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Member states of the World Trade Organization

(Redirected from World Trade Organization accession and membership)

The original members of the World Trade Organization are the parties to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) after ratifying the Uruguay Round Agreements,[1] and the European Communities. They obtained this status at the entry into force on 1 January 1995 or upon their date of ratification. All other members have joined the organization as a result of negotiation, and membership consists of a balance of rights and obligations.[2] The process of becoming a World Trade Organization (WTO) member is unique to each applicant country, and the terms of accession are dependent upon the country's stage of economic development and the current trade regime.[3]

An offer of accession is given once consensus is reached among members.[4] The process takes about five years, on average, but it can take some countries almost a decade if the country is less than fully committed to the process, or if political issues interfere. The shortest accession negotiation was that of Kyrgyzstan, lasting 2 years and 10 months. The longest were that of Russia, lasting 19 years and 2 months,[5] Vanuatu, lasting 17 years and 1 month,[6] Comoros, lasting 16 years and 10 months, and China, lasting 15 years and 5 months.[7]

As of 2007, WTO members represented 96.4% of global trade and 96.7% of global GDP.[8] Iran, followed by Algeria, are the economies with the largest GDP and trade outside the WTO, using 2005 data.[9][10]

Accession process

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WTO accession progress:[11]
  Draft Working Party Report or Factual Summary adopted
  Goods and/or Services offers submitted
  Working party meetings
  Memorandum on Foreign Trade Regime submitted
  Working party established

A country wishing to accede to the WTO submits an application to the General Council. The government applying for membership has to describe all aspects of its trade and economic policies that have a bearing on WTO agreements.[2] The application is submitted to the WTO in a memorandum which is examined by a working party open to all interested WTO Members, and dealing with the country's application. For large countries such as Russia, numerous countries participate in this process. For smaller countries, the Quadrilateral group of members—consisting of Canada, the European Union, Japan, and the United States—and an applicant's neighboring countries are typically most involved.[12] The applicant then presents a detailed memorandum to the Working Party on its foreign trade regime, describing, among other things, its economy, economic policies, domestic and international trade regulations, and intellectual property policies. The Working Party Members submit written questions to the applicant to clarify aspects of its foreign trade regime with particular attention being paid to the degree of privatization in the economy and the extent to which government regulation is transparent.[13] After all necessary background information has been acquired, the Working Party will begin meeting to focus on issues of discrepancy between the WTO rules and the Applicant's international and domestic trade policies and laws. The WP determines the terms and conditions of entry into the WTO for the applicant nation, and may consider transitional periods to allow countries some leeway in complying with the WTO rules.[3]

The final phase of accession involves bilateral negotiations between the applicant nation and other Working Party members regarding the concessions and commitments on tariff levels and market access for goods and services. These talks cover tariff rates and specific market access commitments, and other policies in goods and services. The new member's commitments are to apply equally to all WTO members under normal non-discrimination rules, even though they are negotiated bilaterally. In other words, the talks determine the benefits (in the form of export opportunities and guarantees) other WTO members can expect when the new member joins. The talks can be highly complicated; it has been said that in some cases the negotiations are almost as large as an entire round of multilateral trade negotiations.[2]

When the bilateral talks conclude, the working party finalizes the terms of accession, sends an accession package, which includes a summary of all the WP meetings, the Protocol of Accession (a draft membership treaty), and lists ("schedules") of the member-to-be's commitments to the General Council or Ministerial Conference. Once the General Council or Ministerial Conference approves of the terms of accession, the applicant's parliament must ratify the Protocol of Accession before it can become a member.[14] The documents used in the accession process which are embargoed during the accession process are released once the nation becomes a member.[3]

Members and observers

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A world map of WTO participation:
  Members
  Members, dually represented with the European Union
  Observers
  Non-members

As of August 2024, the WTO has 166 members.[15] Of the 128 states party to GATT at the end of 1994, all have since become WTO members except for the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, which had dissolved in 1992 and was suspended from participating in GATT at the time.[16][17] Four other states, China, Lebanon, Liberia, and Syria, were parties to GATT but subsequently withdrew from the treaty prior to the establishment of the WTO.[16][18] China and Liberia have since acceded to the WTO. The remaining WTO members acceded after first becoming WTO observers and negotiating membership.

The 27 states of the European Union are dually represented, as the EU is a full member of the organization. Other autonomous entities are eligible for full membership in the WTO provided that they have a separate customs territory with full autonomy in the conduct of their external commercial relations. Thus, Hong Kong became a GATT contracting party, by the now terminated "sponsorship" procedure of the United Kingdom (Hong Kong uses the name "Hong Kong, China" since 1997), as did Macao. A new member of this type is the Republic of China (Taiwan), which acceded to the WTO in 2002, and carefully crafted its application by joining under the name "Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu (Chinese Taipei)"[19][20] so that they were not rejected as a result of the One China principle implemented by the People's Republic of China.

The WTO also has 23 observer states,[15] that with the exception of the Holy See must start their accession negotiations within five years of becoming observers. The last country admitted as observer-only before applying for full membership was Equatorial Guinea in 2002, but since 2007 it is also in full membership negotiations. In 2007 Liberia and Comoros applied directly for full membership. Some international intergovernmental organizations are also granted observer status to WTO bodies.[21] The Palestinian Authority submitted a request for WTO observer status in October 2009[22] and again in April 2010.[23]

Timor-Leste is the newest member, joining effective 30 August 2024.

Russia was one of the only two large economies outside of the WTO after Saudi Arabia joined in 2005.[24][25] It had begun negotiating to join the WTO's predecessor in 1993. The final major point of contention—related to the 2006 Russian ban of Moldovan and Georgian wines[26] and the 2008 Russo-Georgian War—was solved through mediation by Switzerland,[24] leading to Russian membership in 2012.[27] The other is Iran, which is an observer state and began negotiations in 1996.[28]

A membership offer requires a two-thirds majority vote among existing members,[29][30] while the granting of observer status requires a simple majority.[31][32] Observers have speaking rights after members have spoken, but not the right to submit proposals or voting rights.

List of members and accession dates

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The following table lists all current members, their accession date and previous GATT membership, of which there were 128 nations when the transformation was consummated.[15][17][33]

State[15][34][17] Date of accession GATT membership
  Afghanistan[a] 29 July 2016
  Albania 8 September 2000
  Angola 23 November 1996 8 April 1994
  Antigua and Barbuda 1 January 1995 30 March 1987
  Argentina 1 January 1995 11 October 1967
  Armenia 5 February 2003
  Australia 1 January 1995 1 January 1948
  Austria[b] 1 January 1995 19 October 1951
  Bahrain 1 January 1995 13 December 1993
  Bangladesh 1 January 1995 16 December 1972
  Barbados 1 January 1995 15 February 1967
  Belgium[b] 1 January 1995 1 January 1948
  Belize 1 January 1995 7 October 1983
  Benin 22 February 1996 12 September 1963
  Bolivia 12 September 1995 8 September 1990
  Botswana 31 May 1995 28 August 1987
  Brazil 1 January 1995 30 July 1948
  Brunei 1 January 1995 9 December 1993
  Bulgaria[c] 1 December 1996
  Burkina Faso 3 June 1995 3 May 1963
  Burundi 23 July 1995 13 March 1965
  Cambodia 13 October 2004
  Cameroon 13 December 1995 3 May 1963
  Canada 1 January 1995 1 January 1948
  Cape Verde 23 July 2008
  Central African Republic 31 May 1995 3 May 1963
  Chad 19 October 1996 12 July 1963
  Chile 1 January 1995 16 March 1949
  China 11 December 2001
  Colombia 30 April 1995 3 October 1981
  Comoros 21 August 2024
  Congo, Democratic Republic of the 1 January 1997 11 September 1971
  Congo, Republic of the 27 March 1997 3 May 1963
  Costa Rica 1 January 1995 24 November 1990
  Côte d'Ivoire 1 January 1995 31 December 1963
  Croatia[d] 30 November 2000
  Cuba 20 April 1995 1 January 1948
  Cyprus[e] 30 July 1995 15 July 1963
  Czech Republic[e] 1 January 1995 15 April 1993
  Denmark[b] 1 January 1995 28 May 1950
  Djibouti 31 May 1995 16 December 1994
  Dominica 1 January 1995 20 April 1993
  Dominican Republic 9 March 1995 19 May 1950
  East Timor 30 August 2024
  Ecuador 21 January 1996
  Egypt 30 June 1995 9 May 1970
  El Salvador 7 May 1995 22 May 1991
  Estonia[e] 13 November 1999
  Eswatini[f] 1 January 1995 8 February 1993
  European Union[g] 1 January 1995
  Fiji 14 January 1996 16 November 1993
  Finland[b] 1 January 1995 25 May 1950
  France[b] 1 January 1995 1 January 1948
  Gabon 1 January 1995 3 May 1963
  Gambia 23 October 1996 22 February 1965
  Georgia 14 June 2000
  Germany[b] 1 January 1995 1 October 1951
  Ghana 1 January 1995 17 October 1957
  Greece[b] 1 January 1995 1 March 1950
  Grenada 22 February 1996 9 February 1994
  Guatemala 21 July 1995 10 October 1991
  Guinea 25 October 1995 8 December 1994
  Guinea-Bissau 31 May 1995 17 March 1994
  Guyana 1 January 1995 5 July 1966
  Haiti 30 January 1996 1 January 1950
  Honduras 1 January 1995 10 April 1994
  Hong Kong, China[h][15] 1 January 1995 23 April 1986
  Hungary[e] 1 January 1995 9 September 1973
  Iceland 1 January 1995 21 April 1968
  India 1 January 1995 8 July 1948
  Indonesia 1 January 1995 24 February 1950
  Ireland[b] 1 January 1995 22 December 1967
  Israel 21 April 1995 5 July 1962
  Italy[b] 1 January 1995 30 May 1950
  Jamaica 9 March 1995 31 December 1963
  Japan 1 January 1995 10 September 1955
  Jordan 11 April 2000
  Kazakhstan 30 November 2015
  Kenya 1 January 1995 5 February 1964
  Korea, Republic of 1 January 1995 14 April 1967
  Kuwait 1 January 1995 3 May 1963
  Kyrgyzstan 20 December 1998
  Laos 2 February 2013
  Latvia[e] 10 February 1999
  Lesotho 31 May 1995 8 January 1988
  Liberia 14 July 2016
  Liechtenstein 1 September 1995 29 March 1994
  Lithuania[e] 31 May 2001
  Luxembourg[b] 1 January 1995 1 January 1948
  Madagascar 17 November 1995 30 September 1963
  Malawi 31 May 1995 28 August 1964
  Malaysia 1 January 1995 24 October 1957
  Maldives 31 May 1995 19 April 1983
  Mali 31 May 1995 11 January 1993
  Malta[e] 1 January 1995 17 November 1964
  Macao, China[i][15] 1 January 1995 11 January 1991
  Mauritania 31 May 1995 30 September 1963
  Mauritius 1 January 1995 2 September 1970
  Mexico 1 January 1995 24 August 1986
  Moldova 26 July 2001
  Mongolia 29 January 1997
  Montenegro 29 April 2012[40]
  Morocco 1 January 1995 17 June 1987
  Mozambique 26 August 1995 27 July 1992
  Myanmar 1 January 1995 29 July 1948
  Namibia 1 January 1995 15 September 1992
    Nepal 23 April 2004
  Netherlands[b] 1 January 1995 1 January 1948
  New Zealand 1 January 1995 30 July 1948
  Nicaragua 3 September 1995 28 May 1950
  Niger 13 December 1996 31 December 1963
  Nigeria 1 January 1995 18 November 1960
  North Macedonia[j] 4 April 2003
  Norway 1 January 1995 10 July 1948
  Oman 9 November 2000
  Pakistan 1 January 1995 30 July 1948
  Panama 6 September 1997
  Papua New Guinea 9 June 1996 16 December 1994
  Paraguay 1 January 1995 6 January 1994
  Peru 1 January 1995 7 October 1951
  Philippines 1 January 1995 27 December 1979
  Poland[e] 1 July 1995 18 October 1967
  Portugal[b] 1 January 1995 6 May 1962
  Qatar 13 January 1996 7 April 1994
  Romania[c] 1 January 1995 14 November 1971
  Russia 22 August 2012
  Rwanda 22 May 1996 1 January 1966
  Saint Kitts and Nevis 21 February 1996 24 March 1994
  Saint Lucia 1 January 1995 13 April 1993
  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 1 January 1995 18 May 1993
  Samoa 10 May 2012[40]
  Saudi Arabia 11 December 2005
  Senegal 1 January 1995 27 September 1963
  Seychelles 26 April 2015
  Sierra Leone 23 July 1995 19 May 1961
  Singapore 1 January 1995 20 August 1973
  Slovakia[e] 1 January 1995 15 April 1993
  Slovenia[e] 30 July 1995 30 October 1994
  Solomon Islands 26 July 1996 28 December 1994
  South Africa 1 January 1995 13 June 1948
  Spain[b] 1 January 1995 29 August 1963
  Sri Lanka 1 January 1995 29 July 1948
  Suriname 1 January 1995 22 March 1978
  Sweden[b] 1 January 1995 30 April 1950
   Switzerland 1 July 1995 1 August 1966
  Taiwan[k][15] 1 January 2002
  Tajikistan 2 March 2013
  Tanzania 1 January 1995 9 December 1961
  Thailand 1 January 1995 20 November 1982
  Togo 31 May 1995 20 March 1964
  Tonga 27 July 2007
  Trinidad and Tobago 1 March 1995 23 October 1962
  Tunisia 29 March 1995 29 August 1990
  Turkey 26 March 1995 17 October 1951
  Uganda 1 January 1995 23 October 1962
  Ukraine 16 May 2008
  United Arab Emirates 10 April 1996 8 March 1994
  United Kingdom[l] 1 January 1995 1 January 1948
  United States 1 January 1995 1 January 1948
  Uruguay 1 January 1995 6 December 1953
  Vanuatu 24 August 2012[6]
  Venezuela 1 January 1995 31 August 1990
  Vietnam 11 January 2007
  Yemen 26 June 2014
  Zambia 1 January 1995 10 February 1982
  Zimbabwe 5 March 1995 11 July 1948
Notes
  1. ^ The WTO continues to recognize the government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.[35]
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Member state of the European Union.
  3. ^ a b Member state of the European Union since 2007.
  4. ^ Member state of the European Union since 2013.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Member state of the European Union since 2004.
  6. ^ Known as Swaziland until 2018.
  7. ^ All member countries of the European Union are also members of the WTO individually.
  8. ^ Official name was Hong Kong until 1997.[36][37]
  9. ^ Official name was Macao until 1999.[38][39]
  10. ^ Known as the Republic of Macedonia until 2019.
  11. ^ Officially uses the designation "Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu".
  12. ^ Former Member state of the European Union until withdrawing in 2020. Extended its membership to the Channel Islands on 1 January 2021.[41][42][43]

List of observers

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The following table lists all 23 WTO observers.[15][44] Within five years of being granted observer status by the WTO, states are required to begin negotiating their accession to the organization.[15]

State Date of membership application Status[45]
  Algeria 3 June 1987 Inactive since 2014
  Andorra 4 July 1997 Inactive since 1999
  Azerbaijan 30 June 1997 Work in progress
  Bahamas 10 May 2001 Inactive since 2019
  Belarus 23 September 1993 Inactive since 2019
  Bhutan 1 September 1999 Reactivation
  Bosnia and Herzegovina 11 May 1999 Reactivation
  Curaçao[46] 31 October 2019[47] Activation
  Equatorial Guinea 19 February 2007 Activation
  Ethiopia 13 January 2003 Reactivation
  Holy See None[a] Observer since 1997[48]
  Iran 19 July 1996 Inactive since 2011
  Iraq 30 September 2004 Reactivation
  Lebanon[b] 30 January 1999 Inactive since 2017
  Libya 10 June 2004 Inactive since 2004
  São Tomé and Príncipe 14 January 2005 Inactive since 2005
  Serbia 23 December 2004 Inactive since 2013
  Somalia 12 December 2015[49] Activation
  South Sudan 5 December 2017[50] Inactive since 2019
  Sudan 11 October 1994 Inactive since 2021
  Syria[b] 10 October 2001 Inactive since 2010
  Turkmenistan[c] 24 November 2021[52] Activation
  Uzbekistan 8 December 1994 Work in progress
Notes
  1. ^ The Holy See is exempted from having to negotiate full WTO membership.[15]
  2. ^ a b Was a party to GATT prior to withdrawing.[18][16]
  3. ^ Observer status granted 22 July 2020[51]

Neither members nor observers

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Applicants

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Since 2005, UN General Assembly observer state Palestine has been granted speaking rights at each Ministerial Conference of the WTO, under the name Palestinian Authority until 2009 and under the name Palestine from 2011 onward.[53][54][55] Palestine is not listed as an "observer government" like other observer states, and is instead listed under "other observers" in the same category as non-state observers such as the International Trade Centre and World Bank.[56] Palestine applied for observer state status on 2 October 2009 and 12 April 2010.[57][58] As of 2 December 2016, Palestine had expressed an interest in joining the WTO as a full member.[59]
On 17 November 2019, the African Union applied for observer status.[60]

Other states

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The following table lists all UN member states which are neither members nor observers of the WTO.[15]

Additionally, as of 16 November 2015 Kosovo had expressed an interest in joining the WTO as a member.[61]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Legal texts: the WTO agreements at World Trade Organization
  2. ^ a b c Membership, Alliances and Bureaucracy, World Trade Organization
  3. ^ a b c Accessions Summary, Center for International Development
  4. ^ C. Michalopoulos, WTO Accession, 64
  5. ^ Russia's entry to WTO ends 19 years of negotiations The Guardian, 22 August 2012
  6. ^ a b Vanuatu:accession status at WTO official website
  7. ^ P. Farah, "Five Years of China's WTO Membership", 263–304
  8. ^ "Accession in perspective". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 22 December 2013.
  9. ^ "ANNEX 1. STATISTICAL SURVEY". World Trade Organization. 2005. Retrieved 22 December 2013.
  10. ^ Arjomandy, Danial (21 November 2013). "Iranian Membership in the World Trade Organization: An Unclear Future". Iranian Studies. 47 (6): 933–950. doi:10.1080/00210862.2013.859810. S2CID 162297876.
  11. ^ "Summary Table of Ongoing Accessions". World Trade Organization. April 2014. Retrieved 25 October 2014.
  12. ^ C. Michalopoulos, WTO Accession, 62
  13. ^ C. Michalopoulos, WTO Accession, 63
  14. ^ How to Become a Member of the WTO, World Trade Organization
  15. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Members and Observers at WTO official website
  16. ^ a b c "World Trade Report" (PDF). World Trade Organization. 2007. Retrieved 11 April 2014.
  17. ^ a b c "The 128 countries that had signed GATT by 1994". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 11 April 2014.
  18. ^ a b "Article XXXI - Withdrawal" (PDF). World Trade Organization. Retrieved 11 April 2014.
  19. ^ Jackson J. H., Sovereignty, p. 109
  20. ^ "Member information - Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu (Chinese Taipei) and the WTO". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 19 February 2013.
  21. ^ International Intergovernmental Organizations Granted Observer Status to WTO Bodies, World Trade Organization
  22. ^ "Palestine - Request for Observer Status". Taiwan WTO Center. 6 October 2009. Archived from the original on 22 December 2012. Retrieved 3 November 2012.
  23. ^ "Palestine - Request for Observer Status". Taiwan TWO Center. 13 April 2010. Archived from the original on 22 December 2012. Retrieved 3 November 2012.
  24. ^ a b "Russia becomes WTO member after 18 years of talks". BBC. 16 December 2011. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
  25. ^ Heilprin, John (17 December 2011). "Russia gets approval to join the WTO". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
  26. ^ "Georgia threatens to block Russian WTO bid". UPI. 7 October 2006.
  27. ^ "Russia joins WTO". Deutsche Welle. 22 August 2012.
  28. ^ "IRAN TRADE LAW| process 3". Archived from the original on 20 June 2010. Retrieved 3 April 2010.
  29. ^ "WTO | Understanding the WTO - membership, alliances and bureaucracy". www.wto.org. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
  30. ^ "WTO | Understanding the WTO - Whose WTO is it anyway?". www.wto.org. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
  31. ^ https://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/04-wto.pdf [bare URL PDF]
  32. ^ https://docs.wto.org/dol2fe/Pages/SS/directdoc.aspx?filename=q:/WT/L/161.pdf&Open=True [bare URL]
  33. ^ "ACCESSIONS: Protocols of accession for new members since 1995, including commitments in goods and services". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 5 September 2019.
  34. ^ Status of WTO Legal Instruments (PDF). World Trade Organization. 2012. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  35. ^ "Docsonline Maintenance".
  36. ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20240120060735/https://docs.wto.org/dol2fe/Pages/SS/directdoc.aspx?filename=Q:/GG/L5999/5986.PDF&Open=True [bare URL]
  37. ^ "Wt/L/218". Archived from the original on 20 January 2024.
  38. ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20240120060846/https://docs.wto.org/dol2fe/Pages/SS/directdoc.aspx?filename=Q:/GG/L6999/6806.PDF&Open=True [bare URL]
  39. ^ "Wt/L/333". Archived from the original on 20 January 2024.
  40. ^ a b Montenegro and Samoa strengthen the WTO WTO media release, 30 April 2012
  41. ^ "Channel Islands to become part of UK's WTO territory". BBC News. 18 October 2019.
  42. ^ "Guernsey will get WTO membership after Brexit". Bailiwick Express. 19 October 2019.
  43. ^ Taylor, Ed (19 October 2019). "Agreement puts Island on 'strongest possible footing' for post-Brexit trade". Jersey Evening Post.
  44. ^ "WTO Members and Accession Candidates". World Trade Organization. March 2013. Retrieved 23 April 2013.
  45. ^ "WTO ACCESSIONS 2023 ANNUAL REPORT BY THE DIRECTOR-GENERAL*". World Trade Organization. 20 March 2024. Retrieved 24 March 2024.
  46. ^ "Members endorse Curaçao's bid for WTO membership". World Trade Organization. 3 March 2020. Retrieved 7 March 2020.
  47. ^ "WTO Accession Newsletter No 96" (PDF). World Trade Organization. Retrieved 7 December 2019.
  48. ^ "Welcome to the Holy See Mission". Holy See Mission to the United Nations in Geneva. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
  49. ^ "WT/ACC/28 - WTO Accessions: 2016 Annual Report by the Director-General – Statement by the Director-General". World Trade Organization. 2 December 2016. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
  50. ^ "WTO Accession Newsletter" (PDF). World Trade Organization. December 2017. Retrieved 26 December 2017.
  51. ^ "Members endorse Turkmenistan's WTO observer status". World Trade Organization. 22 July 2020. Retrieved 26 July 2020.
  52. ^ "Turkmenistan formally applies for WTO membership". World Trade Organization. 24 November 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2021.
  53. ^ "Wt/Min(05)/St/170".
  54. ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20221118211510/https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/minist_e/min09_e/stat_e/pse.doc [bare URL]
  55. ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20221118190147/https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/minist_e/min11_e/stat_e/pse.doc [bare URL]
  56. ^ "WTO | Ministerial conferences - Eleventh WTO Ministerial Conference - Statements by Members and observers at the plenary session".
  57. ^ "WT/L/770 - PALESTINE – REQUEST FOR OBSERVER STATUS". World Trade Organization. 6 October 2009. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
  58. ^ "WT/L/792 - PALESTINE – REQUEST FOR OBSERVER STATUS". World Trade Organization. 13 April 2010. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
  59. ^ "WTO ACCESSIONS 2016 ANNUAL REPORT BY THE DIRECTOR-GENERAL". World Trade Organization. 2 December 2016. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
  60. ^ https://docs.wto.org/dol2fe/Pages/SS/directdoc.aspx?filename=t:/WT/GC/W789.docx&Open=True [bare URL]
  61. ^ "WTO ACCESSIONS 2015 ANNUAL REPORT BY THE DIRECTOR-GENERAL". World Trade Organization. 16 November 2015. Retrieved 21 January 2024.

Bibliography and Web

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