Wikipedia

Harvard University Department of Psychology

The Department of Psychology at Harvard University is an academic department in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States, that is part of the Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences. This department offers Bachelor's, Master's and Doctorate degrees in Psychology. Current research at the department focuses on clinical, cognitive, developmental, and social psychology. Notable psychologists that have been affiliated with the department include William James, B. F. Skinner, Gordon Allport, Jerome Bruner, George Miller, and Henry Murray, among others included. The department ranks as one of the top psychology departments in the United States and the world.

Harvard University Department of Psychology
William James Hall, home to the Departments of Psychology, Sociology and Social studies
Parent institution
Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences
ChairpersonMatthew K. Nock
Academic staff
approx. 28 full-time faculty members (2023)
Studentsapprox. 240 undergraduate students and 70 Ph.D. students
Location
33 Kirkland Street, Cambridge, MA, United States
Websitehttps://psychology.fas.harvard.edu

History

edit

Psychology at Harvard was originally very closely tied to the philosophy department. Philosopher William James introduced concepts of psychology as a new meaning of developing a system to understand education. From 1874 to 1875, James began teaching psychology and formed the first psychology laboratory in America. James continued to lecture on this "new psychology" and formed the book Talks to Teachers on Psychology, considered the first widely accepted psychology textbook. In 1878, G. Stanley Hall, a graduate student of James at Harvard, was the first student to receive a PhD in psychology in the United States.[1][2] Starting in 1892, Hugo Münsterberg became a professor of psychology and directed the psychological laboratory.[3]

During the early 20th century, Harvard's psychological studies and research were still under the philosophical department. A psychological clinic opened in 1927 under the direction of Morton Prince, who would be followed by Henry A. Murray beginning in 1928. Edwin Boring, with the approval of Harvard President James B. Conant, helped establish a separate psychology department in 1934 that became completely autonomous in 1936. The formation of a department apart from the philosophy program allowed more independent research in psychology and a greater focus on experimental psychology.[4][5]

When Gordon Allport held the chair of the psychology department, the Faculty of Arts and Sciences allowed for the formation of the Department of Social Relations in 1946, which became an interdisciplinary collaboration among the academic areas of anthropology, sociology and psychology.[6] With this division, the psychology department was left to exclusively conduct experimental research, while the social relations department focused on social, anthropological and clinical research. Training for clinical psychology was discontinued at the psychology department in 1967. The interdisciplinary social relations department began to dissipate with the formation of the Department of Sociology in 1970. Still, in 1972 the Department of Psychology and Social Relations recombined the areas of psychology for a few years. Only in 1986 did psychology become completely independent of sociology, when the psychology department acquired its current name, the Department of Psychology.[4]

Academics

edit

Undergraduate

edit

Undergraduate students may pursue psychological studies and complete their bachelors in the General, Cognitive Neuroscience, and Evolutionary Psychology or Cognitive Science track. Foundational courses are offered in cognitive neuroscience, social psychology, developmental psychology, Psychopathology, and neurobiology of behavior.[7] Advanced courses include specific topics in psychology, and classes in collaboration with other departments and disciplines.[8] Students may complete a two-semester thesis writing course in their senior year under the supervision of a department faculty.[9]

In 2022, Harvard College awarded 66 bachelor's degrees in psychology, making the subject the third most popular social science concentration after economics and government and tied with social studies. Psychology majors comprised approximately 6.5% of the degrees awarded that year.[10]

Graduate

edit

Graduate students may complete a Ph.D. in psychology in four different areas: Clinical Science, Social, Developmental, Cognition, Brain, and Behavior (CBB).[11] The department consists of two tracks: clinical science and common curriculum, of which the latter includes Social Psychology, Developmental Psychology, and Cognition, Brain, and Behavior (CBB). Students may only complete a master's degree as part of the research-focused Ph.D. program, which typically lasts four to five years. Graduates may go on to follow an academic career or work in the government, consulting firms, tech companies, social service agencies, or the medical field.[12]

There are currently 69 graduate students who are organized according to different laboratory units (approximately 25) under the supervision of individual professors. The labs with the most Ph.D. students include clinical psychology, affective neuroscience and development, youth mental health, and Computational Cognitive Neuroscience. The department also has 60 postdocs, fellows and research associates.[13] During the 1970s, the psychology department awarded, on average, between 20 and 30 doctorate degrees per year, which decreased to an average of between 10 and 20 degrees per year from the 1980s to the present. The department awarded ten doctorate degrees in 2022.[14]

Research

edit

Research at the Department of Psychology is divided into four programs:[15]

Clinical Science research focuses particularly on severe psychopathology and research in abnormal psychology to further the treatment of mental disorders. Key research areas include various mental health disorders and their symptoms (e. g. emotional and thought disorders, schizophrenia, depression, borderline personality disorder, anxiety disorders, self-harm, and suicide). Research also attempts to evaluate possible contributing factors and predictors of mental health problems, such as stigma against minorities, psychosocial elements, or environmental factors in child development.[16]

Cognition, Brain, and Behavior (CBB) studies the psychology of mental processes (e.g., memory, attention, perception, learning, language, etc.). CBB also addresses social cognition, moral decision-making, aging, and neurological disorders. The research covers human and non-human subjects and relies on functional neuroimaging techniques, online surveys, and computer-based behavioral tests.[17]

In developmental psychology, students and professors at Harvard research early developments of infants and children to gain insight into the human mind and nature. Research areas include knowledge of objects, persons, language, music, space, number, morality, and social categories. Research is conducted by the Laboratory for Developmental Studies.[18]

Social Psychology studies the psychology of individual and group behavior, emotions, and thoughts in social and cultural contexts, social cognition, and modes of social perception and knowledge. The research takes an interdisciplinary approach, incorporating cognitive neuroscience, developmental psychology, and other fields of economics, sociology, business studies, political studies, medicine, and law.[19]

Rankings

edit

According to the QS World University Rankings by Subject in Psychology, Harvard University placed 1st worldwide from 2020 to 2023, ahead of Stanford University, the University of Oxford, and the University of Cambridge.[20] Based on the National Research Council ranking in the US, Harvard took 6th place among Ph.D. programs and 7th place for undergraduate studies.[21][22] Times Higher Education World University Rankings in psychology placed Harvard in 5th place in 2023, 4th in 2022 and 2018, 6th in 2021 and 2020, and 7th in 2019.[23] According to US News Reports, Harvard University tied 3rd place with UCLA and the University of Michigan for the Best Psychology Schools of graduate schools in 2022 and behind Stanford University and the University of California, Berkeley.[24]

Contributions to psychology

edit

One of Harvard's most well-known psychologists was B. F. Skinner.[25][26] Considered the father of behaviorism, Skinner developed a form of radical behaviorism, which claims that environmental stimuli and experiential factors play a significant role in determining behavior through positive and negative reinforcements (rewards and punishments).[27] Skinner's approach attempted to scientifically control the study of behavior rather than analyzing internal mental processes.[28] As part of the experimental analysis of behavior, Skinner invented the operant conditioning chamber to study animal behavior.[29] Skinner's approach influenced the practice of psychology, laboratory applications, and educational and psychotherapeutic applications of behavior.[30][31][32] In the Skinnerian tradition, Richard Herrnstein developed the matching law, in which choices are distributed according to rates of reinforcement for making the choices.[33]

The field of personality psychology can be traced back to Harvard psychologist Gordon Allport, who developed values scales and a personality theory based on traits that make up a person's identity.[34] Rejecting psychoanalysis and behaviorism, Allport developed a trait theory that tried to identify patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion and classified traits into Cardinal, Central, and Secondary traits according to their influence on behavior.[35] Allport was influential in conceptualizing other topics, such as rumors,[36] prejudice,[37] discrimination,[38] self-esteem,[39] and religion.[40][41][42]

Harvard psychology has played a part in the development of cognitive psychology. George Armitage Miller is considered one of the founders of psycholinguistics and was an important figure in the development of cognitive psychology in reaction to behaviorism in the late 1970s. Miller is known for shifting psychology into the realm of mental processes and merging this new approach with linguistics, computation theory, and information theory.[43][44] Miller made contributions to the area of working memory, developing the term chunk to explain how individuals deal with limitations of memory and providing an approximation of the limit of working memory in his paper, "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information". Miller also coined Miller's Law: "In order to understand what another person is saying, you must assume it is true and try to imagine what it could be true of."[45][46] Another Harvard psychologist Jerome Bruner, who was also part of the so-called cognitive revolution, contributed to cognitive learning theory in educational psychology.[47] In recent years, Steven Pinker has been an advocate of the computational theory of mind and evolutionary psychology and has provided evolutionary explanations for the human mind, language, and behavior.[48][26]

Several Harvard psychologists have contributed to the area of developmental psychology, including research on long-term developments, educational theory, language acquisition, and cognitive psychology. Jerome Bruner conducted much of his research on developmental psychology and educational theory, formulating a theory of cognitive development, which categorized modes of internal representation into enactive (action-based), iconic (image-based), and symbolic (language-based).[49][50] Bruner is also noted for formulating the spiral curriculum and scaffolding (restricting the freedom in the learning process to make it more manageable).[51][52] Harvard psychologist Roger Brown is considered the father of developmental psycholinguistics,[53] while Erik Eriksen is known for his theory on the psychological development of humans.[54] More recently, Jerome Kagan was a key pioneer in developmental psychology, focusing his research on temperaments through longitudinal studies.[55] Elizabeth Spelke has developed a theory of core knowledge that infants possess innate cognitive systems or "core knowledge systems" to form new cognitive abilities.[56][57][58] Susan Carey has introduced concepts such as fast mapping, extended mapping, Quinan bootstrapping, and folk theorization to explain learning processes in children.[59][60][61][62]

Harvard psychologists have also made contributions to social psychology and positive psychology. In the 20th century, Roger Brown did some of the first research on memory phenomena of the tip of the tongue and flashbulb memory.[63][64] David McClelland developed the Need theory that explains how needs for achievement, affiliation, and power impact behavior in organizations and managements.[65] While at Harvard, Stanley Milgram conducted the so-called "small-world experiment" to examine the average path lengths for social networks and notably found that human society is a small-world network with short path-lengths.[66][67] Mahzarin Banaji is noted for having introduced the concept of implicit bias, in which implicit and explicit memories are applied to social constructs.[68] In moral psychology, Joshua Greene was the first to propose the dual process theory, which stipulates that moral judgments contain fast and slow reasoning processes.[69] In positive psychology, Daniel Gilbert has developed the notion of affective forecasting to predict one's affect in the future and fundamental attribution error.[70][71] Ellen Langer is noted for coining the term illusion of control and is influential in research on aging and mindfulness.[72][73][74]

Notable People

edit

Alumni

edit
Main category: Harvard University Department of Psychology alumni

The following is a list of notable individuals who completed a degree (AB, AM, or Ph.D.) from Harvard's Department of Psychology.[75]

† Mary. W. Calkins completed all the requirements for a Ph.D., but Harvard denied her the degree since she was a woman.[80]

* Individuals completed degrees at the Department of Social Relations.

Historic faculty

edit
Main category: Harvard University Department of Psychology faculty

The following is a list of notable past faculty members of the Department of Psychology:[81]

Current faculty

edit
Main category: Harvard University Department of Psychology faculty

The following is a list of notable current faculty members of the Department of Psychology.[82]

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^ Goodman, Russel (2022). "William James". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
  2. ^ Weinstein, Claire Ellen; J. Way, Pamela (2003). "Educational Psychology, Early Developments in America". In Weiner, Irving B.; Freedheim, Donald K. (eds.). Handbook of Psychology: Volume 1, History of Psychology. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 271.
  3. ^ Moskowitz, Merle J. (October 1997). "Hugo Münsterberg: A study in the history of applied psychology". American Psychologist. 32 (10): 824–842. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.32.10.824. Retrieved July 25, 2023.
  4. ^ a b "Department of Psychology: History". Harvard University. Retrieved July 25, 2023.
  5. ^ Boring, E. G.; Gardner, L. (eds.). A history of psychology in autobiography. The Century Psychology Series. Vol. 5. Connecticut: Appleton-Century-Crofts. pp. 449–475.
  6. ^ Gregg, Alan (1947). The Place of Psychology in an Ideal University. The Report of the University Commission to Advise on the Future of Psychology at Harvard. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 1–42. Retrieved July 26, 2023.
  7. ^ "Psychology Undergraduate Program". Harvard University.
  8. ^ "Psychology Undergraduate Program: Departmental Advanced Courses". Harvard University. Retrieved July 25, 2023.
  9. ^ "Department of Psychology: Requirements Chart" (PDF). Harvard University. Retrieved July 31, 2023.
  10. ^ "Fact Book: Degrees Awarded - Degrees Conferred by College Concentration". Harvard University - Office of Institutional Research & Analytics. Retrieved July 31, 2023.
  11. ^ "Department of Psychology: Graduate Program". Harvard University. Retrieved July 25, 2023.
  12. ^ "Psychology Graduate Program - FAQ for Applicants". Harvard University. Retrieved August 2, 2023.
  13. ^ "Department of Psychology - People". Harvard University. Retrieved August 2, 2023.
  14. ^ "Department of Psychology - Doctoral Alumni". Harvard University. Retrieved August 2, 2023.
  15. ^ "Department of Psychology: Research". Harvard University. Retrieved July 27, 2023.
  16. ^ "Department of Psychology: Clinical Science". Harvard University. Retrieved July 27, 2023.
  17. ^ "Department of Psychology: Cognition, Brain, & Behavior". Harvard University. Retrieved July 27, 2023.
  18. ^ "Department of Psychology: Developmental Psychology". Harvard University. Retrieved July 26, 2023.
  19. ^ "Department of Psychology: Social Psychology". Harvard University. Retrieved July 27, 2023.
  20. ^ "QS World University Rankings by Subject 2023: Psychology". QS Top Universities. Retrieved July 25, 2023.
  21. ^ "NRC Ranking of U.S. Psychology Ph.D. Programs". Social Psychology Network. Retrieved July 25, 2023.
  22. ^ "Ranking of U.S. Undergraduate Psychology Programs". Social Psychology Network. Retrieved July 25, 2023.
  23. ^ "World University Rankings 2018 by subject: psychology". Times Higher Education. 27 September 2017. Retrieved July 25, 2023.
  24. ^ "2023-2024 Best Psychology Schools". U.S. News. Retrieved July 25, 2023.
  25. ^ "Behavior: Skinner's Utopia: Panacea, or Path to Hell?". Time. September 20, 1971. Retrieved August 4, 2023.
  26. ^ a b Wright, Robert (April 26, 2004). "The 2004 Time 100: Scientists & Thinkers - Steven Pinker". Time.
  27. ^ James M. Johnston; H. S. Pennypacker; Gina Green (2019). Strategies and Tactics of Behavioral Research and Practice. Routledge. ISBN 9781138641594.
  28. ^ Holland, J. G. (1992). B. F. Skinner (1904–1990): Obituary. American Psychologist, 47(5), 665–667. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.47.5.665
  29. ^ Schacter, Daniel L.; Gilbert, Daniel T.; Wagner, Daniel M. (2011). Psychology (2nd ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. p. 17. ISBN 978-1429237192.
  30. ^ Haggbloom, Steven J.; Warnick, Renee; Warnick, Jason E.; Jones, Vinessa K.; et al. (June 1, 2002). "The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century". Review of General Psychology. 6 (2): 139–52. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.586.1913. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139. S2CID 145668721.
  31. ^ Greengrass, M. (2004, March 1). 100 years of B. F. Skinner. Monitor on Psychology, 35(3). https://www.apa.org/monitor/mar04/skinner
  32. ^ Sobel, Dava (August 20, 1990). "B. F. Skinner, the Champion Of Behaviorism, Is Dead at 86". The New York Times. Retrieved August 4, 2023.
  33. ^ Klein, Stephen B. (2013). Learning: Principles and Applications. SAGE Publications. p. 206. ISBN 978-1452271934.
  34. ^ Sperry, Len (2015). Mental Health and Mental Disorders: An Encyclopedia of Conditions, Treatments, and Well-Being [3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Conditions, Treatments, and Well-Being. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 47. ISBN 9781440803833.
  35. ^ Allen, Bem (2016). Personality Theories: Development, Growth, and Diversity. Oxon: Routledge. p. 414. ISBN 9780205439126.
  36. ^ Bordia, Prashant, and Nicholas DiFonzo. "Psychological motivations in rumor spread." Rumor mills. Routledge, 2017. p. 87.
  37. ^ Katz, Irwin. "Gordon Allport's" The nature of prejudice"." Political Psychology (1991): 125-157.
  38. ^ Plous, S. E. (2003). Understanding prejudice and discrimination. McGraw-Hill.
  39. ^ Cvencek, D., & Greenwald, A. G. (2020). Self‐esteem, Expressions of. The Wiley Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences: Personality Processes and Individual Differences, 399-404.
  40. ^ Tiliopoulos, N., Bikker, A. P., Coxon, A. P., & Hawkin, P. K. (2007). The means and ends of religiosity: A fresh look at Gordon Allport's religious orientation dimensions. Personality and Individual differences, 42(8), 1609-1620.
  41. ^ "Why should we care about Gordon Allport?". Stolaf.edu. 2001-03-14. Archived from the original on 2012-02-18. Retrieved 2018-02-12.
  42. ^ Haggbloom, Steven J.; Powell, John L. III; Warnick, Jason E.; Jones, Vinessa K.; Yarbrough, Gary L.; Russell, Tenea M.; Borecky, Chris M.; McGahhey, Reagan; et al. (2002). "The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century". Review of General Psychology. 6 (2): 139–152. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.586.1913. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139. S2CID 145668721.
  43. ^ Thomas M. Haugh II (August 6, 2012). "George A. Miller dies at 92; pioneer of cognitive psychology". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved August 8, 2012.
  44. ^ Paul Vitello (August 1, 2012). "George A. Miller, a pioneer in cognitive psychology, is dead at 92". New York Times. Retrieved August 8, 2012.
  45. ^ Schafer, Jack (May 29, 2019). Psychological Narrative Analysis: A Professional Method to Detect Deception in Written and Oral Communications (2nd Ed.). Charles C Thomas Publisher. ISBN 9780398092801
  46. ^ "Miller's Law". changingminds.org. Retrieved July 31, 2023.
  47. ^ Olson, D. R. (2014). Jerome Bruner: The cognitive revolution in educational theory. Bloomsbury Publishing.
  48. ^ Kiai, Ava (2018). "Steven Pinker". Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science. Springer. pp. 1–3. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_632-1. ISBN 9783319169996. S2CID 27234030. Retrieved July 29, 2023.
  49. ^ Myers, S. (2021), "Jerome Bruner: An Overview of Key Ideas", Jerome Bruner, Meaning Making and Education for Conflict Resolution, Emerald Publishing Limited, Bingley, pp. 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-80071-074-020211001
  50. ^ "Jerome Bruner and the process of education". infed.org. Retrieved July 31, 2023.
  51. ^ Jerome Bruner. Oxford Reference. Retrieved 31 Jul. 2023, from https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095532142.
  52. ^ "Jerome Bruner". Britannica. Retrieved July 30, 2023.
  53. ^ Blakeslee, Sandra (December 18, 1997). "Roger Brown Is Dead at 72; Wrote Key Psychology Texts". The New York Times. Retrieved August 7, 2023.
  54. ^ Thomas, Robert Mcg. Jr. (1997-08-08). "Joan Erikson Is Dead at 95; Shaped Thought on Life Cycles". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-02-21.
  55. ^ "JEROME KAGAN, A GIANT IN THE FIELD OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY, PASSED AWAY THIS WEEK". International Society for Developmental Psychology. Retrieved August 7, 2023.
  56. ^ Spelke, Elizabeth (2000). "Core Knowledge". American Psychologist. 55 (11): 1233–1243. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.11.1233. PMID 11280937.
  57. ^ Spelke, Elizabeth; Carey, Susan (1994). "Domain-specific knowledge and conceptual change.". In Hirschfeld, L.; Gelman, S. (eds.). Mapping the Mind: Domain Specificity in Cognition and Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 169–200.
  58. ^ LaMarr, Todd (24 April 2022). "9.5: Theory of Core Knowledge". LibreTexts Social Sciences. Retrieved July 29, 2023.
  59. ^ "APA Dictionary of Psychology: fast mapping". American Psychological Association. Retrieved July 29, 2023.
  60. ^ "APA Dictionary of Psychology: Quinian bootstrapping (Quinean bootstrapping)". American Psychological Association. Retrieved July 29, 2023.
  61. ^ Carey, Susan. "Bootstrapping & the origin of concepts." Daedalus 133, no. 1 (2004): 59-68.
  62. ^ "2020 Awards: Susan Elizabeth Carey". National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved July 29, 2023.
  63. ^ Hirst W, Phelps EA. Flashbulb Memories. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2016 Feb 1;25(1):36-41. doi: 10.1177/0963721415622487. PMID 26997762; PMCID: PMC4795959.
  64. ^ Baddeley, A, Eysenck, M., & Anderson, M. (2009). Memory. New York: Psychology Pres Inc.
  65. ^ "McClelland's Theory of Needs". NetMBA Business Knowledge Center.
  66. ^ Gladwell, Malcolm. "The Law of the Few". The Tipping Point. Little Brown. pp. 34–38.
  67. ^ Travers, Jeffrey; Milgram, Stanley (1969). "An Experimental Study of the Small World Problem". Sociometry. 32 (4): 425–443. doi:10.2307/2786545. JSTOR 2786545
  68. ^ Banaji, M. R.; Greenwald, A. G. (1995). "Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes". Psychological Review. 102 (1): 4–27. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.102.1.4. PMID 7878162. S2CID 8194189.
  69. ^ Joshua D. Greene et al. ,An fMRI Investigation of Emotional Engagement in Moral Judgment.Science293,2105-2108(2001).DOI:10.1126/science.1062872
  70. ^ Daniel T. Gilbert and Wilson, Timothy D. "Affective forecasting: Knowing what to want." Current directions in psychological science 14.3 (2005): 131-134.
  71. ^ "Daniel Gilbert Professor of Psychology at Harvard University". Edge. Retrieved July 29, 2023.
  72. ^ Langer EJ (1975). "The Illusion of Control". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 32 (2): 311–328. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.32.2.311. S2CID 30043741.
  73. ^ PsychCentral (2010-02-27). "The Mother of Mindfulness, Ellen Langer". psychcentral.com. Retrieved 4 November 2014.
  74. ^ Grierson, Bruce (October 22, 2014). "What if Age is Nothing but a Mindset?". New York Times. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
  75. ^ "Department of Psychology: Doctoral Alumni". Harvard University. Retrieved July 23, 2023.
  76. ^ Winston, Andrew S. (2012). "Woodworth, R.S. (1869–1962)". In Steel, N. M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning. Boston, MA: Springer. pp. 3461–3463. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_441. ISBN 978-1-4419-1427-9.
  77. ^ Gates, A. I. (1949). "Edward L. Thorndike: 1874-1949". Psychological Review. 56 (5): 241–243. doi:10.1037/h0062782.
  78. ^ "Sherif, Muzafer, 1906-1988". snaccooperative. Retrieved August 2, 2023.
  79. ^ Wood, Richard (2005). "Bellah, Robert Neelly (1927–)". In Shook, John R. (ed.). The Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers. Vol. 1. Bristol, England: Thoemmes Continuum. pp. 182–187. ISBN 978-1-84714-470-6.
  80. ^ Furumoto, Laurel (1980). "Mary Whiton Calkins". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 5: 55–68. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1980.tb01033.x. S2CID 144148191.
  81. ^ "Department of Psychology: Historical Faculty". Harvard University. Retrieved July 27, 2023.
  82. ^ "Department of Psychology: Faculty". Harvard University. Retrieved July 26, 2023.
Retrieved from "https://en.wiki.x.io/w/index.php?title=Harvard_University_Department_of_Psychology&oldid=1229673677"