Here is a list of the "Chatkoi"s ("Jagoi"s) :

C

K

L

M

P

T

Death ceremony

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Further information: Meitei death ceremony

The Meitei people perform four types of death ceremony since time immemorial. These are:

  1. Air ceremony (Disposal to the space)
  2. Earth ceremony (Burial)
  3. Fire ceremony (Burning)
  4. Water ceremony (Disposal to the water bodies)

Relationship with nature

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In Meitei mythology and Meitei folklore of Manipur, deforestation is mentioned as one of the reasons to make mother nature (most probably goddess Leimarel Sidabi) weep and mourn for the death of her precious children. In an ancient Meitei language narrative poem named the "Hijan Hirao" (Old Manipuri: "Hichan Hilao"), it is mentioned that King Hongnem Luwang Ningthou Punsiba of Luwang dynasty once ordered his men for the cutting down of woods in the forest for crafting out a beautiful royal Hiyang Hiren. His servants spotted on a gigantic tree growing on the slope of a mountain and by the side of a river. They performed traditional customary rites and rituals before chopping off the woods on the next day. In the middle of the night, Mother nature started weeping in the fear of losing her child, the tree.[129][130][131] Her agony is described as follows:

At dead of night

The mother who begot the tree
And the mother of all giant trees,
The queen of the hill-range
And the mistress of the gorges
Took the tall and graceful tree
To her bosom and wailed:
"O my son, tall and big,
While yet an infant, a sapling
Didn't I tell you
To be an ordinary tree?

The king's men have found you out
And bought your life with gold and silver.
* * At daybreak, hacked at the trunk
You will be found lying prostrate.
No longer will you respond To your mother's call
Nor a likeness of you
Shall be found, when I survey
The whole hillside.

Who shall now relieve my grief?"

— Hijan Hirao[132][133][134]

Sports

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Further information: Hiyang Tannaba, Khong Kangjei, Mukna, Sagol Kangjei, and Yubi Lakpi
See also: Marjing Polo Statue, Marjing Polo Complex, Imphal Polo Ground, Manung Kangjeibung, and Hapta Kangjeibung

Women

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Main article: Women in Meitei civilization
Further information: Ima Keithel, Nupi Laan, and Meira Paibi
See also: Meitei goddesses

Writing systems

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Main article: Meitei script
Further information: Naoriya Phulo script, Bengali script, and Bengali-Assamese script
See also: Meitei inscriptions, Meitei keyboard, Meetei Mayek (Unicode block), Meetei Mayek Extensions (Unicode block), Wikipedia:Meitei script display help, List of Meitei-language newspapers, and The Living God: Medicine and The Ancient Meetei Civilization

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Manipuri dance form, along with the Armenian Hov Arek, are referred to as the "National Dances" (of India and Armenia respectively) during the Armenia-India joint issue of postage stamps.[1][2][3]
  2. ^ a b The ritualistic and theatrical dances of the Lai Haraoba, in general and one of its primary forms, the Khamba Thoibi Jagoi (Meitei for 'Khamba Thoibi dance') in particular, are also considered to be classical dances.[21]
  3. ^ Besides the Khamba Thoibi classical dance form, the love story of Khamba and Thoibi itself is also considered to be classical in its own heights.[22]
  4. ^ The traditional Meitei dance-cum-martial art form of Thang-Ta gives the basic foundation of the classical choreographic steps of Lai Haraoba, Manipuri Raas Leela, Meitei Sankirtana and Pung Cholom.[23]
  5. ^ Manipuri dance form, along with the Armenian Hov Arek, are referred to as the "National Dances" (of India and Armenia respectively) during the Armenia-India joint issue of postage stamps.[24][25][26]
  6. ^ It is the highest spiritual expression of the worship of Hindu deity Krishna,[27] as well as an intangible cultural heritage of Meitei civilization.[28]
  7. ^ a b These are the descriptions of the different places in the Langkol Ching.

References

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  1. ^ "Two new postage stamps celebrate Armenian, Indian national dances". panarmenian.net.
  2. ^ "Two new postage stamps dedicated to "Armenia-India joint issue. National dances" theme | Lragir".
  3. ^ "Two new postage stamps celebrate Armenian, Indian national dances". www.newsinfo.am.
  4. ^ Sarwal, Amit (2022-05-15). The Celestial Dancers: Manipuri Dance on Australian Stage. Routledge. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-000-62550-9.
  5. ^ "Dance | Ministry of Culture, Government of India". www.indiaculture.gov.in. Retrieved 2023-12-06.
  6. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). Sahitya Akademi. p. 201. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9.
  7. ^ "Lumhui Lousing The Clever Fox". EP. Retrieved 2024-02-08.
  8. ^ "The Fox Wit Lamhui Lousing". Retrieved 2023-03-01.
  9. ^ "Lamhui amashung Keishal The Fox and the Jackal Folktale". Retrieved 2023-03-01.
  10. ^ "The Fox Trick Lamhui gi tat". Retrieved 2023-03-01.
  11. ^ –Singh, Moirangthem Kirti (1993). Folk Culture of Manipur. Manas Publications. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-81-7049-063-0.
    –Manipuri Phungawari (in Manipuri). 2014. p. 202.
    –Eben Mayogee Leipareng (in Manipuri). 1995. p. 107.
    –Tal Taret (in Manipuri). 2006. p. 43.
    –Regunathan, Sudhamahi (2005). Folk Tales of the North-East. Children's Book Trust. ISBN 978-81-7011-967-8.
  12. ^ a b "Sandrembi and Chaisra". e-pao.net.
  13. ^ a b Handoo, Jawaharlal; Siikala, Anna-Leena (1999). Folklore and Discourse. Zooni Publications. ISBN 978-81-7342-054-2.
  14. ^ a b Enact. Pauls Press. 1978.
  15. ^ Singh, Moirangthem Kirti (1993). Folk Culture of Manipur. Manas Publications. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-81-7049-063-0.
  16. ^ "Human turning into Uchek Langmei Meena Uchek Langmei Onba". e-pao.net.
  17. ^ Ahuja, Chaman (2012). Contemporary Theatre of India: An Overview. National Book Trust, India. p. 280. ISBN 978-81-237-6491-7. In Uchek Langmeidong (Birds of a Crane Family, 1978) ... When a poor girl is ill-treated by human society, birds take pity on her and shield her by turning her into a bird.
  18. ^ a b c "Sanagi Tenawa The Golden Parrot Folktale By James Oinam". e-pao.net. Retrieved 2023-04-14.
  19. ^ –Eben Mayogee Leipareng (in Manipuri). 1995. p. 107.
    –Folk Culture of Manipur - Page 7 - Moirangthem Kirti Singh · 1993
    –Tal Taret (in Manipuri). 2006. p. 39.
    –Tal Taret (in Manipuri). 2006. p. 43.
    –Manipuri Phungawari (in Manipuri). 2014. p. 202.
    –Regunathan, Sudhamahi (2005). Folk Tales of the North-East. Children's Book Trust. ISBN 978-81-7011-967-8.
  20. ^ —Newspaper, The Peninsula (2017-01-26). "Diverse Indian culture reflected at Republic Day tableaux". m.thepeninsulaqatar.com. Retrieved 2023-12-22. One of the oldest ritualistic theatres of the world, Lai Haraoba was recreated by the Meitei community of Manipur which practices it, with a replica of the deities, elaborate traditional paraphernalia and live dancing by the devotees.
    —"Republic Day parade: Which states had the best tableaux and which had the weirdest ones?". Firstpost. 2017-01-26. Retrieved 2023-12-22. Manipur: The focus was on the ancient theatre tradition of Manipur, Lai Haraoba. Press Information Bureau reported that the tableau is an attempt to recreate the ambience of this 'quaint' and rich cultural tradition with a replica of the local deities and the dance of the devotees and the priestess. This ancient tradition preserved by the Meiteis must be watch for the transcendental trait of it.
    —"Republic Day parade: Colours of East India come alive at Rajpath". India Today. 26 January 2017. Retrieved 2023-12-22. In its tableau Manipur showcased its famous Lai Haraoba festivities - an ancient tradition of the Manipuris characterised by worship of traditional deities. According to the Meitei community, every year in the advent of summer, their Gods visit the earth for peace and prosperity of all human beings. Thus, people on earth celebrate the occasion with joy and dance!
    —"Seventeen States and Six Central Ministries to showcase their tableaux in Republic Day Parade – 2017". pib.gov.in. Press Information Bureau (PIB), Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (India). Retrieved 2023-12-22. Lai Haraoba is one of the oldest ritualistic theatres of the world jealously preserved by the Meitei community of Manipur with utmost awe and sanctity. The entire community participates in it with complete devotion. Lai Haraoba, translated as 'Happiness of the Gods' is celebrated to worship local deities to bring prosperity and well-being of the land and its inhabitants. These divinities are referred to as Umag Lais or Sylvan Gods as their abodes are located in a wooded area. The sacred ceremonies are conducted by Maibis or priestesses who are adept in dance and sacred rituals. The common people also dance as an act of worship to the accompaniment of the traditional stringed instruments (pena) and drums (langdeng pung). The Manipur tableau is an effort to recreate the ambience of this quaint and rich cultural tradition with a replica of the deities, elaborate traditional paraphernalia and live dancing by the devotees as well as a Maibi (priestess) performing the sacred dance to awaken the God from his slumber.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  21. ^ —Pathway Volume 41. Vol. 41. University of Michigan; Marg Foundation (Mumbai, India), Modern Architectural Research Group, Modern Artists and Architects Research Group, National Centre for the Performing Arts (India). 1988. pp. XV. First and foremost are the surviving ritual dances which have been absorbed into the repertoire. The Lai-haraoba and the Khamba Thoibi may be counted amongst these. Their historical and mythical theme makes them as classical as any of the later Vaishnavite dances.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
    —Doshi, Saryu (1989). Dances of Manipur: The Classical Tradition. University of Michigan. Marg Publications. pp. XIX. ISBN 978-81-85026-09-1. First and foremost are the surviving ritual dances which have been absorbed into the repertoire. The Lai-haraoba and the Khamba Thoibi may be counted amongst these. Their historical and mythical theme makes them as classical as any of the later Vaishnavite dances. They have an element of abhinaya (histrionic representation)...
    —DM Silveira's India Book. University of Michigan. Classic Publishers. 1994. p. 230. ISBN 978-81-900218-2-1. ...Lai Haraoba is the ritual folk-cum-classical dance of Manipur and tells the story of creation according to the Manipuris. Khamba Thoibi is a popular Manipuri dance which tells the story of princess Thoibi and poor boy Khamba...{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
    —Mãrg. Vol. 41. Pennsylvania State University; National Centre for the Performing Arts (India). p. 109. First and foremost are the surviving ritual dances which have been absorbed into the repertoire. The Lai-haraoba and the Khamba Thoibi may be counted amongst these. Their historical and mythical theme makes them as classical as any of the later Vaishnavite dances. They have an element of abhinaya histrionic representation)...{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
    —Khuraijam, Bobo (2011-03-13). "Three Cheers – KanglaOnline". Retrieved 2023-11-13. ... Would it not be like asking for a Hip-Hop dance from a classical Khamba-Thoibi jagoi performance if we expect street aggression from our teachers? ...
  22. ^ —KanglaOnline (2011-04-04). "The great Meitei Reconciliation Process: Revisiting the classical folklore on "Emoinu Chakhong Ngahongbi" by Late Shri Ningomabam Angouton Meetei – KanglaOnline". ... The folklore of Emoinu Celebration from the story "Washak Ngakpa" meaning Keeping the Promise, written by Late Shri Ningombam Angouton Meetei and the classical love story "Khamba -Thoibi" are classical examples of successful reconciliation process of the old Meitei factions...
    —Delhi, All India Radio (AIR), New (1968-03-17). "Some Classics of Manipur". AKASHVANI: Vol. XXXIII, No. 12 ( 17 MARCH, 1968 ). India: All India Radio (AIR), New Delhi. pp. 7, 8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
    —Bond, Ruskin (2000-10-14). "The Story of Khamba and Thoibi". The Penguin Book of Classical Indian Love Stories and Lyrics. Penguin UK. pp. 3, 4. ISBN 978-93-5118-814-8.
  23. ^ Dzüvichü, Lipokmar; Baruah, Manjeet (2017-11-13). Modern Practices in North East India: History, Culture, Representation. Taylor & Francis. p. 373. ISBN 978-1-351-27134-9.
  24. ^ "Two new postage stamps celebrate Armenian, Indian national dances". panarmenian.net.
  25. ^ "Two new postage stamps dedicated to "Armenia-India joint issue. National dances" theme | Lragir".
  26. ^ "Two new postage stamps celebrate Armenian, Indian national dances". www.newsinfo.am.
  27. ^ Sarwal, Amit (2022-05-15). The Celestial Dancers: Manipuri Dance on Australian Stage. Routledge. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-000-62550-9.
  28. ^ "Dance | Ministry of Culture, Government of India". www.indiaculture.gov.in.
  29. ^ "Festival de Cannes: The Chosen One". festival-cannes.com.
  30. ^ "Manipuri feature film 'ISHANOU' recognised as World Classic". The Economic Times. 2023-05-06. ISSN 0013-0389.
  31. ^ "Aribam Syam Sharma's ISHANOU recognised as World Classic". Imphal Free Press.
  32. ^ "Manipuri Film 'Ishanou' Becomes India's Only Restored Film To Be Screened At Cannes 2023". Outlook India. 8 May 2023.
  33. ^ Dzüvichü, Lipokmar; Baruah, Manjeet (2017-11-13). Modern Practices in North East India: History, Culture, Representation. Taylor & Francis. p. 373. ISBN 978-1-351-27134-9.
  34. ^ Banerjee, Utpal Kumar (2006). Indian Performing Arts: A Mosaic. Harman Publishing House. ISBN 978-81-86622-75-9.
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  36. ^ Derek, O' Brien (2006). Knowledge Trek 7, 2/E. Pearson Education India. ISBN 978-81-7758-055-6.
  37. ^ "6 Classical Dances of India | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-11-12.
  38. ^ Meitei, Sanjenbam Yaiphaba; Chaudhuri, Sarit K.; Arunkumar, M. C. (2020-11-25). The Cultural Heritage of Manipur. Routledge. p. 55. ISBN 978-1-000-29629-7.
  39. ^ Kulasrestha, Mahendra (2006). Culture India. Lotus Press. p. 257. ISBN 978-81-8382-013-4.
  40. ^ Balasubramanian, G. A beautiful life: Value education & life skills. Pearson Education India. p. 30. ISBN 978-81-317-6644-6.
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  42. ^ "Manipuri | History, Characteristics, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-11-12.
  43. ^ "Dance | Ministry of Culture, Government of India". www.indiaculture.gov.in. Retrieved 2023-11-12.
  44. ^ "Sangeet Natak Akademi Puraskar (Akademi Awards)". Sangeet Natak Akademi, Ministry of Culture, Government of India. Archived from the original on 2012-02-16. Retrieved 2012-02-16.
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  46. ^ —Pathway Volume 41. Vol. 41. University of Michigan; Marg Foundation (Mumbai, India), Modern Architectural Research Group, Modern Artists and Architects Research Group, National Centre for the Performing Arts (India). 1988. pp. XV. First and foremost are the surviving ritual dances which have been absorbed into the repertoire. The Lai-haraoba and the Khamba Thoibi may be counted amongst these. Their historical and mythical theme makes them as classical as any of the later Vaishnavite dances.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
    —Doshi, Saryu (1989). Dances of Manipur: The Classical Tradition. University of Michigan. Marg Publications. pp. XIX. ISBN 978-81-85026-09-1. First and foremost are the surviving ritual dances which have been absorbed into the repertoire. The Lai-haraoba and the Khamba Thoibi may be counted amongst these. Their historical and mythical theme makes them as classical as any of the later Vaishnavite dances. They have an element of abhinaya (histrionic representation)...
    —DM Silveira's India Book. University of Michigan. Classic Publishers. 1994. p. 230. ISBN 978-81-900218-2-1. ...Lai Haraoba is the ritual folk-cum-classical dance of Manipur and tells the story of creation according to the Manipuris. Khamba Thoibi is a popular Manipuri dance which tells the story of princess Thoibi and poor boy Khamba...{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
    —Mãrg. Vol. 41. Pennsylvania State University; National Centre for the Performing Arts (India). p. 109. First and foremost are the surviving ritual dances which have been absorbed into the repertoire. The Lai-haraoba and the Khamba Thoibi may be counted amongst these. Their historical and mythical theme makes them as classical as any of the later Vaishnavite dances. They have an element of abhinaya histrionic representation)...{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
    —Khuraijam, Bobo (2011-03-13). "Three Cheers – KanglaOnline". Retrieved 2023-11-13. ... Would it not be like asking for a Hip-Hop dance from a classical Khamba-Thoibi jagoi performance if we expect street aggression from our teachers? ...
  47. ^ Dances Of India. Har-Anand Publications Pvt. Limited. 2010. p. 19. ISBN 978-81-241-1337-0. ...The Rasa Lila dances of Shiva and Parvati, Radha and Krishna, and the local deities Khamba and Thoibi form the foundation of the Manipuri dance...
  48. ^ "Manipuri, The - Banglapedia". en.banglapedia.org. Bangladesh: Banglapedia. Retrieved 2023-12-10. ... Dance and music play a vital role in the life span of Manipuri people. The most flourishing branch of Manipuri culture is dance. The Manipuri synonym of dance is jagoi and in this dance, body movements create either circle or ellipse. Rasa dance is the finest product of Manipuri culture. Maharaj Bhagyachandra innovated it and it was first performed in Manipur in 1779 in the fullmoon of Kartik. ...
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  62. ^ "'In India, many talented actors have no place to go'". www.telegraphindia.com. Retrieved 2023-11-13. ...Some of his best Manipuri productions include Chakravyuha, Lengshonnei (an adaptation of Bertolt Brecht's Antigone) and Ritusamharam (based on Kalidasa's work)...
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  93. ^ "Sanamahi Kiyong Donation: 15th dec08 ~ E-Pao! Headlines". e-pao.net. THE DONATIONS for the construction of Sanamahi Kiyong, which will be the central body of Sanamahi Lainingkol (University of Sanamahi Culture) at Chingoi Maru Langmaiching (Nongmaiching) is going on.
  94. ^ a b c Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). Sahitya Akademi. p. 102. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9.
  95. ^ a b Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). Sahitya Akademi. p. 61. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9.
  96. ^ —"'Manipur language which belongs to Tibeto-Burma has touched the criteria of a classical language'". 2018-02-21.
    —"Manipuri is a classical language".
  97. ^ —Ayyappappanikkar (1997). Medieval Indian Literature: Surveys and selections. Sahitya Akademi. p. 326. ISBN 978-81-260-0365-5.
    —Singh, Khelchandra Ningthoukhongjam. "Ougri". History Of Old Manipuri Literature (in Manipuri). Manipur University Library; North Eastern States Libraries. India: Digital Library of India; Internet Archive. pp. 81, 82, 83.
    —Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Ritual Songs) : Ougri". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 13, 14. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. Again from amongst the songs mentioned above, 'Ougri' and 'Khencho', in view of their more archaic diction and much advanced historical allusions, may be considered earlier than the rest. ... 'Ougri' is referred to as sung at the coronation of Nongdā Lāiren Pākhangbā, which took place in 33 A.D. ...
    —Ayyappappanikkar (1997). Medieval Indian Literature: Surveys and selections. Sahitya Akademi. p. 329. ISBN 978-81-260-0365-5.
  98. ^ —Wouters, Jelle J. P.; Subba, Tanka B. (2022-09-30). The Routledge Companion to Northeast India. Taylor & Francis. p. 473. ISBN 978-1-000-63699-4. ... Numit Kappa, a Meitei text from the 1st century CE, is particularly relevant and insightful in examining this peculiar relationship between power and violence. The text is recited as incantations during chupsaba, a cleansing ritual for 'violent' death...
    —"Shooting the Sun: A Study of Death and Protest in Manipur". Economic and Political Weekly. 44 (40). Austin, USA. 2009-10-03 – via University of Texas. ... Numit Kappa gives one such version. Considered one of the earliest known literary compositions in Meitei script, it is dated to the first century AD...
    —Singh, Khelchandra Ningthoukhongjam. "Numit Kappa". History Of Old Manipuri Literature (in Manipuri). Manipur University Library; North Eastern States Libraries. India: Digital Library of India; Internet Archive. pp. 95, 96.
    —Kshetrimayum, Jogendro (2009). "Shooting the Sun: A Study of Death and Protest in Manipur". Economic and Political Weekly. 44 (40): 48–54. ISSN 0012-9976. JSTOR 25663656.
  99. ^ —Singh, Khelchandra Ningthoukhongjam. "Poireiton Khunthokpa". History Of Old Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). Manipur University Library, Imphal. India: Digital Library of India. pp. 121, 122. The Poireiton Khunthokpa, is the most conspicuous one of all pre-Garibniwaz manuscripts. From a linguistic point of view, it seems to be much earlier than any of the books yet come under our review. Circumstantial and other incidental evidences would confirm that the book might have been of the time of the third century A. D. It describes the colonization of the valley by a band of people from the land of Death under Poireiton. They first established their colony near the Langol Hill; probably the vast area between the Koubru Hill and the Langol Hill was their kingdom. --Report on the Archaeological studies in Manipur Bulletin No. 1-by W. Yumjao Singh, pp 18-19.
    —Bhaṭṭācāryya, Haridāsa (1953). The Cultural Heritage of India: Languages and literatures. University of Michigan. India: Ramakrishna Mission, Institute of Culture. p. 663. ... The beginnings of this Old Manipuri literature may go back to 1,500 years or even 2,000 years from now. ... Poireiton Khunthok, a prose work describing the settlement of some Meithei tribes, is the oldest work in Manipuri going back to the third century A.D. ...
  100. ^ —Singh, Khelchandra Ningthoukhongjam. "Khencho". History Of Old Manipuri Literature (in Manipuri). Manipur University Library; North Eastern States Libraries. India: Digital Library of India; Internet Archive. pp. 97, 98.
    —Ayyappappanikkar (1997). Medieval Indian Literature: Surveys and selections. Sahitya Akademi. p. 330. ISBN 978-81-260-0365-5.
    —Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). "The Early Period (Ritual Songs)". A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). India: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 14, 15. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9. ... 'Khencho' is quite obscure and entirely unintelligible to the present generation though it forms an inseparable element of the daily proceedings of the festival. ...
  101. ^ —"মণিপুরি ভাষা ও লিপি – এল বীরমঙ্গল সিংহ | আপনপাঠ ওয়েবজিন" (in Bengali). 16 September 2021.
    —Devi, Yumlembam Gopi (16 June 2019). Glimpses of Manipuri Culture. LP. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-359-72919-7.
    —Paniker, K. Ayyappa (1997). Medieval Indian Literature: Surveys and selections (Assamese-Dogri). Sahitya Akademi. p. 325. ISBN 978-81-260-0365-5.
    —Sen, Sipra (1992). Tribes and Castes of Manipur: Description and Select Bibliography. Mittal Publications. p. 28. ISBN 978-81-7099-310-0.
  102. ^ —Devi, Dr Yumlembam Gopi (16 June 2019). Glimpses of Manipuri Culture. LP. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-359-72919-7. ... the text Panthoibi Khongul generally believed to have been written by Akoijam Tomboy during the reign of King Khongtekcha Yoiremba (763 A.D.) ...
    —Mukherjee, Sujit (1998). A Dictionary of Indian Literature: Beginnings-1850. Orient Blackswan. p. 280. ISBN 978-81-250-1453-9. Panthoibi khongul ( ? C ; Manipuri ) : prose narrative , the original of which was believed to have been composed in ancient Meitei language in first half of 8th century AD ...
    —"The relationship between Thang-Ta & Meitei Pung maintained by our Ancient ..." (PDF). ccrtindia.gov.in. Ministry of Culture, Government of India. Centre for Cultural Resources and Training. p. 4.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  103. ^ —Sanajaoba, Naorem (1993). Manipur: Treatise & Documents. Mittal Publications. p. 2. ISBN 978-81-7099-399-5. Manipur, known as 'Meetei Leipak' or 'Kangleipak' in the two millennia old Meetei manuscripts had experienced some form of constitutional government under a proto-Constitution in 429 A.D. which was reduced to a final format in 1110 A.D. Constitution entitled 'Loiyamba Shinyen' during the regime of King Loyumba.
    —Singh, Khelchandra Ningthoukhongjam. "Loiyumba Shinyen - Waayen Pathaap". History Of Old Manipuri Literature (in Manipuri). Manipur University Library; North Eastern States Libraries. India: Digital Library of India; Internet Archive. p. 142.
    —Sanajaoba, Naorem (1991). Law and Society: Strategy for Public Choice, 2001. Mittal Publications. p. 304. ISBN 978-81-7099-271-4. The constitutionalism had developed with the adoption of a prototype of a constitution in 429 A.D. which was finally moulded into the written constitution in 1110 A.D., called 'Loyumba Shinyen' till it was substituted by Manipur State Constitution Act, 1947 which operated till Manipur's merger with India on October 15, 1949.
  104. ^ Munsi, Urmimala Sarkar; Burridge, Stephanie (2012). Traversing Tradition: Celebrating Dance in India. en: Routledge, Taylor & Francis. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-136-70378-2. ... This means a command of Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Oriya, Meitei, Persian, or Arabic. ...
  105. ^ —Indian Literature - Volume 14 - Page 20 (Volume 14 - Page 20 ed.). Sahitya Akademi. 1971. p. 20. The beginning of this old Manipuri literature (as in the case of Newari) may go back to 1500 years, or even 2000 years, from now.
    —Siṃha, Niṃthaukhoṃjama Khelacandra (1975). Manipuri Language: Status and Importance (in English and Manipuri). N. Tombi Raj Singh. p. 34. The beginning of this old Manipuri literature (as in the case of Newari) may go back to 1500 years, or even 2000 years, from now...
    —Sanajaoba, Naorem (1988). Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization. Mittal Publications. p. 290. ISBN 978-81-7099-853-2.
  106. ^ Kriti Rakshana: A Bi-monthly Publication of the National Mission for Manuscripts. National Mission for Manuscripts. 2006. Archived from the original on 2022-05-08. Retrieved 2022-04-22.
  107. ^ —KanglaOnline (2011-04-04). "The great Meitei Reconciliation Process: Revisiting the classical folklore on "Emoinu Chakhong Ngahongbi" by Late Shri Ningomabam Angouton Meetei – KanglaOnline". Retrieved 2023-11-12. ... The folklore of Emoinu Celebration from the story "Washak Ngakpa" meaning Keeping the Promise, written by Late Shri Ningombam Angouton Meetei and the classical love story "Khamba -Thoibi" are classical examples of successful reconciliation process of the old Meitei factions...
    —Delhi, All India Radio (AIR), New (1968-03-17). "Some Classics of Manipur". AKASHVANI: Vol. XXXIII, No. 12 ( 17 MARCH, 1968 ). India: All India Radio (AIR), New Delhi. pp. 7, 8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
    —Bond, Ruskin (2000-10-14). "The Story of Khamba and Thoibi". The Penguin Book of Classical Indian Love Stories and Lyrics. Penguin UK. pp. 3, 4. ISBN 978-93-5118-814-8.
  108. ^ —George, K. M. (1992). Modern Indian Literature, an Anthology: Surveys and poems. India: Sahitya Akademi. p. 258. ISBN 978-81-7201-324-0. H. Anganghal Singh's Khamba Thoibi Sheireng (Poem on Khamba Thoibi, 1940) is a national epic of the Manipuris based on the story of Khamba and Thoibi of Moirang. The poet composes the whole epic in the Pena Saisak style of folk ballads sung by minstrels or bards popular in Manipur.
    —Datta, Amaresh (1988). Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Devraj to Jyoti. India: Sahitya Akademi. p. 1186. ISBN 978-81-260-1194-0.
    —Das, Sisir Kumar (2005). A History of Indian Literature: 1911-1956, struggle for freedom : triumph and tragedy. Sahitya Akademi. p. 190. ISBN 978-81-7201-798-9. His epic Singel Indu was published in 1938 which was followed by his magnum opus Khamba Thoibi Sheireng (1940), a poem of 39000 lines, considered to be the 'national' epic of the Manipuris, written in the Pena Saisak style of folk ballads.
  109. ^ Dalby, Andrew (2015-10-28). Dictionary of Languages: The definitive reference to more than 400 languages. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 399. ISBN 978-1-4081-0214-5.
  110. ^ Bardoloi Nirmalprabhya (1995). Rajani Kanta Bardoloi. Internet Archive; Digital Library of India. India: Sahitya Akademi. p. 14.
  111. ^ Delhi, All India Radio (AIR), New (1968-03-17). "Some Classics of Manipur". AKASHVANI: Vol. XXXIII, No. 12 ( 17 MARCH, 1968 ). India: All India Radio (AIR), New Delhi. pp. 7, 8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  112. ^ KanglaOnline (2013-01-07). "Manipur FASHION Extravaganza – KanglaOnline". Retrieved 2023-11-12. ... The grand finale was marked with his pompous show named "Sandrembi and Cheisra" which he derived from Manipuri classic folklore 'Sandrembi and Cheisra'. ...
  113. ^ KanglaOnline (2011-04-04). "The great Meitei Reconciliation Process: Revisiting the classical folklore on "Emoinu Chakhong Ngahongbi" by Late Shri Ningomabam Angouton Meetei – KanglaOnline". Retrieved 2023-11-12. ... The folklore of Emoinu Celebration from the story "Washak Ngakpa" meaning Keeping the Promise, written by Late Shri Ningombam Angouton Meetei and the classical love story "Khamba -Thoibi" are classical examples of successful reconciliation process of the old Meitei factions...
  114. ^ Meitei, Sanjenbam Yaiphaba; Chaudhuri, Sarit K.; Arunkumar, M. C. (2020-11-25). The Cultural Heritage of Manipur. Routledge. p. 342. ISBN 978-1-000-29629-7. ... These tales became popular as the funga-wari, wari meaning story. Hanuba Hanubi Paan Thaaba, Pebet Amasung Hoidong Lamboiba, Thabaton amashung Kabuikeioiba, Lai Khutshangbi, Uchek Langmeidong; Eeta Thangmei, Tapta, etc. are some classic examples of these folk tales that every Meitei child could relate to (Singha 2012). ...
  115. ^ —Sanajaoba, Naorem (1988). Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization. Mittal Publications. p. 290. ISBN 978-81-7099-853-2.
    —Mohanty, P. K. (2006). Encyclopaedia of Scheduled Tribes in India: In Five Volume. Gyan Publishing House. p. 149. ISBN 978-81-8205-052-5.
  116. ^ —Chishti, S. M. A. W. (2005). Political Development in Manipur, 1919-1949. Gyan Publishing House. p. 282. ISBN 978-81-7835-424-8.
    —Sharma, Suresh K. (2006). Documents on North-East India: Manipur. Mittal Publications. p. 168. ISBN 978-81-8324-092-5.
    —Tarapot, Phanjoubam (2003). Bleeding Manipur. Har-Anand Publications. p. 309. ISBN 978-81-241-0902-1.
    —Sanajaoba, Naorem (1993). Manipur: Treatise & Documents. Mittal Publications. p. 369. ISBN 978-81-7099-399-5.
    —Sanajaoba, Naorem (1993). Manipur: Treatise & Documents. Mittal Publications. p. 255. ISBN 978-81-7099-399-5.
  117. ^ Sanajaoba, Naorem (1988). Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization. Mittal Publications. p. 290. ISBN 978-81-7099-853-2.
  118. ^ —Hajarimayum Subadani Devi. "Loanwords in Manipuri and their impact" (PDF). sealang.net. In 1972 the Sahitya Akademi, the highest body of language and literature of India recognized Manipuri (Manipuri Sahitya Parisad. 1986:82)
    —"Dr Thokchom Ibohanbi - first Manipuri writer to get Akademi award : 24th feb22 ~ E-Pao! Headlines". e-pao.net.
  119. ^ —"The Constitution (Seventy-first Amendment) Act, 1992| National Portal of India". www.india.gov.in.
    —"Manipuri language in 8th Schedule By Jeet Akoijam".
    —"Languages Included in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution | Department of Official Language | Ministry of Home Affairs | GoI". rajbhasha.gov.in.
  120. ^ "Manipur steps up to renew push for inclusion of Manipuri among India's classical languages". Imphal Free Press. The movement for recognizing Manipuri as a classical language began in 2013, yet there has been a gap in the follow up actions.
  121. ^ —IANS (2016-08-20). "Classic language status for Manipuri demanded". Business Standard India.
    —"Classic language status for Manipuri demanded". MorungExpress.
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  123. ^ "D'source Umanglai - Sacred grove of Manipur | Sacred Groves | D'Source Digital Online Learning Environment for Design: Courses, Resources, Case Studies, Galleries, V..." 23 September 2015. Archived from the original on 2020-01-29. Retrieved 2021-04-03.
  124. ^ "Sacred groves Manipur need urgent attention". Archived from the original on 2019-08-10. Retrieved 2021-04-03.
  125. ^ "Sacred Groves in Manipur". Archived from the original on 2020-01-25. Retrieved 2021-04-03.
  126. ^ Banerji, Projesh (1956). Dance of India. Kitabistan. Archived from the original on 2022-05-08. Retrieved 2022-04-22.
  127. ^ Playne, Somerset (1917). Bengal and Assam, Behar and Orissa: Their History, People, Commerce, and Industrial Resources. Foreign and Colonial Compiling and Publishing Company. Archived from the original on 2022-05-08. Retrieved 2022-04-22.
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  130. ^ Datta, Bīrendranātha; Śarmā, Nabīnacandra (1994). A Handbook of Folklore Material of North-East India. India: Anundoram Borooah Institute of Language, Art & Culture, Assam. p. 356.
  131. ^ Barua, Lalit Kumar (1999). Oral Tradition and Folk Heritage of North East India. India: Spectrum Publications. p. 71. ISBN 978-81-87502-02-9.
  132. ^ Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). Sahitya Akademi. pp. 16, 17. ISBN 978-81-260-0086-9.
  133. ^ Datta, Bīrendranātha; Śarmā, Nabīnacandra (1994). A Handbook of Folklore Material of North-East India. India: Anundoram Borooah Institute of Language, Art & Culture, Assam. p. 356.
  134. ^ Barua, Lalit Kumar (1999). Oral Tradition and Folk Heritage of North East India. India: Spectrum Publications. p. 71. ISBN 978-81-87502-02-9.
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