Human genetics is the study of inheritance as it occurs in human beings. Human genetics encompasses a variety of overlapping fields including: classical genetics, cytogenetics, molecular genetics, biochemical genetics, genomics, population genetics, developmental genetics, clinical genetics, and genetic counseling.
Genes are the common factor of the qualities of most human-inherited traits. Study of human genetics can answer questions about human nature, can help understand diseases and the development of effective treatment and help us to understand the genetics of human life. This article describes only basic features of human genetics; for the genetics of disorders please see: medical genetics. For information on the genetics of DNA repair defects related to accelerated aging and/or increased risk of cancer please see: DNA repair-deficiency disorder.
Genetic differences and inheritance patterns
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Inheritance of traits for humans are based upon Gregor Mendel's model of inheritance. Mendel deduced that inheritance depends upon discrete units of inheritance, called factors or genes.[1]
Autosomal dominant inheritance
editAutosomal traits are associated with a single gene on an autosome (non-sex chromosome)—they are called "dominant" because a single copy—inherited from either parent—is enough to cause this trait to appear. This often means that one of the parents must also have the same trait, unless it has arisen due to an unlikely new mutation. Examples of autosomal dominant traits and disorders are Huntington's disease and achondroplasia.
Autosomal recessive inheritance
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Autosomal recessive traits is one pattern of inheritance for a trait, disease, or disorder to be passed on through families. For a recessive trait or disease to be displayed two copies of the trait or disorder needs to be presented. The trait or gene will be located on a non-sex chromosome. Because it takes two copies of a trait to display a trait, many people can unknowingly be carriers of a disease. From an evolutionary perspective, a recessive disease or trait can remain hidden for several generations before displaying the phenotype. Examples of autosomal recessive disorders are albinism, cystic fibrosis.
X-linked and Y-linked inheritance
editX-linked genes are found on the sex X chromosome. X-linked genes just like autosomal genes have both dominant and recessive types. Recessive X-linked disorders are rarely seen in females and usually only affect males. This is because males inherit their X chromosome and all X-linked genes will be inherited from the maternal side. Fathers only pass on their Y chromosome to their sons, so no X-linked traits will be inherited from father to son. Men cannot be carriers for recessive X linked traits, as they only have one X chromosome, so any X linked trait inherited from the mother will show up.
Females express X-linked disorders when they are homozygous for the disorder and become carriers when they are heterozygous. X-linked dominant inheritance will show the same phenotype as a heterozygote and homozygote. Just like X-linked inheritance, there will be a lack of male-to-male inheritance, which makes it distinguishable from autosomal traits. One example of an X-linked trait is Coffin–Lowry syndrome, which is caused by a mutation in ribosomal protein gene. This mutation results in skeletal, craniofacial abnormalities, mental retardation, and short stature.
X chromosomes in females undergo a process known as X inactivation. X inactivation is when one of the two X chromosomes in females is almost completely inactivated. It is important that this process occurs otherwise a woman would produce twice the amount of normal X chromosome proteins. The mechanism for X inactivation will occur during the embryonic stage. For people with disorders like trisomy X, where the genotype has three X chromosomes, X-inactivation will inactivate all X chromosomes until there is only one X chromosome active. Males with Klinefelter syndrome, who have an extra X chromosome, will also undergo X inactivation to have only one completely active X chromosome.
Y-linked inheritance occurs when a gene, trait, or disorder is transferred through the Y chromosome. Since Y chromosomes can only be found in males, Y linked traits are only passed on from father to son. The testis determining factor, which is located on the Y chromosome, determines the maleness of individuals. Besides the maleness inherited in the Y-chromosome there are no other found Y-linked characteristics.
Pedigrees analysis
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A pedigree is a diagram showing the ancestral relationships and transmission of genetic traits over several generations in a family. Square symbols are almost always used to represent males, whilst circles are used for females. Pedigrees are used to help detect many different genetic diseases. A pedigree can also be used to help determine the chances for a parent to produce an offspring with a specific trait.
Four different traits can be identified by pedigree chart analysis: autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, x-linked, or y-linked. Partial penetrance can be shown and calculated from pedigrees. Penetrance is the percentage expressed frequency with which individuals of a given genotype manifest at least some degree of a specific mutant phenotype associated with a trait.
Inbreeding, or mating between closely related organisms, can clearly be seen on pedigree charts. Pedigree charts of royal families often have a high degree of inbreeding, because it was customary and preferable for royalty to marry another member of royalty. Genetic counselors commonly use pedigrees to help couples determine if the parents will be able to produce healthy children.
Karyotype
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A karyotype is a very useful tool in cytogenetics. A karyotype is picture of all the chromosomes in the metaphase stage arranged according to length and centromere position. A karyotype can also be useful in clinical genetics, due to its ability to diagnose genetic disorders. On a normal karyotype, aneuploidy can be detected by clearly being able to observe any missing or extra chromosomes.[1]
Giemsa banding, g-banding, of the karyotype can be used to detect deletions, insertions, duplications, inversions, and translocations. G-banding will stain the chromosomes with light and dark bands unique to each chromosome. A FISH, fluorescent in situ hybridization, can be used to observe deletions, insertions, and translocations. FISH uses fluorescent probes to bind to specific sequences of the chromosomes that will cause the chromosomes to fluoresce a unique color.[1]
Genomics
editGenomics is the field of genetics concerned with structural and functional studies of the genome.[1] A genome is all the DNA contained within an organism or a cell including nuclear and mitochondrial DNA. The human genome is the total collection of genes in a human being contained in the human chromosome, composed of over three billion nucleotides.[2] In April 2003, the Human Genome Project was able to sequence all the DNA in the human genome, and to discover that the human genome was composed of around 20,000 protein coding genes.
Medical genetics
editMedical genetics is the branch of medicine that involves the diagnosis and management of hereditary disorders. Medical genetics is the application of genetics to medical care. It overlaps human genetics, for example, research on the causes and inheritance of genetic disorders would be considered within both human genetics and medical genetics, while the diagnosis, management, and counseling of individuals with genetic disorders would be considered part of medical genetics.
Population genetics
editPopulation genetics is the branch of evolutionary biology responsible for investigating processes that cause changes in allele and genotype frequencies in populations based upon Mendelian inheritance.[3] Four different forces can influence the frequencies: natural selection, mutation, gene flow (migration), and genetic drift. A population can be defined as a group of interbreeding individuals and their offspring. For human genetics the populations will consist only of the human species. The Hardy–Weinberg principle is a widely used principle to determine allelic and genotype frequencies.
Mitochondrial DNA
editIn addition to nuclear DNA, humans (like almost all eukaryotes) have mitochondrial DNA. Mitochondria, the "power houses" of a cell, have their own DNA. Mitochondria are inherited from one's mother, and their DNA is frequently used to trace maternal lines of descent (see mitochondrial Eve). Mitochondrial DNA is only 16kb in length and encodes for 62 genes.
Genes and sex
editThe XY sex-determination system is the sex-determination system found in humans, most other mammals, some insects (Drosophila), and some plants (Ginkgo). In this system, the sex of an individual is determined by a pair of sex chromosomes (gonosomes). Females have two of the same kind of sex chromosome (XX), and are called the homogametic sex. Males have two distinct sex chromosomes (XY), and are called the heterogametic sex.
X-linked traits
editSex linkage is the phenotypic expression of an allele related to the chromosomal sex of the individual. This mode of inheritance is in contrast to the inheritance of traits on autosomal chromosomes, where both sexes have the same probability of inheritance. Since humans have many more genes on the X than the Y, there are many more X-linked traits than Y-linked traits. However, females carry two or more copies of the X chromosome, resulting in a potentially toxic dose of X-linked genes.[4]
To correct this imbalance, mammalian females have evolved a unique mechanism of dosage compensation. In particular, by way of the process called X-chromosome inactivation (XCI), female mammals transcriptionally silence one of their two Xs in a complex and highly coordinated manner.[4]
| X-link dominant | X-link recessive | References |
|---|---|---|
| Alport syndrome | Absence of blood in urine | |
| Coffin–Lowry syndrome | No cranial malformations | |
| Colour vision | Colour blindness | |
| Normal clotting factor | Haemophilia A & B | |
| Strong muscle tissue | Duchenne muscular dystrophy | |
| fragile X syndrome | Normal X chromosome | |
| Aicardi syndrome | Absence of brain defects | |
| Absence of autoimmunity | IPEX syndrome | |
| Xg blood type | Absence of antigen | |
| Production of GAGs | Hunter syndrome | |
| Normal muscle strength | Becker's Muscular Dystrophy | |
| Unaffected body | Fabry's disease | |
| No progressive blindness | Choroideremia | |
| No kidney damage | Dent's disease | |
| Rett syndrome | No microcephaly | |
| Production of HGPRT | Lesch–Nyhan syndrome | |
| High levels of copper | Menkes disease | |
| Normal immune levels | Wiskott–Aldrich syndrome | |
| Focal dermal hypoplasia | Normal pigmented skin | |
| Normal pigment in eyes | Ocular albinism | |
| Vitamin D resistant rickets | Absorption of Vitamin D | |
| Synesthesia | Non colour perception |
Human traits with possible monogenic or oligogenic inheritance patterns
edit| Dominant | Recessive | References |
|---|---|---|
| Low heart rate | High heart rate | [5] |
| Widow's peak | straight hair line | [6][7] |
| ocular hypertelorism | Hypotelorism | |
| Normal digestive muscle | POLIP syndrome | |
| Facial dimples * | No facial dimples | [8][9] |
| Able to taste PTC | Unable to taste PTC | [10] |
| Unattached (free) earlobe | Attached earlobe | [8][11][12] |
| Clockwise hair direction (left to right) | Counter-Clockwise hair direction (right to left) | [13] |
| Cleft chin | smooth chin | [14] |
| No progressive nerve damage | Friedreich's ataxia | |
| Ability to roll tongue (Able to hold tongue in a U shape) | No ability to roll tongue | |
| extra finger or toe | Normal five fingers and toes | |
| Straight Thumb | Hitchhiker's Thumb | |
| Freckles | No freckles | [8][15] |
| Wet-type earwax | Dry-type earwax | [11][16] |
| Normal flat palm | Cenani Lenz syndactylism | |
| shortness in fingers | Normal finger length | |
| Webbed fingers | Normal separated fingers | |
| Roman nose | No prominent bridge | [17] |
| Marfan's syndrome | Normal body proportions | [18] |
| Huntington's disease | No nerve damage | [19] |
| Normal mucous lining | Cystic fibrosis | [20] |
| Photic sneeze reflex | No ACHOO reflex | [21] |
| Forged chin | Receding chin | [17] |
| White Forelock | Dark Forelock | [22] |
| Ligamentous angustus | Ligamentous Laxity | [23] |
| Ability to eat sugar | Galactosemia | [24] |
| Total leukonychia and Bart pumphrey syndrome | partial leukonychia | [25] |
| Absence of fish-like body odour | Trimethylaminuria | [26] |
| Primary Hyperhidrosis | little sweating in hands | [27] |
| Lactose persistence * | Lactose intolerance * | [28] |
| Prominent chin (V-shaped) | less prominent chin (U-shaped) | [29] |
| Acne prone | Clear complexion | [30] |
| Normal height | Cartilage–hair hypoplasia |
Disabling conditions
editGenetic
Chromosomal
| Effect | Source | References |
|---|---|---|
| Down syndrome | Additional 21st chromosome | [31] |
| Cri du chat syndrome | Partial deletion of a chromosome in the B Group | [32] |
| Klinefelter syndrome | One or more extra sex chromosome(s) | [33] |
| Turner syndrome | Rearrangement of one or both X chromosomes, deletion of part of the second X chromosome, presence of part of a Y chromosome | [34] |
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ a b c d Nussbaum, Robert L.; McInnes, Roderick R.; Willard, Huntington F. (2007). Genetics in Medicine (7th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders.
- ^ "Glossary". Genetics Home Reference. U.S. National Library of Medicine. 14 March 2008.
- ^ Freeman, Scott; Jon C., Herron (2007). "Evolutionary Analysis" (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson:Prentice Hall.
- ^ a b Ahn, J.; Lee, J. (2008). "X Chromosome Inactivation". SciTable. Nature Education.
- ^ Calkins, Hugh. "Can Sinus Bradycardia Be Inherited?". NEJM Journal Watch. Massachusetts Medical Society.
- ^ Campbell, Neil; Reece, Jane (2005). Biology. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. p. 265. ISBN 0-07-366175-9.
- ^ McKusick, Victor A. (10 February 2009). "Widow's Peak". Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man. Johns Hopkins University. 194000. Archived from the original on 9 December 2015.
- ^ a b c "Genetics/Reproduction". ScienceNet – Life Science. Singapore Science Centre. Archived from the original on 2003-09-25.
- ^ McKusick, Victor A. (25 June 1994). "Dimples, Facial". Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man. Johns Hopkins University. 126100. Archived from the original on 9 April 2019.
- ^ Wooding, Stephen (28 June 2004). "Natural selection at work in genetic variation to taste". Medical News Today. Archived from the original on 2007-12-13.
- ^ a b Cruz-Gonzalez, L.; Lisker, R. (1982). "Inheritance of ear wax types, ear lobe attachment and tongue rolling ability". Acta Anthropogenet. 6 (4): 247–54. PMID 7187238.
- ^ McKusick, Victor A.; Lopez, A (30 July 2010). "Earlobe Attachment, Attached vs. Unattached". Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man. Johns Hopkins University. 128900.[permanent dead link]
- ^ McDonald, John H. (8 December 2011). "Hair Whorl". Myths of Human Genetics. University of Delaware.
- ^ McKusick, Victor A. (23 March 2013). "Cleft Chin". Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man. Johns Hopkins University. 119000. Archived from the original on 29 April 2017.
- ^ Xue-Jun Zhang; et al. (2004). "A Gene for Freckles Maps to Chromosome 4q32–q34". Journal of Investigative Dermatology. 122 (2): 286–290. doi:10.1046/j.0022-202x.2004.22244.x. PMID 15009706.
- ^ McKusick, Victor A.; O'Neill, Marla J. F. (22 November 2010). "Apocrine Gland Secretion, Variation in". Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man. Johns Hopkins University. 117800. Archived from the original on 30 April 2017.
- ^ a b "Mendelian Traits in Humans" (PDF). Human Genetics. San Diego Supercomputer Center (SDSC).
- ^ Chen, Harold (2019-03-08). Buehler, Bruce (ed.). "Genetics of Marfan Syndrome". Medscape. WebMD LLC.
- ^ Stafford, Kate; Mannor, Michael. "Mutations and Genetic Disease". Genetic Diseases. ThinkQuest. Archived from the original on 2007-01-03.
- ^ "Autosomal Recessive: Cystic Fibrosis, Sickle Cell Anemia, Tay Sachs Disease". Medical Genetics. Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh. 3 February 2008. Archived from the original on 24 August 2009. Retrieved 28 September 2011.
- ^ Schrock, Karen (10 January 2008). "Looking at the Sun Can Trigger a Sneeze". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 2011-03-19.
- ^ "Inherited Human Traits". EdQuest. Archived from the original on 2012-02-01.
- ^ Scott, C. I. (1971). "Unusual facies, joint hypermobility, genital anomaly and short stature: A new dysmorphic syndrome". Birth Defects Original Article Series. 7 (6): 240–246. PMID 5173168.
- ^ Fankhauser, D. B. (2 Feb 2006). "Human Heritable Traits". University of Cincinnati Clermont College. Archived from the original on 2012-02-23.
- ^ Tüzün, Yalçın; Karaku, Özge (2009). "Leukonychia" (PDF). Journal of the Turkish Academy of Dermatology. JTAD. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2012-03-03.
- ^ "Learning About Trimethylaminuria". genome.gov. National Human Genome Research Institute.
- ^ Kaufmann, Horacio; et al. (April 2003). "Primary hyperhidrosis – Evidence for autosomal dominant inheritance" (PDF). Clinical Autonomic Research. 13 (2): 96–98. doi:10.1007/s10286-003-0082-x. PMID 12720093. S2CID 37824317.
- ^ Bowen, R. (25 April 2009). "Lactose Intolerance (Lactase Non-Persistence)". Colorado State University. Archived from the original on 23 June 2010. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
- ^ Jablecki, Donna Mae. "Variations on a Human Face" (PDF). Science Experiments on File. Facts on File.
- ^ Strickland, Barbara. "Acne is a Four Letter Word". Sage Advice. Barbara Strickland. Archived from the original on 2006-02-07.
- ^ "Down Syndrome". Mosby's Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing & Health Professions. Elsevier Health Sciences. Retrieved 27 September 2013.
- ^ "Cri Du Chat Syndrome (Cat Cry Syndrome)". Encyclopedia of Special Education. Wiley. Retrieved 27 September 2013.
- ^ "Klinefelter Syndrome". Encyclopedia of Special Education. Wiley. Retrieved 27 September 2013.
- ^ Tager-Flusberg, Helen (1999). Neurodevelopmental Disorders. Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. p. 227. ISBN 0-262-20116-X.
- ^ "Etiology". Encyclopedia of Special Education. Wiley. Retrieved 27 September 2013.
Further reading
edit- Speicher, Michael R.; Antonarakis, Stylianos E.; Motulsky, Arno G., eds. (2010). Vogel and Motulsky's Human Genetics: Problems and Approaches. Heidelberg: Springer Scientific. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-37654-5. ISBN 978-3-540-37653-8.
- *Plomin, Robert; DeFries, John C.; Knopik, Valerie S.; Neiderhiser, Jenae M. (24 September 2012). Behavioral Genetics. Shaun Purcell (Appendix: Statistical Methods in Behavioral Genetics). Worth Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4292-4215-8. Retrieved 4 September 2013.
- Flint, Jonathan; Greenspan, Ralph J.; Kendler, Kenneth S. (28 January 2010). How Genes Influence Behavior. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-955990-9.
- Lay summary in: Debby Tsuang; Andrew David (June 2011). "How Genes Influence Behavior". The American Journal of Psychiatry (Review). 168 (6): 656–657. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11010097.
- Gluckman, Peter; Beedle, Alan; Hanson, Mark (2009). Principles of Evolutionary Medicine. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-923639-8.
- Hamilton, Matthew B. (2009). Population Genetics. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-3277-0.
- Moore, David S. (2003). The Dependent Gene: The Fallacy of "Nature vs. Nurture". New York: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-8050-7280-8.
- Lay summary in: Susan M Schneider (Spring 2007). "The Tangled Tale of Genes and Environment: Moore's The Dependent Gene: The Fallacy of "nature VS. Nurture"". Behav Anal. (Review). 30 (1): 91–105. PMC 2223161.
- Cummings, Michael (1 January 2013). Human Heredity: Principles and Issues (10th ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-133-10687-6.