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Armed forces

Shivaji raised a small yet effective land army. For better administration, Shivaji abolished the land-grants or jagir for military officers and instituted a system of salary or cash payment for their services. During the 17th century the Maratha Army was small in terms of numbers when compared to the Mughals, numbering some 100,000. Shivaji gave more emphasis to infantry as against cavalry, considering the rugged mountainous terrain he operated in. Further, Shivaji did not have access to the North Indian Mughal dominated horse markets. During this era, the armies of the Marathas were known for their agility due to the light equipment of both infantry and cavalry.Artillery was mostly confined to the Maratha Hillforts, since that gave a strategic advantage.These fortresses had ability to withstand long sieges with good capabilities to store water. The Marathas used weapons like muskets, matchlocks, firangi swords, clubs, bows, spears, daggers, etc. For the artillery, Shivaji hired foreign (mainly Portuguese) mercenaries for assistance to manufacture weapons from Goa.

The Army deployed musketeers as well - both regular and mercenaries.Further, during the same period there is also a mention of Marathas using Karnataki musketeers renowned for marksmanship

Structure and Rank

The ranks of armies of the Shivaji included the following: Cavalry was divided into two at a high level:

• Shiledar: A shiledar brought his own horse and equipment.
• Bargir: One of the lowest rank (rank and file) cavalryman of the Marathas who was provided with horse and equipment from the State's stock

The infantry ranks consisted of the following :

• Hetkari musketeers: Konkani musketeers recruited typically from the Konkan region, who possessed matchlocks and noted for their marksmanship
• Mavales: Foot soldier recruited typically from the hill regions of western Maharashtra

Ranks and salary of the cavalry are as below. The infantry had a similar structure

• Sarnobat (chief of Army)(a part of the Council of Eight): 4000 to 5000 hons per year
• Panch Hazari: 2000 hons per year
• Hazari: 1000 hons per year
• Jumledar: 500 hons per year
• Havaldar: 125 hons per year
• Bargir: 9 hons per year

Infantry ranks (starting with senior-most rank):

• Sarnobat (chief of Army)
• Saat (Seven) Hazari
• Hazari
• Jamdar
• Havaldar
• Nayak (or Naik)
• Paek

Military

Shivaji demonstrated great skill in creating his military organisation, which lasted until the demise of the Maratha empire. His strategy rested on leveraging his ground forces, naval forces, and series of forts across his territory. The Maval infantry served as the core of his ground forces (reinforced with Telangi musketeers from Karnataka), supported by Maratha cavalry. His artillery was relatively underdeveloped and reliant on European suppliers, further inclining him to a very mobile form of warfare.

Shivaji was contemptuously called a "Mountain Rat" by Aurangzeb and his generals because of his guerilla tactics of attacking enemy forces and then retreating into his mountain forts.

Hill forts

Suvela Machi, view of southern sub-plateaux, as seen from Ballekilla, Rajgad

Main article: Shivaji's forts

Hill forts played a key role in Shivaji's strategy. He captured important forts at Murambdev (Rajgad), Torna, Kondhana (Sinhagad) and Purandar. He also rebuilt or repaired many forts in advantageous locations. In addition, Shivaji built a number of forts; the number "111" is reported in some accounts, but it is likely the actual number "did not exceed 18." The historian Jadunath Sarkar assessed that Shivaji owned some 240–280 forts at the time of his death. Each was placed under three officers of equal status, lest a single traitor be bribed or tempted to deliver it to the enemy. The officers acted jointly and provided mutual checks and balance.

==Mali caste of Mah

arashtra == The Mali caste of Maharashtra traditionally made their living by cultivating fruit, flowers and vegetables. There are many different sub-castes depending on what the sub-group cultivated, for example, the Phul mali were florists, the Jire mali grew jire or cumin, and halde mali cultivated Halad(turmeric) etc. In the 20th century, the mali have been the pioneers in using irrigation to grow cash crops such as sugar cane and in establishing farmer owned sugar mills. This led later in the century of wide spread cultivation of sugarcane in Western Maharashtra by other communities as well as the establishment hundreds of sugar mills in Maharashtra and other regions of India.

politics

The Mali are accorded the status of OBC (other backward class) by the government.This entitles them for preferential treatment for places at government supported educational institutions and government jobs.

Maharashtra

Pandharpur

Alandi

Dehu

Paithan

For other uses, see Bhandari (disambiguation).

Karhade (Karada)

Regions with significant populations
Primary populations in Maharashtra
Languages
Marathi in Maharashtra

Makar Sankranti or Pongal and Lohri	Thai Pongal in Colombo	Makara Sankranti or Pongal marks the transition of the Sun into Makara rasi. It marks the gradual increase of the duration of the day. Pongal is the first day of Uttarayana and coincides with the beginning of the Tamil month of Thai.	Pongal is one of the most popular harvest festivals of Tamil Nadu. Pongal occurs in the middle of January every year and marks the auspicious beginning of Uttarayana (sun's journey northwards). The Pongal festival lasts for four days. Celebrations include a drawing of Kolam, swinging & the cooking of delicious Pongal. This day coincides with Makara Sankranti. Pongal is also commemorated by Jallikattu as a part of festivities as a sport of valor The festival is celebrated mostly on January 14 of the Gregorian calendar (Vasant Panchami	Goddess Saraswati in Kolkata	Fifth day of the waxing moon of Magh (Hindu calendar)	Vasant Panchami (also called Saraswati Puja by Bengalis and Odias) is celebrated for the blessing of Saraswati, goddess of wisdom and the arts.
Thaipusam or Kavadi	Murugan during Thaipusam	The full moon day of the Tamil month of Thai	Thaipusam is a Hindu festival celebrated mostly by the Tamil community. The word Thaipusam is derived from the Tamil month name Thai and Pusam, which refers to a star near the location of the moon during the festival. The festival commemorates the occasion when Parvati gave Murugan a spear so he could vanquish the evil demon Soorapadman. Kavadi Attam (Tamil:காவடி ஆட்டம்) is a dance performed by the devotees during the ceremonial worship of Murugan, the Tamil God of War. It is often performed during the festival of Thaipusam and emphasises debt bondage. The Kavadi itself is a physical burden through which the devotees implore for help from the God Murugan.
Maha Shivaratri	Statue of Shiva meditating	Thirteenth night of the waning moon of Magh (Hindu calendar)	Maha Shivaratri is the great night of Shiva, during which followers of Shiva observe religious fasting and the offering of Bael (Bilva) leaves to Shiva. Mahashivaratri Festival or ‘The Night of Shiva’ is celebrated with devotion and religious fervor in honor of Lord Shiva, one of the deities of Hindu Trinity. Shivaratri falls on the moonless 14th night of the new moon in the Hindu month of Phalgun, which corresponds to the month of February - March in English Calendar. Celebrating the festival of Shivaratri devotees observe day and night fast and perform ritual worship of Shiva Lingam to appease Lord Shiva. To mark the Shivratri festival, devotees wake up early and take a ritual bath, preferably in river Ganga. After wearing fresh new clothes devotees visit the nearest Shiva temple to give ritual bath to the Shiva Lingum with milk, honey, water etc. On Shivaratri, worship of Lord Shiva continues all through the day and night. Every three hours priests perform ritual pooja of Shivalingam by bathing it with milk, yoghurt, honey, ghee, sugar and water amidst the chanting of “Om Namah Shivaya’ and ringing of temple bells. Nightlong vigil or jaagran is also observed in Shiva temples where large number of devotees spend the night singing hymns and devotional songs in praise of Lord Shiva. It is only on the following morning that devotee break their fast by partaking prasad offered to the deity.
Holi	Holi in Pushkar, Rajasthan A little kid after Holi celebrating (Haridwar)	Full moon of the Phalgun month (Hindu calendar)	Holi or Phagwah is a popular spring festival. Holi commemorates the slaying of the demoness Holika by Lord Vishnu's devotee Prahlad. Thus, the festival's name is derived from the Sanskrit words "Holika Dahanam", which literally mean "Holika's slaying". The festival is called Shigmo and Shimga in Goa and rural Maharashtra respectively.
Shigmo			Shigmo is celebrated in Goa as one of the prominent festivals of the Konkani Hindu community.The main festival coincides with Holi.
Rang Panchami			In Maharashtra and parts of Madhya Pradesh, the festival of colors is celebrated five days after Holi on Rang Panchami, .
Gangaur	Mother Gaur		"Gangaur" is the colourful and the one of the most important festivals of people of Rajasthan and is observed throughout the state with great fervour and devotion by womenfolk who worship Gauri, the consort of Lord Shiva during March–April.
Vasant Navratri		First nine days of the Chaitra month (Hindu calendar)	Navratri is the Hindu festival of worship and dance. In Sanskrit the term literally means "nine nights". During this festival the forms of Shakti are worshipped, and effigies are burned.
Rama Navami	Home shrine on Rama Navami	Ninth of the Chaitra month (Hindu calendar)	Rama Navami is the celebration of the birth of Rama. Rama Navami is the day on which Lord Rama, the seventh incarnation of Lord Vishnu, incarnated in human form in the land of Ayodhya. He is the ardha ansh of Vishnu or has half the divinitive qualities of Lord Vishnu. The word “Rama” literally means one who is divinely blissful and who gives joy to others, and one in whom the sages rejoice. Ram Navami falls on the ninth day of the bright fortnight in the month of Chaitra (April/May) and coincides with Vasant Navratri or Chait Durga Puja. Therefore, in some regions, the festival is spread over nine days. This day, marking the birthday of Lord Rama, is also observed as the marriage day of Rama and Sita and thus also referred to as Kalyanotsavam. In Ayodhya, the birthplace of Lord Rama, a huge fair is held with thousands of devotees gathering to celebrate this festival. The fair continues for two days, and rathyatras, carrying the Deities of Ram, his brother Laxman, His wife Sita, and His greatest devotee Mahavir Hanuman, are taken out from almost all Ram Temples. Hanuman is known for is his devotion to Rama, and his tales form an important part of the celebration. In Andhra Pradesh, Ram Navami is celebrated for 10 days from the Chaitra saptami to the Bahula Padyami that fall in the month of March and April. Temples re-enact the marriage of Lord Rama and Sita to commemorate this event, since this day is also the day they got married.
Gudi Padwa, Chetichand	Traditional Gudhi	First Day of waxing moon of Chaitra (Hindu calendar)	Gudhi Padwa / ChetiChand is celebrated on the first day of the Hindu Lunar month of Chaitra, and is celebrated as New Year's Day by Marathis, Konkanis and Sindhis . According to the Brahma Purana, this is the day on which Brahma created the world.
Ugadi	Holigey or Bhakshalu prepared on Ugadi		Ugadi (meaning "the start of an era" in Kannada) is New Year's Day for the Kannadigas and Telugus.	Called Gudi Padwa in Maharashtra
Mesha Sankranti	Ganges at Haridwar, Uttarakhand	First day of solar month of Vaisakha.	Mesha Sankranti (also called Vaisakha Sankranti) represents the transition of the sun into the Mesha (Aries) Zodiac. Marks the start of the solar new year in lunisolar calendars. Involves bathing in holy waters. Regional new year festivals are also observed on this day such as Vishu, Pohela Boishakh and Vaisakhi. Represents the vernal (Spring) equinox.
Vishu	Traditional vishu kani		Vishu is a Hindu festival celebrated in Kerala. It falls around 14 April of the Gregorian year.
Tamil New Year			The Tamil New Year follows the Nirayan vernal equinox. it falls around 14 April of the Gregorian year.
Bihu	Bihu dancer with 'pepa'	Vaisakha/Bohag (Assamese calendar) – The first month of Hindu calendar	Rongali Bihu (mid-April, also called Bohag Bihu), the most popular Bihu celebrates the onset of the Assamese New Year (around 15 April) and the coming of Spring.
Hanuman Jayanti	Shri Hanuman Mandir		Hanuman Jayanti is the celebration of the birth of Hanuman, Rama's loyal devotee. To mark the birth of Lord Hanuman, Hanuman Jayanti is celebrated all over India in the month of Chaitra in Hindu calendar. The great Hanuman is known for its great strength, power and his immortal devotion towards Lord Rama. He is considered to be a greatest follower of Lord Rama and played a crucial role in his life. He is considered to be as one of the most powerful Hindu gods in India. Celebrations on Hanuman Jayanti began early in the day with special puja being performed by devotees. Devotees perform holy Puja in temples dedicated to Sri Hanuman or at Home. People in India organize special prayers for Lord Hanuman to get rid of evil spirits. The God is known for its magical powers. Prayers and Hymns are sung all day long in various Hanuman temples dedicated to the lord. Hanuman is considered as a symbol of Power and great strength in Hindu mythology. On auspicious day of Hanuman Jayanti, People apply red Sindoor from Lord's feet on their foreheads. This is considering being a ritual for good health and good luck.
Sitalsasthi		Sixth day of the bright fortnight of the month of Jyestha (Hindu calendar)	The marriage of Shiva and Parvati is celebrated as Sitalsasthi. It is celebrated as a carnival, in which people and artists from different walks of life participate, making it more beautiful and bringing out the true colour of life.
Vat Pournima	Tying threads around a banyan tree (wata)	Full moon of Jyeshta (Hindu calendar)	Vat Pournima is observed in Maharashtra. Pournima means "full moon." Women pray for the prosperity of their husbands by tying threads around a banyan tree.
Bonalu	Women with Bonam performing parikrama		Bonalu is a festival celebrated for a Mother Goddess ( such as the goddesses Pochamma, Yellamma, etc.) in the Telangana.
Bathukamma	Women dancing around Bathukammas		Bathukamma is a festival celebrated during the months of September and October in 10 districts of Telangana.
Rath Yatra	Rath Jatra in Puri	Second to tenth day of waxing moon phase of month Ashadha (Hindu Calendar)	Rath Yatra is the festival associated with Jagannath.It is the most important festival of Bengalis and Odias .
Raja Parba	Raja Doli khela, Oriya festival	The second day(Raja Shankranti) signifies beginning of the solar month of Mithuna	Raja Parba is a four-day-long festival. It inaugurates and welcomes the agricultural year all over Odisha.
Guru Purnima	Sanyasi performing Vyasa puja	Full moon of Ashadh (Hindu calendar)	Guru Purnima is the day devotees offer puja (worship) to their Guru. This was also the day when Vyasa, author of the Mahabharata was born.
Mahalakshmi Vrata	Mahalakshmi performing Mahalakshmi		Mahalakshmi Vrata is a puja performed by married Hindu women to seek the blessings of Mahalakshmi, goddess of wealth and prosperity.
Onam	Thiruvathira Kali during Onam in Kerala		Onam Onam is the harvest festival of Kerala. Though Onam is traditionally a Hindu festival celebrated in Kerala, contemporarily Onam is celebrated by the Kerala diaspora across the globe. Onam commemorates the rule of Mahabali, an Asura(demon) king who loved his subjects. During his rule people were happy, honest and full of righteousness. Legend says Lord Vishnu took the incarnation of Vamana, a dwarf Brahmin who visited Mahabali seeking three steps of land for sitting in self denunciation. Cleverly Vamana defeated Mahabali and sent him to the netherworld. Onam is the annual homecoming of the legendary Emperor Mahabali. It falls during the month of Chingam (August–September) and lasts for ten days. The festival is marked by various festivities, including intricate flower carpets, elaborate banquet lunches, snake boat races, Onappottan, Kaazhchakkula in Guruvayoor, Puli Kali, Kaikottikkali etc. These festivities make Onam a unique festival on the earth which is embellished by most number of cultural elements and it can be undoubtedly said that these elements constitute the colorfulness, diversity and richness that no other festival can claim.On Onam day people conduct special prayers in Hindu temples.Although Prayers in Hindu temples are important part of the festival, non-Hindus are not allowed to enter temples..
Raksha Bandhan	Rakhis	Full moon of Shravana (Hindu calendar)	Raksha Bandhan is a festival celebrated mainly in northern Indian states. Rakhi is a special occasion to celebrate the chaste bond of love between a brother and a sister.
Teejdi		Third day after Raksha Bandhan	"Teejdi" is a festival of Sindhis. On this day Sindhi ladies observe a day long fasting for longer life of their husbands. They take dinner after "Chandra Darshan" i.e. seeing Moon.
Krishna Janmaashtami	Govinda Pathaks forming human tower	Eighth day of waning moon of Bhadrapad (Hindu calendar)	Krishna Janmaashtami is the Hindu festival celebrating the birth of Krishna. It is actually called as Krishna Jayanthi. The date falls not only on the eighth day of the waning moon of Bhadrapad, but always on Rohini Nakshatra. Janmashtami, the birthday of Lord Krishna is celebrated with great devotion and enthusiasm in India in the month of July or August. According to the Hindu calendar this religious festival is celebrated on the Ashtami of Krishna Paksh or the 8th day of the dark fortnight in the month of Bhadon. Sri Krishna is considered as the one of the most powerful human incarnations of the Lord Vishnu. He was born around 5,200 years ago in Mathura. The sole objective of Sri Krishna's birth was to free the Earth from the evilness of demons. He played an important role in Mahabharata and propagated the theory of bhakti and good karma which are narrated deeply in the Bhagwat Geeta. Sri Krishna was born in a prison in the custody of Kansa. Vasudev, His father immediately thought of his friend Nand and decided to hand over his child to him to save Krishna from the clutch of Kansa. Krishna grew up in Gokul and finally killed his uncle, King Kansa. The actual celebration of Janmashtami takes place during the midnight as Sri Krishna is believed to be born on a dark, stormy and windy night to end the rule and violence of his uncle, Kansa. All over India this day is celebrated with devotional songs and dances, pujas, arti, blowing of the Conch and rocking the cradle of baby Sri Krishna. The Janmashtami celebration of Mathura and Vrindavan, the places where Sri Krishna had spent his life, are very special. On this day temples and homes are wonderfully decorated and illuminated. Night long prayers are offered and religious mantras are sung in the temples.
Radhastami		Eighth day of waxing moon of Bhadrapad (Hindu calendar)	Radhastami is celebrated all across India especially in Northern India on Bhadrapad Shukla Paksha Ashtami as birth anniversary of Goddess Radha, consort of lord Krishna.
Gowri Habba			Gowri Habba is celebrated in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. Gowri is worshipped for her ability to bestow courage to her devotees. Newly wed couples are invited to the house of the groom's parents and served with varieties of food.
Ganesh Chaturthi	Ganesh Visarjan in Mumbai	Fourth day of the waxing moon of Bhadrapada (Hindu calendar)	Ganesh Chaturthi is the celebrated as the arrival of Ganesh on the earth. It is very important festival in Maharashta. Ganesh Festival celebrated in Pune in very traditional way.
Nuakhai		Fifth day of the waxing moon of Bhadrapada (Hindu calendar)	Nuakhai is celebrated to welcome the new rice of the season. This is an agricultural festival mainly observed by people of western Odisha (Kosal).
Navarathri	Garba dance in Ahmedabad	First nine nights of the waxing moon of Ashvin	Navarathri is the Hindu festival of worship and dance. In Sanskrit the term literally means "nine nights". During this festival the forms of Shakti are worshiped. Literally “nine nights”, this nine – day period from the new moon day to the ninth day of Ashvin is considered the most auspicious time of the Hindu calendar and is hence the most celebrated time of the year. Although it has different names in different parts of India, Hindus from all regions celebrate it. From Kashmir in the North to Tamil Nadu in the South, and from Gujarat in the West to Sikkim in the East, it is celebrated with great enthusiasm as the conquest of good over evil. Every region has its own myths and reasons to explain this. The nine different aspects of Devi are worshipped over the nine days.
Durga Puja	Durga Puja celebration in Dhaka	First ten nights of the waxing moon of Ashvin	These are the most popular forms under which she is worshipped: Durga, goddess beyond reach; Kali, the auspicious power of time; Amba or Jagdamba, mother of the world; Annapurna, giver of food and plenty; Sarvamangala, auspicious goddess; Bhairavi, terrible, fearful, power of death; Chandika or Chandi, violent, wrathful, furious; Lalita, playful; Bhavani, giver of existence;Tara, giver of success in work. It is the most important festival of Bengalis and Odias .
Vijayadashami		Tenth day of waxing moon of Ashvin (Hindu calendar)	Vijayadashami is the Hindu celebration of good over evil.
Deepavali	Rangoli decorations	New moon of Ashvin (Hindu calendar)	Deepavali which means "row of lights/lamps" in Kannada and Telugu and Marathi and Sanskrit is called "Diwali" in North India, Deepa means lamp and in Hindi a lamp is mostly called a Diya or Di. The festival is celebrated on the occasion of Lord Krishna and his wife Satyabhama killing a demon Narakasura. Another story says the festival is celebrated for the return of Rama and Sita to the kingdom Ayodhya after fourteen years of exile. Rama is exiled to the forest for 14 years, his devoted wife Sita and humble brother Laxman decide to join him, after 14 years the whole village know he is returning so light lamps or 'divas' to guide him, his wife and brother home. So every year lamps are lit to represent Rama finding his way back home after the harsh punishment of being sent to exile in the forest.
Bhai dooj		Second day of the waxing moon of Kartik (Hindu calendar)	Bhai dooj, also referred to as Bhaubeej in Marathi, is the ceremony performed by Hindus, generally, on the second day of Deepavali. It is celebrated among brothers and sisters and is similar to Raksha Bandhan, except there is no tying of rakhi involved.
Kartik Poornima		15th of the Full moon day of Kartik (November–December)	A unique festival is celebrated in Varanasi this day which is called Dev Devali. The Kartik Purnima festival also coincides with the Jain light festival and Guru Nanak Jayanti
Chhath	Morning worship at Jamshedpur		Chhath is mainly observed in Bihar and Terai, but is also celebrated elsewhere. It is a festival dedicated to the Sun God for bestowing the bounties of life and fulfilling wishes.
Skanda Sashti			Skanda Sashti is decided on lunar month during sixth day of Karthika Masam (October–November). It is one of the most important festival dedicated to Lord Murugan the second son of Shiva. On this festival is celebrated the victory of Murugan against the Asuras.
Champa Sashti			Champa Sashti festival is a six-day festival observed from the first to the sixth of the Hindu month of Margashirsha (November – early December). It is one of the most important festival dedicated to Lord Khandoba.This festival celebrates the victory of Khandoba against the demons Mani-Malla.
Prathamastami		After 8 days of Kartik Purnima	Prathamastami is a festival that originated in Odia. It is held on the eighth day of the month of Agrahayana, when older female relatives pray for the prosperity of their eldest child. The festival is followed by rituals and recitations of the Glory of Mahalakshmi and Shashti devi.
Yatra	Dnyaneshwar's palkhi holding the footwear of the saint		Yatra (also Zatra and jatra) refers to the pilgrimage festivals celebrated at Hindu temples. Idols and murtis are taken out on special procession in a palkhi (a palanquin) or a chariot called the rath. Every temple observes this festival once a year on the traditional day. Palkhi is main tradition of Maharashtra. Sant Dhnyaneshwar had started the palkhi from Alandi (Pune) to Pandharpur. Every year Marathi people celebrates Palkhi from Alandi and Dehu to Pandharpur.
Karthikai Deepam	Pithalai vilakku during Karthigai Deepam in Mumbai.		Karthikai Deepam is an ancient festival of lights celebrated by Tamil Hindus on the full moon day of Karthikai month (November/December). This occurs on the day when the moon is in conjunction with the constellation Karthigai (Pleiades) and purnima. It is the same as Kartik Poornima; however, since Tamils follow the Hindu Solar calendar with correction for precession of the equinoxes, the Tamil date matches the actual constellation.
Pancha Ganapati		A Winter Solstice celebration that lasts five days.	Pancha Ganapati is a modern Hindu festival celebrating Lord Ganesha, the Five-Faced Maha Ganapati—Lord of Categories.
Kumbh Mela	Procession of Akharas marching over the Ganges.	A pilgrimage made every four years to the Ganges river	The Purna (complete) Kumbh takes place every twelve years, and is an ordinary large Kumbh Mela. The Ardh (half) Kumbh Mella, a smaller Kumbh Mela, is celebrated every six years. The normal Kumbh Mela is celebrated every 4 years. The Maha (great) Kumbh Mela, a special large Kumbh Mela, occurs every 12 'Purna Kumbh Melas', or 144 years.
Godavari Pushkaram or Purna Kumbha Mela	Arch Bridge Rajahmundry over Godavari		Godavari Pushkaram or Godavari Pushkaralu is most commonly stated as it is the festival of the river Godavari. The main significance of this Godavari Pushkaralu is that It occurs once in every 12 years in other words called as Pushakara. The river Godavari took it birth at triambakeswar of Nasik which is located in Maharashtra state. It flow along the various regions of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh and finally flows into the Bay of Bengal.Maha Pushkaralu which comes once in 144 years. Main centre's that celebrate Pushkaram are Rajahmundry, Bhadrachalam, Trimbakeshwar & Nasik.Most of the Godavari River is connected with Rajahmundry, where it has wide spread across the city.
Sama Chakeva			"Sama Chakeva (Nepali or Hindi: सामाचकेवा) is an important festival observed by Mithila region that extends from Terai of Nepal to Bihar and Jharkhanda states of India. With great enthusiasm, young brothers and sisters celebrate this festival in the month of Kartik as per Bikram Sambat Calendar, which is in the month of November, when birds traditionally begin the migration of beautiful and colourful birds from the Himalayas to plain parts of Nepal (Terai) and India. This festival demonstrates love and affection between brothers and sisters. This festival begins immediately after the conclusion of Chhath festival in Nepal and northern parts of India, and ends on the full moon day of Kartik, that coincides in the month of November."
Tulsi Pujan Diwas		December 25 every year	Tulsi Pujan Diwas is celebrated on December's 25 by Hindus in India. Tulsi in Hinduism is used for medicinal and spiritual use. It is considered sacred in Hinduism and it is believed that Tulsi brings prosperity.
Naga Panchami	Nagabana at Belle Badagumane, Moodubelle, Udupi	Fifth day of Shravan month of the Lunar calendar	Naga Panchami is a traditional worship of snakes or serpents observed by Hindus throughout India, Nepal and other countries where Hindu adherents live.

Forest

1. Southern Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests 2. Southern Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests Two main sub-types occur under this group. i) Moist Teak bearing Forests ii) Moist Mixed deciduous Forests: 3. Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests i) Dry Teak Bearing Forests: ii) Moist Mixed deciduous Forests: 4. Southern Tropical Thorn Forests: 5. Littoral and Swamp Forests:

1. Southern Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests Forests of this type occur mostly on upper hill slope from 450 meters to 1050 metres above the m.s.l. in Western Ghats. The main species are Terminalia paniculata (Kinjal), Memocylon umbellatum (Anjani), Terminalia chebula (Hirda), Syzigium cumini (Jambul), Olea diocea (Parjamun) and Mangifera indica (mango), Actinodaphne hookeri (Pisa), etc.

	2. Southern Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests

Two main sub-types occur under this group. i) Moist Teak bearing Forests Important and valuable forests of the State from commercial view point, these are mainly confined to Project Tiger area in Melghat region of Amrawati district, Chandrapur, Gadhchiroli and Thane districts with Tectona grandis (Teak), the associates are Terminalia tomentosa (Ain), Delbergia latifolia (Shisham), Adina cardifolia (haldu), Madhuca indica (Moha), Pterocarpusmarsupium (Bija), Mitragyna parviflora (kalam), Salmalia malabaricum (Semal) and Dendrocalamus strictus(Bamboo) etc.

Karhade Brahmin

Karhāḍe is a brahmin sub-caste mainly from Maharashtra region in IndiaThey are a predominantly Pancha-Dravida Brahmin sub-group.

History

The Sahyadrikhanda part of the Hindu text Skanda Purana makes disparaging claims about the community. .</ref>Outside Maharashtra they are found in cities like Indore in the present day Madhya Pradesh state In the former Portuguese colony of Goa they were employed as temple priests.The Goan Karhade are called Padhye. Karhade and other Marathi brahmins started migrating to the Hindu holy city of Benares in the medieval times.They dominated the intellectual life of the city and established an important presence at the Mughal and other north Indian courts. P.Gode mentions a Kṛṣṇabhaṭṭa Bakhale as the leader or pramukh of Karhade brahmins in Benares between 1550 and 1600.The concentration of power in the Marathi heartlands by the Chitpavan brahmins during the Peshwa era forced many Karhade and Deshastha brahmins to move east to the Godavari region in present-day sate of Andhra pradesh.After the appointment of the karhade, Govind Pant as the agent of the Peshwa in Central India (present day Madhya Pradesh), a number of his caste fellows also moved there with him

Culture

Karhade have traditionally been an endogamous community (Marry within the community)Just like the Deshastha Brahmin, Karhade have also traditionally allowed cross-cousin marriages and a woman marrying her maternal uncle Karhade worship the Goddess at Tuljapur as their main tutelary deity (Kuldevta)

Notable People

• Balshastri Jambhekar (1810-1846) -The first Marathi language journalist and founder Darpan, came from the Karehade community
• Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi (Nee Manu Tambe)(1828-1858) - One of the leaders of the Indian Rebellion of 1857
• Bhaskar Ramchandra Tambe (1874–1941) - Early Modern poet in Marathi language
• Govind Sakharam Sardesai (1865 – 1959) - Eminent historian
• B.G. Kher (1888 – 1957)- the chief minister of the Congress party led government of Bombay Presidency following the passing of the Government of India Act 1935
• M. S. Golwalkar (1906 – 1973)- The second chief or Sarsanghachalak of the Hindu Nationalist RSS

Kurua

Shāntanu

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Musical genealogy
Pandit Sawai Gandharva Pandit Bhimsen Joshi Gangubai Hangal My brother Joe Anand Bhate! My little sister boxstyle_ ME=background-color: #bfc;}}

Abdul Karim Khan

Sawai Gandharva

Bhimsen Joshi

Gangubai Hangal

content to be added in History of Pune section on 1947-91

Headings

Social and Cultural life

Parks

No parks during British era.

Karhade history

The Sahyadrikhanda part of the Hindu text Skanda Purana makes disparaging claims about the community Outside Maharashtra they are found in cities like Indore in the present day Madhya Pradesh state In the former Portuguese colony of Goa they were employed as temple priests.The Goan Karhade are called Padhye Karhade and other Marathi brahmins started migrating to the Hindu holy city of Benares in the medieval times.They dominated the intellectual life of the city and established an important presence at the Mughal and other north Indian courts. P.Gode mentions a Kṛṣṇabhaṭṭa Bakhale as the leader or pramukh of Karhade brahmins in Benares between 1550 and 1600.The concentration of power in the Marathi heartlands by the Chitpavan brahmins during the Peshwa era forced many Karhade and Deshastha brahmins to move east to the Godavari region in present-day sate of Andhra pradesh.After the appointment of the karhade, Govind Pant as the agent of the Peshwa in Central India (present day Madhya Pradesh), a number of his caste fellows also moved there with him

Culture

Karhade have traditionally been an endogamous community Just like the Deshastha Brahmin, Karhade have also traditionally allowed cross-cousin marriages and a woman marrying her maternal uncle Karhade worship the Goddess at Tuljapur as their main tutelary deity (Kuldevta)

Deshastha

The majority of Deshasthas speak Marathi, one of the major languages of the mainly northern Indo-Aryan language group. The major dialects of Marathi are called Standard Marathi and Warhadi Marathi. Standard Marathi is the official language of the State of Maharashtra. The language of Pune's Deshastha Brahmins has been considered to be the standard Marathi language and the pronunciation of the Deshastha Rigvedi is given prominence. There are a few other sub-dialects like Ahirani, Dangi, Samavedi, Khandeshi and Chitpavani Marathi. There are no inherently nasalised vowels in standard Marathi whereas the Chitpavani dialect of Marathi does have nasalised vowels.

By

tradition, like other Brahmin communities of Southern India, Deshastha Brahmins are lacto vegetarian. Typical Deshastha cuisine consists of the simple varan made from tuvar dal. Metkut, a powdered mixture of several dals and a few spices is also a part of traditional Deshastha cuisine. Deshastha use black spice mix or kala, literally black, masala, in cooking. Traditionally, each family had their own recipe for the spice mix. However, this tradition is dying out as modern households buy pre-packaged mixed spice directly from supermarkets. Puran poli for festivals and on the first day of the two-day marriage is another Marathi Brahmin special dish.

A Deshastha woman from the 1970s in the traditional attire

Most middle aged and young women in urban Maharashtra dress in western outfits such as skirts and trousers or shalwar kameez with the traditionally nauvari or nine-yard sari, disappearing from the markets due to a lack of demand. Older women wear the five-yard sari. Traditionally, Brahmin women in Maharashtra, unlike those of other castes, did not cover their head with the end of their saree. In urban areas, the five-yard sari is worn by younger women for special occasions such as marriages and religious ceremonies. Maharashtrian brides prefer the very Maharashtrian saree – the Paithani – for their wedding day.

In early to mid 20th century, Deshastha men used to wear a black cap to cover their head, with a turban or a pagadi being popular before that. For religious ceremonies males wore a coloured silk dhoti called a sovale. In modern times, dhotis are only worn by older men in rural areas. In urban areas, just like women, a range of styles are preferred. For example, the Deshastha politician Manohar Joshi prefers white fine khadi kurtas, while younger men prefer modern western clothes such as jeans.

In the past, caste or social disputes used to be resolved by joint meetings of all Brahmin sub-caste men in the area.

Religious customs

Deshastha Rigvedi Brahmins still recite the Rig Veda at religious ceremonies, prayers and other occasions. These ceremonies include birth, wedding, initiation ceremonies, as well as death rituals. Other ceremonies for different occasions in Hindu life include Vastushanti which is performed before a family formally establishes residence in a new house, Satyanarayana Puja, originating in Bengal in the 19th century, is a ceremony performed before commencing any new endeavour or for no particular reason. Invoking the name of the family's gotra and the kula daivat are important aspects of these ceremonies. Like most other Hindu communities, Deshasthas have a shrine called a devaghar in their house with idols, symbols, and pictures of various deities. Ritual reading of religious texts called pothi is also popular.

A typical Deoghar or shrine in a deshastha household

In traditional families, any food is first offered to the preferred deity as naivedya, before being consumed by family members and guests. Meals or snacks are not taken before this religious offering. In contemporary Deshasthas families, the naivedya is offered only on days of special religious significance.

Deshasthas, like all other Hindu Brahmins, trace their paternal ancestors to one of the seven or eight sages, the saptarshi. They classify themselves into eight gotras, named after the ancestor rishi. Intra-marriage within gotras (Sagotra Vivaha) was uncommon until recently, being discouraged as it was likened to incest, although the taboo has considerably reduced in the case of modern families who are bound by more practical considerations.

In a court case "Madhavrao versus Raghavendrarao", involving a Deshastha Brahmin couple, the German philosopher and Indologist Max Müller's definition of gotra as descending from eight sages and then branching out to several families was thrown out by reputed judges of a Bombay High Court. The court called the idea of Brahmin families descending from an unbroken line of common ancestors as indicated by the names of their respective gotras impossible to accept. The court consulted relevant Hindu texts and stressed the need for Hindu society and law to keep up with the times emphasising that notions of good social behaviour and the general ideology of Hindu society had changed. The court also said that the mass of material in the Hindu texts are so vast and full of contradictions that it is almost an impossible task to reduce it to order and coherence.

Every Deshastha family has their own family patron deity or the Kuladaivat. This deity is common to a lineage or a clan of several families who are connected to each other through a common ancestor. The Khandoba of Jejuri is an example of a Kuladaivat of some Maharashtrian Deshastha families; he is a common Kuladaivat to several castes ranging from Brahmins to Dalits. The practice of worshiping local or territorial deities as Kuladaivats began in the period of the Yadava dynasty. Other family deities of the people of Maharashtra are Bhavani of Tuljapur, Mahalaxmi of Kolhapur, Mahalaxmi of Amravati, Renuka of Mahur, Parashuram in Konkan, Saptashringi on Saptashringa hill at Vani in Nasik district. Despite being the most popular deity amongst Deshastha and other Marathi people, very few families regard Vitthal or other popular Avatars of Vishnu such as Rama or Krishna as their Kuldaivat, with Balaji being an exception.

Ceremonies and rituals

Upon birth, a child is initiated into the family ritually according to the Rig Veda for the Rigvedi Brahmins. The naming ceremony of the child may happen many weeks or even months later, and it is called the barsa. In many Hindu communities around India, the naming is almost often done by consulting the child's horoscope, in which are suggested various names depending on the child's Lunar sign (called Rashi). However, in Deshastha families, the name that the child inevitably uses in secular functioning is the one decided by his parents. If a name is chosen on the basis of the horoscope, then that is kept a secret to ward off casting of a spell on the child during his or her life. During the naming ceremony, the child's paternal aunt has the honour of naming the infant. When the child is 11 months old, he or she gets their first hair-cut. This is an important ritual as well and is called Jawal.

When a male child reaches his eighth birthday he undergoes the initiation thread ceremony variously known as Munja (in reference to the Munja grass that is of official ritual specification), Vratabandha, or Upanayanam. From that day on, he becomes an official member of his caste, and is called a dwija which translates to "twice-born" in English, in the sense that while the first birth was due to his biological parents, the second one is due to the initiating priest and Savitri. Traditionally, boys are sent to gurukula to learn Vedas and scriptures. Boys are expected to practice extreme discipline during this period known as brahmacharya. Boys are expected to lead a celibate life, live off alms, consume selected vegetarian saatvic food and observe considerable austerity in behaviour and deeds. Though such practices are not followed in modern times by a majority of Deshasthas, all Deshasthas boys undergo the sacred thread ceremony. Many still continue to get initiated around eight years of age. Those who skip this get initiated just before marriage. Twice-born Deshasthas perform annual ceremonies to replace their sacred threads on Narali Purnima or the full moon day of the month of Shravan, according to the Hindu calendar. The threads are called Jaanave in Marathi and Janavaara in Kannada.

The Deshasthas are historically an endogamous and monogamous community for whom marriages take place by negotiation. The Mangalsutra is the symbol of marriage for the woman. Studies show that most Indians' traditional views on caste, religion and family background have remained unchanged when it came to marriage, that is, people marry within their own castes, and matrimonial advertisements in newspapers are still classified by caste and sub-caste. In 1907, Rivers and Ridgeway record that Deshasthas allowed cross cousin marriages, just like other South Indian castes.

While arranging a marriage, gana, gotra, pravara, devak are all kept in mind. Horoscopes are matched. Ghosal describes the marriage ceremony as, "The groom, along with the bride's party goes to the bride's house. A ritual named Akshat is performed in which people around the groom and bride throw haldi (turmeric) and sindur (vermilion) coloured rice grains on the couple. After the Kanyadan ceremony, there is an exchange of garlands between the bride and the groom. Then, the groom ties the Mangalsutra around the neck of the bride. This is followed by granthibandhan in which the end of the bride's sari is tied to the end of the groom's dhoti, and a feast is arranged at the groom's place."

A Deshasthas marriage ceremony includes many elements of a traditional Marathi Hindu wedding ceremony. It consists of seemant poojan on the wedding eve. The dharmic wedding includes the antarpat ceremony followed by the vedic ceremony which involves the bridegroom and the bride walking around the sacred fire seven times to complete the marriage. Modern urban wedding ceremonies conclude with an evening reception. A Deshastha woman becomes part of her husband's family after marriage and adopts the gotra as well as the traditions of her husband's family.

After weddings and also after thread ceremonies, Deshastha families arrange a traditional religious singing performance by a Gondali group

Decades ago, Deshastha girls used to get married to the groom of their parents' choice by early teens or before. Even today, girls are married off in their late teens by rural and less educated amongst Deshastha. Urban women may choose to remain unmarried until the late 20s or even early 30s.

The 1881 Kolhapur gazetteer records that Deshastha widows at that time used to shave their heads and wear simple red saris. A widow also had to stop wearing the kunku on her forehead. In the past, a Deshastha widow was never allowed to remarry, while it was acceptable for Deshastha widowers to remarry, and the widows had to lead a very austere life with little joy. Divorces were non-existent. All of these practices have gradually fallen by the wayside over the last hundred years, and modern Deshastha widows lead better lives and younger widows also remarry. Divorce takes place by mutual consent and legal approval is sought.

Deshastha Brahmins dispose their dead by cremation. The dead person's son carries the corpse to the cremation ground atop a bier. The eldest son lights the fire to the corpse at the head for males and at the feet for females. The ashes are gathered in an earthen pitcher and immersed in a river on the third day after the death. This is a 13-day ritual with the pinda being offered to the dead soul on the 11th and a Śrāddha ceremony followed by a funeral feast on the 13th. Cremation is performed according to vedic rites, usually within a day of the individual's death. Like all other Hindus, the preference is for the ashes to be immersed in the Ganges river or Godavari river. Śrāddha becomes an annual ritual in which all forefathers of the family who have passed on are remembered. These rituals are expected to be performed only by male descendants, preferably the eldest son of the deceased.

Pandharpur

Alandi

Dehu

Paithan

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Location of Pandharpur and the starting place of important palkhis

| longm = | latd = 19.48 | latm = | lats = | latNS = N | longd = 75.38

Discussion and Actions

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Flag of the Maratha Empire

File:Godess Tulja Bhavani of Tuljapur.bmp.jpg

The Marāthās is a collective term referring to an Indo-Aryan group of Hindu, Marathi-speaking castes of Kshatriya, warriors, commoner and peasants, hailing mostly from the Indian state of Maharashtra. They created the Maratha Empire which covered a major part of India in the 17th and 18th centuries.

The Marathas constituted an extensive and eclectic class of warriors and peasants. Their clan structure may therefore be of interest to sociologists, political scientists, anthropologists and historians. Several lists and taxonomies of the Maratha clan structure are available. An authoritative listing was apparently first attempted in 1888 and a list finalised in 1956 by the Government of India. One such version is presented here.

Origin of clan system

The list of main clans and their sub-clans or lines tended to differ from time to time, and by book to book. A commonly-accepted 96 clan list includes 24 suryavanshi clans, 24 chandravanshi clans, 24 bramhavanshi clans and 24 Nagavanshi clans.

Past political conditions were harsh and chaotic. Name changes occurred for many reasons. People changed their name to shield themselves from military conflicts, or from religious, political, caste persecution and discrimination. Others did so to hide from a criminal past. Some people chose to go underground, or migrated to a different region and changed their name in the process. Evidence suggests that some people or an entire clan changed their name but did not change their caste when they migrated to new region or came an under government. It is difficult process to identify and prepare clans lines that are completely correct and some Maratha surnames and clans are missing from this list.

The list in this article was created by the scholar Vyasa rishi with the help of other rishis such as Vamdev, Shuk and others. They established that the Great Maratha clans are descendants of all 56 Royal Houses of India. According to Arya, the Hindu religion in India was divided into 56 sub nations. The Mahabharata War was destructive and left these nations in general disarray. This was the start of the Kaliyuga age. In order to keep the religion alive, the rishis linked the Kshatriya, warriors, and Royal houses with a strong bond by creating the Maratha Clan System from the 56 royal houses of India. Before the 12 century there was no difference between southern Kshatriya (Marathas) and northern Kshatriya (Rajputs). The first Rajput clan list was prepared in 12th century and the difference was set. Intermarrying and other Kshatriya traditions were stopped.

Historic role

Historically Maratha clans played a major role in preserving Indian culture and religion. Indian civilisation is almost unbroken as no invader was able to wipe out indigenous Kshatriya clans. As a result a foreign culture could not be imposed, save for a few minor pockets which ultimately broke from India and formed new nations. The Marathas are either founders or descendants of the following list of empires.

• Ahirs
• Bhati (Bhoite)
• Bhonsle
• Chalukyas
• Chauhan
• Chandela
• Gaekwad (Gaikwad)
• Gujjar
• Kadambas
• Kakatiya
• Kalachuri or Chedi Kingdom or Heheya Kingdom
• Kale
• Kautkar
• Mane
• Maurya
• Mauryas
• Nala
• Nikumbha Nikam
• Pallavas
• Parihara
• Pawar, Ponwar, Paramara
• Rashtrakutas
• Shankhapal, Sankpal
• Savekar
• Satavahanas
• Scindia (Sendrak) (Shinde)(Shingade)
• Silhara dynasty
• Sisodia
• Salunke,Solanke
• Thakore
• Tomara
• Vaghela
• Vakataka
• Yadava
• Yadava of Deogiri or Devgiri

Surnames and other details of the 96 main clans (96 Kule)

Each of the 96 clans use several different surnames. A total of 3,487 such surnames are compiled below. Also compiled are some other traditional details about each clan.

Ahir-rao (Aahirraw), Dhampal, Ahirs

• Descended from: Somavanshi king Dhampal
• Original seat: Kolhapur or Kalyan
• Colour of sign, canopy, horse and throne: Yellow
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Rudra on Flagpole
• Clan god (Kuldaivat): Jyotiba
• Clan object (Devak): Umbar tree (Ficus racemosa Tree), Mango tree or Kalamb (Mytragyna parviflora Tree OR Anthocephalus envamba Tree)
• Guru: Atri muni
• Mantra: Gayatri mantra
• Gotra: Dhampal
• Veda: Yajurveda.
• Surnames:- Aadan, Aakhar, Aamale,Advane, Apraj, Aatole, Ade, Adhauo (Adhav), Akantak, Akante, Akaral, Akare, Akhande, Akral, Ameer, Araw, Armale, Awaghad, Bali, Balia, Bhilkar, Bhusgale, Charhate, Cherpe, Chitrakar Dabre, Date, Dature, Daware, Dewarde, Dhakne, Dhime, Dhole, Domne, Edhate, Erwe, Gangale,Gawade, Ghodchadhe, Ghokhale, Gubre, Haipkar, Jagbhand, Jagdumbare, Jaggethe, Jangle, Junde, Junghare, Juwware, Karnale, Kathale, Mulmule, Padole, Padpathe, Padwe, Pannase, Prokatat, Shimre, Shire, Tale, Tole, Zadokar. (Total 57)
• Dhampal is another name for the Aheer rao clan
• Surnames:- Jadhav, Yadav, Shirke, Fhalke, Dhekle, Madhav, Abhang, Adhak, Bhojke, Rumale, Abrood, Aaware, Verdant, Dange, Khilate, Dumge, Virdatta, Kautuke,Kautkar, Kolare, Kasale, Tade, Tanawade, Gavad (Gawde), Kalyankar, Dhomre, Kathawde, Suesen, Bavanse, Honmane, Dunge, Chitrakar

Aangre

(Original surname Shankhapal)

• Lineage : Moon Clan
• Throne, Canopy, Sign, Horse :- (Tambadi) Red colour
• Clan Goddess :- Jogeshwari
• Devak (Clan object) :- Shankha (conch shell)
• Gotra :- Gargayan
• Veda :- Yajurveda - Madhyandin.
• Victory weapon  :- Shstrakhanda weapon Puja.
• Pawar :- Bhargava, Aapnavan, Chavan .
• Guhyasutra :- Paraska
• Surnames: Aakhade, Aarsood, Aasood, Aatkad, Akhatyar, Akhil, Amankar, Andhak, Andhare, Awakale, Chabukswar, Chanchal, Chatap, Chatpate, Erkhade, Esankar, Ethakare, Ethale, Gadrarw, Gandharwa, Ghodtale, Haghane, Janghale, Janjal, Janjeere, Jatabhare, Jatadharee, Jathe, Jawjal, Kadale, Kankrale, Karnale, Matkar, Ladh, Sabkal, Sadar, Sawai, Sawkal, Tipre, Tridoshi, Tumane, Tushar, Watane

Aangan (Aangane)

• Lineage: Moon clan
• Original seat: Palashika (Halsi in Belgaum district, Karnataka)
• Heraldic insignia (Nishan): Sun on flagpole
• Colour of throne (Simhasan), canopy (Chhatra), insignia (Nishan) and horse (Varu): Red
• Clan deity (Kuladaivat): Goddess Bhavani
• Clan object (Devak): Kalamba (Mytragyna parviflora Tree OR Anthocephalus envamba Tree) or Ketak (Pandanus odoratissimus OR Fragrant screw pine)
• Gotra: Kadam
• Guru: Durvasa
• Veda: Rigveda
• Mantra: Tripad Gayatri mantra
• Surnames:- Aangan, Adshul, Agarkar, Alaspure, Angrakhe, Aswale, Awate, Awole, Budh, Budhe, Chakate, Chatte, Chattis, Chichor, Chote, Gandhi, Gaoorkhade, Gholap, Gulab, Jadnawal, Jaghane, Jagjal, Janchare, Janthe, Kalane, Kanoj, Karale, Kinge, Lahane, Mehkare, Oogal, Oornale, Randheer, Ranjeet, Salwe, Saoorkar, Tahane, Talghate, Talkat, Udhal, Udhawe, Upre, Usane, Utpadak, Uttam, Wale. (Total 46)

Bagwe

• Original kingdom: Dharanagari (Dhar in Madhya Pradesh)
• Colour of throne, canopy, sign (Nishan), and Horse (Varu): Red
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Moon on flagpole
• Clan god (Kuladaivat): Ling Ravalnath
• Clan object (Devak): Edge of the sword / five leaves
• Guru: Vasishtha
• Gotra: Shandilya
• Veda: Rigveda
• Mantra: Gayatri mantra

• Surnames:- Amir, Areeraw, Ambekar, Eangal, Karbe, Kanorte, Kashmirkar, Khanedar, Garudmane, Gabru, Garud, Gawdhal, Gihile, Chitrawadhe, Chitragupt, Chipde, Chipte, Jape, Janmandh, Zapate, Jamdande, Dhongiraw, Tikhate, Jamkhindee, Dhivde, Dhanurdhar, Dhaneshwar, Dhamal, Dhampal, Dhamdhar, Dhande, Dhaybar, Nahane, Naringe, Naydu, Nistane, Nerpagar, Parab, Prabhu, Pasubal, Pandav, Premed, Barve, Bandge, Mahiwar, Mokashe, Walunj, Sheshavansha, suryawanshi, Vasindkar. (Total 50)

Bagraw

• Lineage: Moon clan
• Gotra: Bharadwaj
• Devak (Clan objects):- Umbar or Shankh (Conch shell)
• Clan Gods:- Umamaheshwar, Tuljapur Goddess
• Surnames: Kalate, Kailase, Gavse, Gajre, Gajpal, Gajanan, Gajbal, Ganesh, Gangadhare, Galmane, Gaonkar, Rajhans, Chitre, Chitaree, Chitrakar, Chithakar, Narwade, Pardhkar, Pathaliy, Pal, Pate, Palye, Pindurkar, Bele, Boke, Besre, Bochre, Walshing, Wagulde, Waniyade, Warokar, Wande, Widhal, Widhate, Shirkhare, Shitar, Vidyane. (Total 38)

Bande

• Lineage: Sun or Solar Clan,
• Gotra:- Bharadwaja,
• Devak (Clan objects):- Gold, Turmeric, Ketki,
• Gods:- Bhavani goddess of Tuljapur

• Surnames: Gafhtane, Gawhar, Chikhle, Chilkhate, Chivat, Nakte, Nagale, Nagmote, Nirmal, Nimkar, Nilje, Panes, Pahokar, Pokharkar, Baskar, Bakle, Belsare, Bokde, Bambdale, Mahalung, Waskar, Wakle, Shingare, Shirak, Shendre, Panche, Pimple, Pohkar. (Total 29)

Babar

• Lineage: Sun or Solar Clan,
• Gotra: Bharadwaja,
• Devak (Clan objects ): Gold, Kalamb, Turmeric, Ketki,
• Clan Gods:-Bhavani Goddess of Tuljapur.
• Surnames: Ghathode, Chinchpure, Chinchdhar, Chinchalkare, Chinchulkar, Chiranjiv, Chirayu, Dhamode, Dhobe, Nare, Natrrke, Navavade, Nikumb, Nidar, Nicheshthe, Nijrupe, Patanwar, Parwal, Pagdhune, Piwal, Potte, Barbuddhe, Babar, Borkute, Boche, Bodhekar, Mahalka, Mandeesur, Rawatkar, Waluve, Wayzonde, Selkar, Potnis, Poshinde, Zanzane(Total 36)

Bhagwat

Lineage :- Sun or Solar Clan, Gotra:- Kashyapa, Devak (Clan objects):- Kalamb, Clan Gods:- Katyayani and Goddess of Tuljapur.

• Surnames: Chunade, Chugle, Chunkhade, Chatre, Chtrapatee, Jagnade, Jagkar, Janak, Janardan, Jalit, Jamdar, Jaysawar, Devtale, Deotale, Dharankar, Dhabe, Dhatrekar, Dhuldhar, Dhulse, Dhondale, Powar, Fhajeete, Barvat, Bakshee, Barulkar, Bodhale, Bhange, Madan, Mahokar, Warulkar, Sbodhale, Bhange, Mahokar, Warulkarsunpekar, Hood, Hiradeve, Holge, Howalkar, Kshyatre, Dynanee, Kshyetrapal, Dhyandev, Dhyanvat. (Total 41)

Bhosale/Bhonsle

• Lineage: Suryavansh or Solar clan
• Original kingdom: Mainawati, Tuljapur, Raygad fort (Raigad) and Burhanpur
• Current kingdoms: Kolhapur, Satara, Nagpur Akalkot and Thanjavur
• Colour of throne, canopy, sign (Nishan), and Horse (Varu): Bhagwa (Ochre), *Heraldic sign (Nishan): Rudra on flagpole
• Clan goddess: Jagdamba Bhavani, Tulja Bhavani, chittoud Bhavani, *Clan god: Eklingji, Bada Mahadeo of shikhar shingnapur Satara, Saptashrungi Nivasini Devi in Nasik district near Vani *Clan object (Devak): Five Leaf,
• Guru: Shankkayan, *Gotra: Kaushika, *Veda: Rigveda *Mantra: Gayatri mantra

• Surnames:-Aher, Awatar, Ubale, Aadhale, Bhondve, Desale, Dhole, Kacchawah, Kalse, Kanse, Kanase, Kadoo, Kharade, Ghorpade, Chavle, Devaskar, Deokar, Dhorne, Nakashe, Polhar, Fhale, Bansode, Badhe, Borde, Matale, Navsare, Mahajan. Ranbagul, Eaw, Lokhande, Widhate, Wiradh, Watekar, Pedgaonkar, Shisode, Sawant, Bhosale, Hivrale, Sarupye, kotwal(Total 37)

• Ghorpade is a branch of the Bhosale clan
• Original seat: Paithan in Maharashtra; Mudhol and Sandur in Karnataka
• 'Pedgaonkar' hail from Pedgaon in Ahmednagar district.
• Colour of throne, sign, canopy, horse: Ochre (Bhagwa)
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Rudra on Flagpole
• Clan god: Khanderao *Clan object: Rui tree ( Giant Milkweed tree )
• Gotra:Vajpeya *Veda: Rigveda *Mantra: Gayatri mantra.

Bhoware

• Lineage : Moon Clan
• Gotra : Kaushik
• Devak : Panchpallavi
• Surnames:-Gurav,Godkale, Golait, Ghedkar, Jameendar, Jabadade, Jachad, Javle, Jyotishee, Veerbhaw, Pohe, Poccha, Kartode, Bodye, Bhonware, Masurkar, Mhasagar, Veerbhav, Shakal, Shursen, Hise, Hole, Hore, Dhyankor. ( Total24)

Bhogle

• Lineage : Solar clan
• Original kingdom: Bagalkot (in Karnataka)
• Colour of throne, sign, canopy ( Baldachin ) & Horse:- Ochre
• Heraldic sign (Nishan):- Rudra on flagpole
• Clan deity (Kuladaivat):- Mahadeva *Clan object (Devak):- Pancha-pallava
• Guru:- Kaushika rshi *Gotra:- Dorik *Veda:- Rigveda *Mantra:- Gayatri mantra
• Surnames:- Ghabre, Geevtode, Jondhale, Geereetkar, Derkar, Dhade, Dhatrak, Dhabal, Dhide, Dharat, Dhotre, Dhote, Phalke, Bahurupe, Bachate, Bhate, Bohaskar, Mangale, Mhasake, Viral, Hinge, Hepte, Hemant, Hotke, Honade, Haibat, Tapkiree, Tapaswee, Tapase, Paeek, Panes. (Total 32)
• Bhogales are active contributors in Maratha Empire and they were prominent Saradars (Knights).

Bhoite

• Lineage : Solar Clan (Suryavanshi)
• Original kingdom: Jaisalmer (in Rajastan)
• Colour of throne, sign, canopy & horse: Ochre
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Rudra on flagpole
• Clan god (Kuladaivat): Mahadeva
• Clan object (Devak): Pancha-pallava
• Guru: Kaushika rishi *Gotra: Dorik
• Veda: Rigveda
• Mantra: Gayatri mantra
• Clan Goddess : Mahakali, Bhavani, Durga Mata
• Surnames:- Jogdandmane, Bagmare, Bangale, Bhattee, Bhadurge, Bhapkar, Mahala, Machale, Mahalle, Mahore, Matonge, Methakhar, Maide, Yamdad, Yamdahe, Yawkar, Yerne, Yewale, Rumne, Ronghe, Lole, Bhoge, Vilhale, Vilape, Shabde, Shirkhare, Shirsath, Shirsatt, Sairwar, Hiwse, Hiwarkar, Hunmanya, Hendre, Helbe, Helawde, Ruche, Rudre. (Total 37)

Biradar(patil)

• Originally from Prabhanavalli. The original surname was Kadam.
• known to close relatives of patils
• Current Native Place: latur, udgir (taluka), osmanabad, marathwada, pune
• Gotra : Jamadagni
• Kul deity: Tulja Bhavani, Jotiba
• Village deity: Bhairi Bhavani
• Surnames:- patil, Kadam, Jadhav, Sawant, Makane, Jalkote, Shinde, Tawde

Chavan, Chauhan

• Lineage: Agnivanshi Chauhan, Moon clan, Somavansha, descended from the Somavanshi king Chavan
• Original kingdom: Ajmer (Rajasthan), Delhi, Mewad (Mewar), Avantipuri and Jath, Watul in Lanja Taluka Ratnagiri District.
• Gotra : Kapila /Vashishta
• Colour of sign, canopy, horse and throne: White / Yellow
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Moon on Flagpole
• Clan goddess: Jwalamukhi Bhavani Clan God:- Jyotiba,
• Clan object (Devak): Vasundari Vell, Halad (Turmeric Root or Curcuma Root ), Gold, Rui (Giant Milkweed tree) or Kalamb ( Mytragyna parviflora Tree OR Anthocephalus envamba Tree )
• Gotra: Chavan *Veda: Rigveda / Yajurveda*Mantra: Tripad Gayatri.
• Prawar (Five) :- Angirasa, Brihaspati, Chyavana, Upamanyu and Saman *Guhyasutra :- Paraska
• Surnames: Aatle, Esapute, Kabhandh, Kalbhor, Kanojiya, Karkre, Kisab, Kaspale, Kalbhar, Kapde, Karbharee, Kedar, Kharkhare, Kharpate, Khartope, Khandekar, Khamkar, Khulale, Gund, Dhagdh, Chandawle, Chudawala, Dang, Dhaphale, Dhawle, Dhakle, Shewale, Titway, Tibe, Tegle, Topsule, Tablkar, Thorad, Dare, Dhahibe, Dalpate, Dusing, Dewge, Dhadam, Dhopte, Parthe, Parwarkar, Phalke, Phage, Bache, Warge, Bhandare, Bhaykar, Bhalsinh, Bhonwar, Bhoyar, Bhorrdar, Randiwe, Langthe, Lotankar, Wadkar, Sinab, Hawle, Dhipule, Takwe, Dagde, Dangle, Data, Dhadpade, Dhadote, Dhekre. (Total 67)

Chalukya (Chalke), Chalukyas

• Lineage : Solar + Moon Clan
• Original kingdom: Badami alias Vatapi and Kalyani (both in Karnataka), ancient region of Lat in Gujarath State
• Colour of sign, canopy, horse and throne: Dhawale (white)
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Ganapati on flagpole
• Clan deity: Khanderao
• Clan object (Devak): Umbar ( Ficus racemosa Tree) or Shankh (Conch shell)
• Guru: Dalbhya rushi
• Gotra: Mandavya
• Mantra: Gayatri mantra
• Surnames: Anang, Aditya, Endalkar, Khamble, Khandare, Khandane, Gujare, Chle, Chulkee, Chudamanee, Chaure, Chaurange, Chaube, Jawle, Jagl, Dubal, Dhisle, Dagne, Nilwarna, Bangal, Babar, Bendale, Bhadane, Bhawr, Mayor, Rannwre, Wakka, Leegar, Wale, Shakswant, Sanchole, Shekwant, Sonwte, Sokawde, Theche, Thepe, Thokle, Dambre, Dhamale, Dhalpe, Dhabe, Dumbre, Dangat, Tage, Tagre, Dadhate, Dashakanth, Dhansale, Dhanandhe, Nage, Nable, Nabhe, Natke, Nanwte, Nawde, Nawade, Padhale, Patkre, Patkure, Prabhave, Bakhade, Bgale, Bandsode, Bhangsal, Bhartkhande, Wadskar, Shalotre,patil. (Total 69)

• Chulkee is a branch of the Chalukya clan

• Lineage: Brahmavansha, descended from the Brahmavanshi king Chulki
• Original seat: Mahikawati
• Colour of sign, canopy, horse and throne: Yellow
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Hanuman on flagpole
• Clan god (Kuldaivat): Brahmanath
• Clan object (Devak): the Lotus flower, Shankh (Conch shell), Shami (Banni) (Acacia ferruginea), Kalamb ( Mytragyna parviflora Tree OR Anthocephalus envamba Tree )
• Guru: Bharadwaja
• Veda: Yajurveda
• Mantra: Gayatri mantra *Gotra: Mandvya
• Information Link for this clan :- Chalukyas
• See :- Category:Chalukyas

Dhamale

• Lineage: Brahmavansha alias Yaduvansha alias Harivansha
• Kingdom: Dwarkapattan (Dwarka in Gujarat)
• Colour of throne, canopy, sign (Nishan), and Horse (Varu): Red
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Rudra on flagpole
• Clan god (Kuladaivat): Vishnu Narayan
• Clan object (Devak): Kadamb Tree ( Anthocephalus indicus Tree )
• Guru: Munjal muni
• Gotra: Chandale ( For this See also Chandela )
• Veda: Yajurveda
• Mantra: Gayatri mantra
• Surnames:- Ajmate, Aale, Uchle, Umbrde, Kathore, Karodikar, Khagol, Khandal, Kharane, Kharag, Khilate, Ganeem, Gane, Gandhe, Gande, Chandrabal, Chitod, Chokhad, Jawre, Jasood, Dhake, Talekar, Dandle, Dandale, Daleem, Nawre, Nigedhe, Pakhare, Bakte, Bakeekar, Bapgare, Burbhe, Bhanwell, Yawle, Dewale, Lande, Waket, Wakte, Waldkar, Vasand, Shirgadkar, Hirpe, Bakre. (Total 43)

Dhamdhere

• Lineage : Solar Clan
• Lineage: Bramhavansha, descended from the Brahmavanshi king Derik
• City: Chittor / Chittoud (in Rajastan)
• Colour of sign, canopy, horse and throne: Ochre (Bhagwa)
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Rudra on flagpole
• Clan object: Pancha-pallava
• Guru: Kaushika rishi
• Gotra: Dorik
• Veda: Rigveda
• Mantra: Gayatri mantra.
• Surnames:- Aghor, Ajatshatra Aadhar, Kirwant, Kirlo, Kirkite, Kirmeere, Khamnkar, Khedekar, Khesipe, Gaydhanee, Gardee, Garud, Dhamdhere, Dhumne, Dhengle, Dhele, Dhoble, Dholam, Dhonghe, Didhade, Dimakhe, Bagde, Bangayade, Burghate, Wanre, Warpade, Wate, Watwate, Wande-Watarkar, Vishal, Warwante. (Total 34)

• Derik is another name for the Dhamdhere clan
• Dhitak

Another name for the Dhamdhere clan

• Lineage: Suryavansha, descended from the Suryavanshi raja Dhitak
• Original seat: Kanoj (Kannauj in Uttar Pradesh)
• Colour of sign, canopy, horse and throne: Ochre (Bhagwa)
• Colour of horse: White
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Sun on flagpole
• Clan goddess: Bhavani
• Clan object (Devak): Kalamb ( Mytragyna parviflora Tree OR Anthocephalus envamba Tree )
• Guru: Agastya
• Gotra: Dhitak
• Veda: Yajurveda
• Mantra: Gayatri mantra

Dhawale

• Lineage : Moon clan
• Gotra : Bhardwaj
• Devak : Umbar,Shankh.
• Surnames: Umrao, Karalkar, Kapul, Kasle, Kalebhar, Kuchle, Kuche, Kuchar, Gandgale, Dhawade, Dholsomde, Talware, Dalne, Dawande, Daphedar, Demote, Burange, Ladke, Lawale, Kapoore, Lakudkar, Lahane, Laybare, Nimbe, Likte, Lunge, Lekurwale Lede, Shing, Lubre, Lule, Shinge, Bule. (Total 34)

Dhekle

• Lineage : Moon clan
• Gotra : Vatsa
• Devak : Umbar,Pimpal,Kalamba
• Surnames: Katwane, Kako, Katwde, Kambe, Keertane, Krutant, Killol, Kuthe, Kubde, Gidde, Dhol, Dhekle, Tware, Tatte, Taru, Tupkaree Tetu, Bulbutle, Sapat, Sodgeer, Mad, Hodgeer, Diwate. (Total 24)

Dhone

• Lineage : Solar Clan
• Gotra : Bhardwaj
• Devak : Kalmba,ketaki,Gold,Termaric.
• Surnames: Dhole, Kaypatee, Kaje, Kurmawanshee, Kuldeepak, Kaumree, Kuhte, Kushwanshee, Kuth, Kusher, Gilorkar, Dhongle, Tahral, Talke, Talmale, Timane, Bukame, Sonwate, Madwee, Mahate. (Total 20)

Darbare

• Lineage : Moon Clan
• Gotra : Kaushik
• Devak : Panchpallavi
• Surnames: Arvind, Arerao, Ugle, Utan, Konde, Kodape, Dhole, Guldhe, Zende, Tikwade, Tirukhe, Tatode, Tale, Tambakhe, Takpire. (Total 15)

Dalvi

Lineage :- Sun or Solar clan, Gotra:- Vasishtha, Devak (Clan objects ):- Panchpallav (Five leaf )

• Clan Gods:- Mahadev and Goddess of Tuljapur.

• Surnames: Ulhe, Uttarkhede, Umal, Kalam, Konde, Dongre, Jumde, Khand, Zode, Taraye, Talaye, Takod, Tajne, Tijare, Thopte, Dame, Dhande, Nikat, Nandorkar, Yadakhe, Bhangale, Bhar, Sakle, Molkar, Rahat, Satarkar. (Total 26)

Dabhade

• Original seat :-Dwarkapattan ( Dwarka ), Throne, Canopy, Sign, Horse :- Red colour or Orche, Rudra on Flagpole, Clan God:- Khandoba,
• Clan Goddess :- Tulja Bhavani,
• Devak ( Clan object ) :- Suryaful,
• Guru :- Shaunlya Rishi,
• Gotra :- Shaunlya,
• Veda :- Yajurveda - Madhyandin, Rigveda,
• Mantra :- Gayatri Mantra.
• Victory weapon  :- Katyar weapon puja on Dasara .*Prawar :- Shaunlya, Astika (mythology) and Devala .
• Guhyasutra :- Paraska
• Surnames: Dabhekar, Umli, Ubhekar, Sashrete, Khachne, Guwade, Tarhande, Tarke, Tawede, Phengde, Bade, Raonikam, Dhulp, Zanje, Pharphate, Phendar, Nichal, Ubhe, Kangude, Polekar, Mare . (Total 21)

Dharmaraj

• Lineage: Brahmavansha alias Yaduvansha alias Harivansha
• Descended from the Brahmavanshi king Dharmaraja
• Original seat: Kalpi in Uttar Pradesh state
• Colour of throne, canopy and Horse (Varu): Red
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Garuda (eagle bird) on flagpole
• Clan god (Kuladaivat): Mahadeva
• Clan object: Five leaf / Pancha Pallav - (Wad, Pimpal (Ficus religiosa), Haryali, Ashta (Arali) (Ficus religiosa), Jambhul (Syzygium cumini))
• Guru:Angiras Rishi
• Gotra: Dharmaraja
• Veda: Rigveda
• Mantra: Gayatri mantra

• Surnames:- Amonkar, Umak, Unhale, Ogle, Kowle, Gubhane, Tarte, Tarange, Titeermare, Taybote, Phiranke, Bhatta, Radke, Rachor, Rashtrakut, Lavavanshi, Sachan, Singgaur, Sulank, Suran. (Total 20)

Devkante

Lineage :- Moon clan,

• Gotra:- Kaushika, Devak
• Clan objects:- Panchpallav ( Five Leaf )
• Clan Gods:- Umamaheshwar and goddess of Tuljapur.
• Surnames: Udade, Udkhade, Kolte, Kolapar, Gube, Gedam, Zagde, Tabele, Thor, Dandade, Dahibhajne, Damble, Diyakar, Muguchavan. (Total 15)

Dhaybar / Dhaibar

• Lineage :- Moon clan,
• Gotra:- Bharadwaja,
• Devak (Clan objects):- Umbar tree or Shankh ( Conch Shell ),
• Clan Gods:- Umamaheshwar and goddess of Tuljapur.
• Surnames: Ubhade, Ujagar, Khapte, Khilare, Gulkende, Taktode. (Total 7)

Dhumal

• Lineage : Moon clan
• Original kingdom: Nashik and Vijaydurg & veer(both in Maharashtra)
• Colour of sign, canopy, horse & throne: Red
• Heraldic sign (Nishan):Sun on flagpole
• Clan goddess: Bhavani *Clan object (Devak): Halad (Turmeric Root or Curcuma Root) or Ketak (Pandanus odoratissimus OR Fragrant screw pine tree)
• Guru: Durvasa *Gotra: Kadam *Veda: Rigveda *Mantra: Gayatri mantra
• Surnames:- Gurkhee, Guru, Gurakhe, Gete, Jalandhar, Jalgunj, Japedkar, Dhule, Dhure, Tagne, Borawle, Malchimne, Nagane, Weshe, Wekhande, RanaDhumal(Rawandale) (Total 16).

Engale (Ingle)

• Lineage: Brahmavansha
• Original kingdom: Mahinagar and Ayodhya (in Uttar Pradesh), Vidarbha region in Maharashtra.
• Colour of throne: Yellow *Canopy: Yellow
• Sign (Nishan): Yellow
• Horse (Varu): Yellow, Hanuman on Flagpole
• Clan deity ('Kuladaivat'): Brahmanath
• Clan object (Devak): the Lotus flower
• Guru: Bharadwaja
• Gotra: Chulkee
• Veda: Yajurveda
• Mantra: Gayatri mantra

• Surnames:- Adhau, Agochar, Arbat, Arwad, Atkare, Aalsure, Ambreesh, Bhamburkar, Burghate, Taral, Chikte, Chinchoke, Chimote, Chimte, Choudhari or Chaudhary, Chitins, Dukrul, Dhumale, Dhole, Dhote, Dongre, Enjalkar, Endhale, Elamkar, Ene, Edhale, Etkhade, Gaiphane, Gorle, Gode, Hawre, Hingre, Ingle, Ingole, Jagdal, Jabidare, Jabr, Janprawade, Janmakhode, Janmapashe, Japmale, Jangle, Jawanjal, Jumde, Kasoorkar, Kanije, Kamble, Karale, Khade, Khadse, Kharad, Mate, Mandlik, Manjre, Matikhaye, Modak, Mohod, Niranjan, Othambe, Oraskar, Patil, Pore, Pote, Repe, Reche, Rekhe, Rode, Sagne, Shelke, Taral, Topple, Topkar, Tryambake, Wankhade. (Total 71)

• Gund

Originally belongs to middle part of Maharashtra cities like PUNE, Ahmednagar, Solapur, Aurangabad.

• Surnames:Gund, Shinde, Chemte, Deshmukh, Kullal, Kale, Mhaske, Zine, Kamthe,

Modhve, Tambe, Gavhane, Karale, Kardile.

• Kuldevi:JagdambaTuljapur

Gawhane(Gavhane)

Gawas name for the Gawhane clan

• Lineage : Moon clan
• Original seat: Ayodhya
• Throne, Canopy, Sign: Twin colours
• Clan god: Prabhakar *Clan object (Devak): Pancha-pallava (Five leaf)
• Guru: Bharadwaja *Gotra: Kaushika *Veda: Yajurveda *Mantra: Gayatri mantra.

• Surnames:- Aale, Aade, Kasar, Kamole, Kongre, Khandole, Khadkakar, Galraha, Legarmale, Gawal, Joge, Jogwekar, Jote, Jauooli, Tekade, Zadmode, Zadekar, Zabde, Tadaha, Takare, Dang, Dikre, Dawage, Dhakulakar, Nabhade, Pawle, Panghate, Paoolbudhhe, Pire, Bagar, Wanshwar. (Total 32)

Gujar (Bargujar), Gujjar

• Lineage : Solar clan
• Gotra : Shounak
• Devak : Panchpallava
• Surnames: Aakarn, Bargujar, Bawiskar, Aaglawe, Dhole, Kalokar, Kandekar, Kite, Kotharkar, Khakre, Gangthade, Gujrathee, Khase, Khaserao, Gumaste, Zarke, Zallar, Zingte, Zinzote, Zigte, Zirmire, Dagre, Dhafh, Dakhode, Danger, Naykawad, Batharawar, Badare, Bulke, , Bolke, Magarmak. (Total 32)

Gaikwad, Gaykawad, Gaekwad

• Kingdom: Ayodhya
• current kingdom: Badoda/Baroda/Vadodara (in Gujarat)
• Throne: Twin colours (Red and White)
• Canopy and sign: Twin colours (Red and White)
• Horse: White *Heraldic sign (Nishan): Moon on flagpole
• Clan goddess: Bhavani, Chamundeshwari ( Chamunda )
• Clan god :- Khandoba.
• Clan object (Devak): SuryaFul (SunFlower)
• Guru: Vashishta
• Gotra: Kashyapa
• Veda: Yajurveda - Madhyandin
• Mantra: Gayatri mantra *Guhyasutra :- Paraska . *Prawar :- Gautam, Angiras and Aoutathya.
• Surnames: Achal, Achah, Awadhani, Asure, Adsure, Karmat, Kanle, Kawde, Karjaree, Kanjan, Kapalfhode, Kasare, Karkar, Kahar, Kajale, Kanade, Kanta, Katle, Kanhe, Kirkire, Kithe, Kode, Khare, Khapde, Garade, Gadoor, Ghadhawe,Ghenand, Gayke, Gaykee, Chandre, Gawal, Harpale, Chkrawartee, Chakrapanee, Chkrawak, Jajwaly, Jadoogeer, Jachak, Jire, Joon, Zile, Tiwte, Dige, Dukre, Dhiwar, Dhore, Talwale, Takte, Tagnaledatar, Datare, Duranga, Dewle, Dhagad, Dhagdhamale, Dhare, Dhundupal, Nakhare, Nawate, Nanwar, Nagte, Patait, Padkar, Padsare, Pawed, Padpar, Patre, Palkar, Pure, Pendhare, Fhade, Badwe, Fhakadpale, Bama, Banasur, Bender, Belwade, Ghodke, Bhadkambe, Bhamare, Bhate, Madkar, Marathe, Mahale, Madke, Margath, Mahalunge, Mhasik, Wairkar, Maral, Mabhale, Morkar, Mase, Manse, Mare, Mhatare, Murkar, Muluskar, Mulke, Mene, Mengune, Mode, Rage, Rangole, Rande, Rodke, Lagad, Langde, Lokre, Waidya, Shankh, Shiwne, Shewde, Sansale, Sawale, Sarad, Sarte, Satag, Saple, Surkhe Sonawde, Hajare, Hame, Hamale, Hadke, Hoke, Dhage, Dhadak, Dhananjay, Kokane, Nadhe, Ozarkar, Taras (Total 129)

• Gangnaik , Gangas

Another branch of the Yadu clan

• Lineage: Somavansha
• Original seat: Mhaisur (Mysore city in Karnataka), Talakad
• Colour of sign, canopy, horse and throne: Red
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Moon on flagpole
• Clan god: Bhairava
• Clan object(Devak): Edge of a sword or five leaf (Mango, Janbhul (Syzgium cumini), wad (Ficus bengalensis), Daruchink (Datura stramonium ?), sawad (Bombax malabaricum ? ) )
• Guru: Vasishtha
• Gotra: Ganganaik
• Veda: Rigveda
• Mantra: Gayatri.

Ghatge

• Original kingdom: Ayodhya
• other kingdom :- Kagal near Kolhapur city in Maharashtra

KagalJunior vassal state and KagalSenior vassal state

• Colour of throne and sign: Twin colours
• Colour of horse: White
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Moon on Flagpole
• Clan god : Prabhakar
• Clan object (Devak): Pancha-pallav (Five Leaf)
• Guru: Vasishta
• Gotra: Kashyapa
• Veda: Yajurveda
• Mantra: Gayatri mantra
• Surnames:- Karante, Kapale, Karkre, Kapse, Kharate, Gathol, Gad, Gaderao, Gharge(Deshmukh), Gonde, Godbole, Ghaw, Jogee, Joggle, Janorkar, Taksale, Tidke, Diwekar, Thigle, Dharpal, Nasade, Patade, Pate, Bede, Bhodure, borkar, Markale, Malode, Mahurkar, Mhaisane, Mankar, Badeer, Shele, Shendade, Sangwi, Sagne, Sakhale, Tangsal. (Total 38)

Hande

• Lineage : Solar clan
• Gotra : Vishnuridhdha
• Devak : Panchpallava
• Surnames: Tope, Tolbhairav, Tembatte, Thavree, Thengne, Dalpatee, Dabolya, Dalap, Dhavad, Lohokhande, Vairal, Vengurlekar, Shasne, Shahane, Satge, Sapate, Samak, Lohare, waman, Vaikhare, Virdi, Virdee. (Total 23)

Tope :- Shree Rajesh Ankush Tope MLA from Jalna city .

• Hande Deshmukh were prominent Maratha Deshmukhs During Pre Shivaji Era under Sultanets.

Harphale

• Haru

Another name for the Harphale clan

• lineage : Moon clan
• Lineage: Brahmavansha, descended from the Brahmavanshi king Haru
• Original seat: Jaipur (in Rajastan)
• Colour of sign, horse and throne: White colour
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Moon on flagpole
• Clan goddess: Bhavani *Clan object (Devak): Panchapallav (Five leaves) or Kalamb
• Guru: Varuna rishi *Gotra: Haru *Veda: Rigveda.

• Surnames: Zumbre, Devaskar, Dapse, Durge, Dugane, Devtole, Davtole, Dhavas, Dhavkar, Lahul, Lotankar, Verulkar, Vesange, Shahapure, Somavanshi, Sukshen, Songire, Husangbage, Dudhane. (Total 20)

Jadhav,Yadav

Ancient clan traditional details; -

• Gotra: Atri and Shavasaviti,
• Pravar; - Atri, Archan and Shavasaviti,
• Veda: Rigveda,
• sign; - Black,
• Clan god (Kuladaivat):- Mahadev Shankar, Khandoba
• Other clan traditional details -
• Guru: Kaundanya
• Clan goddess (Kuladevi): Jogeshwari, Godess Tulja Bhavani of Tuljapur
• City (Nagar): Mathurapattanam (Mathura), Dwarawati (Dwarka), Devagiri (Daulatabad in Maharashtra), Varangul (Warangal in Andhra Pradesh), Sinnar and Chandur in Nasik district, Hoysala Yadava :- Halebidu (Dwarkasamudra), Sindkhed Raja, Seuna
• Mantra: Panchakshari (five syllable) mantra
• Colour of throne, sign, horse and canopy: Yellow *Heraldic sign (Nishan): Moon on Flagpole *Devak: Umbar Tree, ( Ficus racemosa Tree ), Saundad well *Veda: Rigveda *Gotra: Dhampal

• Surnames: Amrute, Anjire, Adhok, Apradhe, Aware, Aabhare, Upadhyay, Udre, Uooghade, Kabade, Kadlag, Karpate, Kawtuke, Kapot, Kalwar, Kambelkar, Katwate, Kanphate, Kamte, Kukse, Kukur, Kuruwanshee, Kokre, Kauraw, Kharale, Kharsane, Khartade, Khadang, Khambate, Khanzode, Khadwad, Khobre, Lahane, Gorde, Garud, Gireeje, Gujwade, Gobre, Gharat, Ghag, Ghogle, Ghogale, Ghone, Chandle, Chatk, Chikeetmak, Chandeep, Chinchote, Chise, Chitte, Chinchal, Chinchole, Chetdeep, Jaswant, Jagpal, Jamb, Jambuwant, Jamdar, Jalandhar, Jalindhare, Jare, Joggle, Tilak, Thunge, Dawlee, Dhawalkar, Dhambe, Dhole, Tanpure, Tagde, Tape, Tapowane, Talwaneekar, Tawte, Tupe, Turinge, Thatte, Darphale, Darne, Dalu, Dhighate, Diwe, Diwse, Didmide, Dune, Dudhneekar, Dewneekar, Devraw, Devdal, Desai, Dharat, Dhampal, Dhund, Dhumak, Dhurandhar, Dhondse, Mankar, Nand, Nabudddhe, Nanwte, Nagle, Nirmare, Pramde, Parwad, Prabhu, Paharao, Patel, Patwleekar, Pile, Pilunj, Pudhale, Pudharee, Pund, Purohit, Phaniram, Balwant, Balwtar, Bahaddar, Ballal, Basikar, Baleebhdra, Baleeraj, Bartakke, Balherkar, Bute, Bugul, Benkar, Botale, Bother, Botdhare, Bogne, Bhatane, Bhanwase, Bhingarkar, Bhutdhare, Bhongsate, Breed, Makhmale, Murudeskar, Madhavman, Ghorpade, Muthbal, Mukul, Mulgawkar, Mothe, Mohre, Yamyaksh, Yashyant, Yadav, Yageet, Yogle, Rajne, Ranmale, Wangal, Warhate, Wadhale, Watode, Watadkar, Virdi, Wisre, Shewte, Shelke, Sase, Saste, Sawad, Satham, Sangade, Sirbor Alias Sargor, Surte, Suhsen, Sontakke, Senapati, Haygreev, Haygay, Hunge, Lokare. (Total 172)
• Jijabai, The Mother of Chhatrapati Shivaji Raje belonged to this royal Caste.
• Jadhavrao is also one of the branch of jadhav/yadav royal clan.
• lion heart Maratha Commander Dhanaji Jadhav was from this clan, Welknown with his ally Santaji Ghorpade in Maratha's Freedom Fight War against Moghal.
• Jadhav is prominent Maratha clan which produced numerous Maratha Warriors like Lakhujirao, Santaji, Khanaji, Sabaji etc. who served Maratha's Influence and Maratha Empire.

Jagdale

• Lineage : Moon clan
• Gotra : Kapil
• Devak : Panchpallavi
• Surnames: Aghade, Kawas, Karskar, Karinde, Kawlkar, Kirdant, Kireet, Parab, Keerdatta, Kochrekar, Khare, Kharkar, Khiratkar, Godbole, Jangam, Jangee, Janjal, Dahage, Dolhare, Denk, Dolkate, Dolekar, Narkhede, Wankse, Bambl, Mirase, Balkar, Tajele, Tatge, Tadge, Dhodhanee, Nagde, Padal, Pant, Patwde, Parag, Burangee, Bhatale, Wikhe, Widehee, Widhoor. (Total 42)

Jagdhane

• Lineage : Moon clan
• Gotra : Kapil
• Devak :Panchpallavi
• Surnames: Arnaw, Awchitrao, Aachrya, Karankar, Kalchuree, Kitukle, Killedar, Kilor, Korpe, Koyte, Kolatkar, Khadankar, Khirad, Gajre, Jagmak, Jagdhane, Jagl, Zinzurde, Dambale, Dongarkar, Baghel, Bajare, Balskar, Bhakre, Baghel, Tadphade, Tanree. (Total 28)

Jagtap

• Lineage: Somavansha (lunar clan), descended from the Somavanshi king Vasusena
• Original kingdom: Bharatpur
• Colour of sign, canopy, horse and throne: Dhawale (white)
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Ganapati on flagpole
• Clan deity (Kuladaivat): KhanderaoBhairavnath & goddess jogeshwari
• Clan object (Devak): Umbar (Ficus racemosa Tree), Pimpal tree (Ficus religiosa Linn tree) or Kalamb (Mytragyna parviflora Tree OR Anthocephalus envamba Tree), Saundad tree.
• Guru: Dalabhyarishi *Mantra: Gayatri mantra
• Surnames:- Aawte, Ameere, Etape, Kabre, Katedhar, Kashinde, Kumre, Korde, Korkar, Khambeer, Khambarkar, Gadekar, Chaprakhe, Jakate, Jagjaheer, Jagdeesh, Jagmitra, Zangde, Dhale, Dhisal, Tams, Disrat, Dukh, Durjar, Dombe, Dongarwate, Duble, Devbadle, Dholap, Nagad, Nimse, Pathan, Pathar, Padekar, Padghare, Pade, Padwe, Bawle, Warhate, Yewle, Ransing, Baeed, Walunj, Bayale, Waze, Wisale, Sange, Sabhare, Sagole, Surkar, Dhende, Nave, Navlakhe, Nagshule, Balee, Bahatare, Shamkarna, Hembade, Khenat (Total 69)

Kale

• Lineage:- Suryavansha;
• Devak : (Panch Pallavi - Saundhad, Amba, Jambhul, Kadulimb, Umber)
• Original Kigdom: Mahankaleshwar - Ujjain.
• Flag: Bhagawa & Sun On its Center
• Heraldic Sign: SUN
• Horse: Black and Throne : Red
• Tilak: Kumkum(Red)
• Family Deity: Shri Bhavani - Tulajapur; Kalabhairavnath - Paitpalu, Khed; Khandoba- Dawadi Limbgaon.
• Surnames: Awasare, Apse, Amaldar, Aatmande, Aathawle, Ambole, Kalakunbi, Kalamore, Kalbhairaw, Kalsarp, Kale, Kawade, Kajalkar, Kurup, Kunchmkar, Kotwal, Kalmegh, Kalbhoj, Kalke, Khanderao, Khanjeere, Dapre, Tathade, Tekhe, Jabane, Jambe, Jayant, Jaypatre, Jumde, Telharkar, Dani, Barsakade, Bobde, Bhambere, Rothe, Badskar, Shitre, Waked. (Total 40)

• Kalmukh/ Kalamkar
• Lineage: Suryavansha*Original seat: Ayodhyapattan (Ayodhya)
• Colour of sign, canopy, horse and throne: Twin colours *Colour of horse: White
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Moon on flagpole
• Clan god (Kuldaivat): Prabhakar *Clan object (Devak): Pancha-pallava (Five leaf), Suryakant (Sunflower), Kamal (lotus) Umbar, Kalamb
• Guru: Vasishtha *Gotra: Kalmukh *Veda: Yajurveda *Mantra: Gayatri mantra.

• Kalachuri (Kachare, Chedi, Chedi Kingdom or Heheya Kingdom )

Another name for the Kale clan

• Original seat: Teur ( Tumman (presently Tuman) OR Ratanpur in Chhattisgarh state ??)
• Colour of sign, canopy, horse and throne: Twin colours (Red and Yellow)
• Colour of horse: White
• Clan god (Kuladaivat): Brahmanath *Clan object (Devak): Wing of the Bharadwaja bird
• Guru: Kapila rishi *Gotra: Kalchuri *Mantra: Gayatri mantra.

Kakade(Deshmukh)

• Surnames: Amalpure, Aawtarkar, Aepatdar, Ongal, Ongale, Angmode, Karjbhanjne, Kardhamare, Kahurkar, Kature, Karekar, Kawine, Kanherkar, Kelkar, Gore, Gode, Jage, Jange, Jagre, Jache, Dikkar, Damre, Dahane, Dalmale, Dahule, Bawner, Badalkar, Sayande, Beejwade, Bijagare, Phavade Arandkar. (Total 32)

• Gotra : Koudinya
• vansh : Suryavanshi

Kardam, Kadam, Kadambas, Kalhapure

• Lineage: Suryavansha alias Solar clan, descended from the Suryavanshi king Kadam
• Original kingdom: Kedar (Kandahar in present-day Afghanistan)
• Second kingdom: Vanwas (Banavasi in Karnataka)
• Third kingdom: Palshika (Halasi in Karnataka)
• Fourth kingdom: Gopapattan (Goa)
• Colour of sign, canopy, horse and throne: Red clour
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Sun on flagpole
• Clan god (Kuladaivat): Jyotiba and Bijasani Devi
• Clan goddess (Kuladaivat): Tulja Bhavani janani devi kuduk, mandangad, ratnagiri (maharashtra).
• Clan object (Devak): Gold, Halad (Turmeric Root or Curcuma Root), Ketaki (Pandanus odoratissimus OR Fragrant screw pine) and Kalamba(Mytragyna parviflora Tree OR Anthocephalus envamba Tree)
• Guru: Durvasa rushi
• Gotra: Kashyapa
• Veda: Rigveda
• Mantra: Gayatri mantra
• Surnames: Akhand, Akhade, Aghate, Arekar, Aawanle, Breed, Kadam, Kajle, Kawale, Kalamb, Kalge, Kalak, Karle, Kanwa, Kalpadrupam, Kuwal, Kulkarni, Kolhe, Khadupe, Gagul, Gatode, Ghade, Ghode, Ghorde, Jayjune, Doijad, Takte, Taktake, Takdewade, Dewar, Dhadshirke, Dhukate, Dhutre, Dhul, Dhudhad, Nawre, Nupre, Wadke, Ghame, Bares, Balekar, Barbudhhe, Birath, Bobsate, Borate, Bother, Bothe, Bhase, Bhalekar, Mise, Miraslagde, Munge, Mahipal, Raigade (Raygade), Warade, Banwe, Sogde, Hire, Nupure, Nighot, Nighut, Nigudkar, Nhyre, Bal, Mungale, Rangnakar, Gate,Naik from aronda.(Total 67)

Kadam Maratha royal clans main village is Sap ( tal-koregaon, satara )and also found in village koparde (tal-satara, satara). Their royal personalities present in gwalior and also spread into other region. Kadam possesses Tital as Jahagirdar like a king. They have their good relations with other prominent Marathas.

• Information link for this clan :- Kadam, Kadambas

Khandagale

Lineage: Guruvansha Original kingdom: Vidarbha, Burhanpur, Hoshiarpur

• Colour of sign, canopy and throne: Saffron *sign (Nishan): Trishul on flagpole
• Clan god: :Dattatreya
• Clan goddess: Durga, Bhavani
• Gotra: Vasishtha, Atri Veda: Samaveda *Mantra: Rudra mantra, Guru mantra
• Surnames: Awadhiye, Awtare, Kothari, Kothiwan, Kalpande, Khade, Khedkar, Khelkar, Khupshe, Khushamate, Chopade, Jagdewrai, Jatane, Jate, Jikka, Jitkhor, Thombre, Jiddakhor, Dahake, Dike, Doles, Dibre, Dhomsode, Patangrao, Pujari, Patharkar, Payole, Palote, Patkar, Piple, Bawne, Pachkor, Bodade, Mukund, Raipure, Wakhare, Wakhwakhe, Watsaraj, Sonone, Hage. (Total 41)
• Chopade's are there in Nashik district of Maharashtra. Majority of them are in LONWADI, Niphad Taluka

Khadtare

Origin: 16th century Place of origin: Sangol, Solapur

Kul Daivat: Siddhnath (bhairava), Kharsundi, Maharashtra

• Surnames: Aadkine, Kalmkar, Kohle, Kesarkar, Khillare, Kharal, Khandar, Jibhle, Jineshwar, Chingare, Juyte, Jugle, Dhake, Nakhate, Namale, Nakaskar, Zurmane, Zulne, Zole, Namalkar, Nartar, Nistane, Nilkhan, Pawhare, Parwan, Pimpalshende, Patre, Puralkar, Payghan, Pachmohor, Paraskar, Pahpal, Pachbhai, Pardhee. (Total 35)

Khaire

• Surnames: Aoudumbar, Aourangpure, Karkude, Kating, Knothole, Karu, Khedule, Khairnar, Take, Tapore, Tawale, Dikale, Dawhale, Dakhore, Dakhare, Dighol, Dakule, Dikkar, Damre, Zake, Dharange, Junwate, Junnare, Junwade, Jepale, Dhawas, Dhandhare, Nafhade, Nale, Nehte, Parkhee, Banweer, Barkad. (Total 36)

Kokate

• Surnames: Ambone, Ambate, Ambatkar, Karket, Kadaskar, Karnatake, Kanfhade, Kedhe, Kaikadi, Kotyadhish, Kolse, Koranne, Kolne, Jatmukhatyar, Jatyandha, Jabhade, Jarte, Jetherao, Dhole, Dhage, Bachal, Bonde, Mantkar, Meghe, Warne. (Total 26)

• Kautkar
• Surname: kautkar , Masalkar , Khandale

Lad

• Lineage: Somavansha (Moon clan)
• Original kingdom: Kathiawad, Kaccha (Cutch/Kutch) (both in Gujarat); Sindh (now in Pakistan)
• Colour of sign, canopy, horse and throne: White *Heraldic sign (Nishan): Moon On Flagpole
• Clan Goddess: Bhavanikalamma devi (dhamovade) *Clan Object (Devak): Vasundari Vell
• Guru: Vashishta *Gotra: Chavan *Veda: Rigveda*Mantra: Gayatri Mantra

• Surnames: Avatarik, Indra, Banekar, Indire, Umbre, Udar, Karmathe, Kagde, Kutte, Gadve, Grime, Gijre, Gujguje, Talokar, Dandekar, Dhanik, Dhaval, Dhisal, Dhikat, Dhire, Nare, Nasne, Nagpe, Pateel, Dheer, Pateedar, Parbhe, Palpate, Petel, Peve, Fhating, Fhanindra, Fhanivba, Bakal, Balod, Shrbhatta, Mahakul, Marmare, Marwadee, Mandve, Mapar, Mavalne, Manpoorkar, Mahoorkar, Masrang, Mohile, Redkar, Raool, Latal, Langote, Vasu, Valode, Shelkee, Sasane, Suseer, Teekhe, Titve, Teethraraj(total62)

Madhure

• Surnames: Gujarkar, Devdhagale, Fharkadhe, Basode, Badare, Bahakar, Bondare, Madhukar, Maskar, Marudkar, Mate, Mokashee, Maidkar, Yermule, Revade, Lodhe, Bigvale, Shaildhar, Hule, Hemke. (Total 21)

Malpe

• Surnames: Zatale, Zalke, Zate, Zapre, Devtare, Phatare, Badare, Balak, Badree, Bopke, Mokote, Bhete, Morabh, Morande, Regude, Rage, Lohe, Lonkar, Bakhare, Viraj, Shatpal, Shirgaur, Hutake, Hursad, Hupate. (Total 26)

Mane

• Original kingdom: Mandeesar (Mandisar in Afghanistan) and Dwarka (Gujarat)
• Mhaswad town in Satara district is main center for Mane clan.
• Colour of throne, sign, horse, canopy: Red
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Rudra on flagpole*Clan Gods : Bhavani and Khanderao *Clan object (Devak): Garud-well (wing of eagle)
• Guru: Garga rishi
• Gotra: Chandela
• Veda: Rigveda
• Mantra: Gayatri mantra

• Surnames: Anant, Aachate, Kawade, Gudhane, Chandelveer, Chute, Chumke, Charade, Teerokar, Devmane, Dudrer, Dhanwadharee, Garad, Nanekar, Pawle, Pharpate, Phatkal, Barde, Badkhal, Borge, Mane, Malee, Mandokar, Makhare, Medhe, Mond, Rajmany, Rekhe, Rohankar, Lade, Lokegawkar, Livaskar, Hingankar, Dhanwantar, Dhanpishaccha, Badsure, Bahikhor, Talakhe, Taboble, Talase. (Total 41)

Malusare

• Surnames: Gowarkar, Gowar, Dipe, Bodkar, Zudpe, Zure, Talkute, Bathale, Denarkar, Mhatarmare, Mangde, Makone, Mawde, Matere, Manmode, Marmare, Sole, Sonwane, Sorote, Hadpee, Halde, Hasnapure, Hade, Hawre, Hapse. (Total 27)
• Grate Lionheart, Sardar of King Shivaji and the hero of salvation war on fort Sinhagad (old name Kondhana), Brave heart Shree Tanaji Malusare was from this clan.

Mahadik (Hyadik?)

• Original kingdom: Chittoud (in Rajastan) and Bagalkot in Karnataka
• Colour of throne, sign & horse: Bhagawa (Ochre)
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Rudra on flagpole,
• Clan goddess (Kuladaivat): Kathyayini *Clan object (Devak): Pimpal (the peepul tree),
• Guru: Malyavant rishi *Gotra: Dorik *Veda: Rigveda *Mantra: Gayatri mantra.

• Surnames:- Gawalee, Gauree, Ghanghor, Ghansham, Ghayal, Dhanakar, Dhawat, Dhugulkar, Bandivdekar, Mahadkar, Malsane, Matekar, Makumiya, Makde, Mathankar, Malekar, Missal, Metkar, Ransinh, Ranpees, Ranrakshya, Ranboke, Rautraw, Sonar, Soleev, Haye, Hallamare, Hagone. (Total 32)
• Mahadik's are prominent Marathas who served Maratha Empire as well as Sultanet and in period of Princely state's they are influential in Satara and Kolhapur.

Mhambar

• Surnames: Gokhare, Zodpe, Zote, Zoting, Zodane, Tapre, Date, Danad, Dheetak, Mahakulkar, Manjre, Mandawgade, Santakke, Hadkar, Halkare, Hatye, Hambarde, Hatole. (Total 19)

Muleek

• Surnames: Gond, Gondchav, Gaurkar, Ghadreegawkar, Tange, Tongale, Tolmare, Malokar, Mange, Malkute, Sonekar, Sonkar, sunkar, Sonsare, Haranbuchake, Hasbobda, Hargude, Hadke, Ratale, Dave, Davagni, Davedar, Das, Dahake, Hande, Hatolne. (Total 26)

Maurya /Morey/Moray /More/

• Lineage: Somavansha, descended from the Somavanshi king More of Kashmir,
• City: Kashmir and Mauryakhanda
• Colour of sign & horse: Green, *Heraldic sign (Nishan): Hanuman on flagpole,
• Clan god: Ganapati (Ganesha)/Jyotiba(Shankar), Clan Goddess : Shrivardhini/Ramvardayini(Shakti)*Clan Object (Devak): Peacock wings or 360 lamps
• Guru: Gautama *Gotra: Bharadwaj *Veda: Yajurveda *Mantra: Gayatri mantra

• Surnames: Avachar, Amaya, Amadabadkar, Adhachar, Avachare, Avichare, Kasture, Aagavan, Aavle, Aadvale, Inshoolkar, Esalampoorkar, Karan, Kalshate, Kaduskar, Kaypate, Karankhare, Kagal, Keskar, Kandle, Kale, Kirne, Kumbhakarn, Keshar, Keskar, Kesree, Khavle, Gande, Gole, Charne, Chatre, Chinchadharkar, Jitekar, Zinge, Zirpe, Dhokre, Tambe, Darekar, Davlatraw, Digambare, Divte, Duduskar, Devkar, Devhare, Devrukh, Dorik, Dhirde, Dhanawade, Dhulap, Navre, Narnavre, Nagve, Nipse, Nimle, Nimittanere, Padvale, Padile, Barad, Pangir, Bahadure, Bhramhachalk, Bhamte, Bhurke, Bhaere, Bhople, Mandikar, Mardemanuke, Mhase, Mansavant, Mhakamakale, Madhol, Meng, Morbhe, Bhokre, Raste, Kav, Raje, Ravel, Rakhane, Rajmunde, Lal, Lendpawar, Vavde, Vaghul, Vayal, Shaha, Shivle, Shelke, Sane, Sovle, Sakanshe, Sand, Songire, Hatne, Hatore, Hingode, Hurde, Shahjoge, Huddedar, Humne, Bhuere, Bhumar, Bhute, Sarkate. (Total 106)

Mohite

• Original kingdom: Mandeesar, Talbid Karaad, Mharashtra ?
• Clan goddess: Khanderao or jyotiba ? Ghrushneshwar ( Shiva) Its a Jyotirlinga near Ellora Caves Dist Aurangabad Maharashtra.
• Devak: Vasansadi Vel
• Guru: Garga rishi
• Gotra: Vasishta
• Kuli: Chavan
• Sign: White
• Horse: White
• Mantra: Gayatri mantra
• Surnames: Aage, Kate, Katkar, Kamre, Kulangade, Khandale, Gangdhenge, Dhekne, Takte, Dindune, Dhundle, Nivdung, Patle, Bahale, Baedinge, Bobhate, Bhore, Bhaleraw, Marathe, Mohod, Senapatee, Hone. (Total 23)

Nalawde (Nal), Nala

• Lineage:Suryavansh
• Original kingdom: Pushkari (near modern Umarkot in Madhya Pradesh State was the capital of Nala ) Prabhalkhand (Prabhas Patan near Somnath in Gujarat)
• Colour of sign, throne & canopy: Green *Colour of horse: Red
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Rudra on flagpole
• Clan god: Jyotirlingam *Clan object (Devak): Nagchafha
• Guru: Durvasa rishi *Gotra: Anang *Veda: Yajurveda *Mantra: Gayatri mantra

• Surnames:- Nalawde, Nalawade, Ulge, Ubrale, Gede, Chatre, Channe, Parle, Dhadshirkar, Dhawalkar, Nalge, Pardhe, Bansode, Bundle, Malw, Mawle, Rakhde, Jramade, Badkhale, Wachake. (Total 23)
• See :- Damayanti

Nalindhare

• Surnames: Arbat, Gadhe, Gorle, Gochide, Golhar, Dhive, Dhose, Badle, Borekar, Bharambe, Bhisanhare, Rud, Mahalaha, Mankhaire, Morkhade, Modak, Morse, Yelekar, Yekle, Raked, Rawankar, Raks Alis Rakshak, Sarap. (Total 25)

Nikam

• Lineage: Suryavansha or solar clan, descended from the Suryavanshi king Nikam
• Original kingdom: Karnataka
• Colour of throne, canopy & sign: Green
• Colour of horse: Yellow
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Hanuman on Flagpole
• Clan goddess (Kuladaivat): Jogeshwari
• Clan object (Devak): Umbar, Velu, Rudraksha chain of Gold or Onion chain
• Guru: Parashara
• Gotra: Nikam
• Veda: Yajurveda
• Mantra: Gayatri mantra

• Surnames: Akolkar, Awtade, Bade, Banker, Barekar, Barge, Bawankar, Bhojne, Chawde, Chimne, Chinge, Dandge, Dankne, Dhamde, Dhapse, Dharso, Dharte, Dhawre, Dhrgade, Dongre, Gajmal, Gale, Gang, Gidde, Gonk, Gudhe, Gune, Hakne, Hawilhanday, Jale, Jiwnik, Kalale, Kalokhe, Kank, Kankale, Kanknarayan, Khalate, Kudare, Kumbh, Masake, Matarmak, Matsagar, Narkhamb, Naudhare, Navratne, Navrse, Nichve, Nigade, Parvatrao, Pimpalkarad, Pubele, Rakte, Randhwne, Sable, Samke, Sarak, Sarate, Sawle, Take, Tatke, Timble, Tryambke, Vananar. (Total 62)

Nisal

• Surnames: Gotmale, Gomase, Gonkare, Devrung, Nihal, Malwar, Yemde, Raghushe, Raghuvansha, Rakhamal, Rajurkar, Rairuddha, Rajooskar, Rajankar. (Total 15)

Pawar, Ponwar, Paramara

• Main clan male: Agnipalak, Parmarvarma
• Lineage: Agnivanshi
• Original kingdom: Dharanagar (Dhar city in Madhya Pradesh) and Paygad
• Current kingdoms: Dewas, Dhar, Rajgarh, Chhatarpur, Phaltan
• Colour of sign, canopy and throne: Red *Heraldic sign (Nishan): Moon on flagpole
• Clan goddess: Jagadambika, Bhadrakali( God Bramha ordered to Agnipalak that alwayas worship Bhadrakali), Bhavani( In Tuljapur there is a copper plate on temple door wall that one of Pawar king came to Tuljapur and praised goddess.), Saraswati(Raja Bhoj who brought Sansctit language from heaven to earth.)) *Clan object (Devak): Edge of the sword or Kalamba (Mytragyna parviflora Tree OR Anthocephalus envamba Tree)
• Guru: and *Gotra:Vasishtha *Veda: Rigveda *Mantra: Gayatri mantra
• The legindary Dhar city in Madhya Pradesh is capital of Pawar clan.
• Surnames:

A) Aambote, Gondal, Ubade, Odhe, Kanse, Kalaskar, Kalge, Kodge, Kodhe, Kaustubhe, Kharnar, Ghugre, Chandne, Jagdale (derived from jagadamba), Jeve, Aamedkar, Dunkhare, Dalpe, Dukhande, Durwe, Dhavale, Dharrao, Nalkande, Nimbalkar, Wargad, Roundhal, Dalvi, Parab, Ghosalkar, Gawde --- These are Vashishtha Gotree, Gotra Pramar.

B) Parmar, Patya, Mandbhawar, Bane, Band, Banghade, Bhalghade, Bagmode, Bodhe, Bhayal, Bhujbal, Bhusare, Male, Madhe, Marmare, Malwde, Yande, Rokde, Rokade, Landge, Yogeshwar, Yojite, Wagchaure, Bagje, Vishwasrao, Sindheel, Khajeendar, Zunjarrao, Kawade, kanchan. (Total 50)

• Pratihara, Parihara
• Surnames: Achyut, Eando, Gohmare, Gondre, Dagadghaw, Nival, Pavitrakar, Matampure, Mamtkar, Rasemar, Raykar, Rakhonde. (Total 16)

Pansare

Lineage : Devak : Gotra :

• Surnames: Aayachit, Arvind, Edhale, Dalwe, Dabhane, Dapurkar, Rahudkar, Rangankar, Rajpoot, Pansare (Total 10)

Pandhare

• Surnames: Patole, Ghate, Ghumre, Dhahapute, Nagwade, Nandurkar, Nagmode, Matekar, Nishan, Nimkhele, Pahokar, Pande, Pandhre, Pakhande, Parte, Patkar, Pateekhade, Pandkar, Rahate, Randive, Rayne. (Total 21)

• Mankoji Pandhare was Prominent Sardar under King Rajaram, who joined king at Jinji.

Patare

Proktat

Another name for the Patare clan

• Lineage: Suryavansha, descended from the Suryavanshi king Proktat *Original seat: Bharatpur
• Colour of sign, canopy and throne: Green *Colour of horse: Red *Heraldic sign (Nishan): Moon on flagpole
• Clan goddess: Bhavani *Clan object: Pancha-pallava (Five Leaf)*Guru: Angirasa rishi *Gotra: Proktat.

• Surnames: Khadke, Ghadke, Gharad, Ghyahar, Ghule, Narke, Narkade, Nakade, Nazeerkar, Nandre, Nage, Nath, Nadir, Niklank, Nichit, Nikhade, Pakhare, Belokar, Mai, Rairaw, Rasam, Hingane. (Total 24)

Palwe, Pallava, Palav, Pallavas

• Original Kingdom & Seat :- Kanchi (In Tamil Nadu state )
• Surnames: Khale, Khugkar, Ghute, Ghulaksha, Ghogre, Ghotekar, Thube, Thokne, Dale, Nile, Palav, Pradhan, Pinjaree, Pughati, Lawde, Lande, Lawe, Lind, Luhube, Saraw, Saraladkar, Sardeshmukh, Sardesai, Sambhor, Samlende, Sidore, Suroshe, Sutar, Sumre, Samete, Sabhashur.
• Information link for this clan :- Pallavas

(Total 32)

Palandh

• Surnames: Palande, Umbarkar, Udapure, Khuje, Khorgade, Khallere, Khot, Gawhad, Dhokel, Ghorpade, Thokal, Bagre, Bhale, Marawagde, Lithare, Lakhe, Lambdadhe, Laghawe, Lele, Lalye, Wasrke, Wyawhare, Siraskar, Satane, Sabde, Sundarkar, Surte, Soor, Susadkar, Sarodee, Sayad, Sarnaik, Sawarkar, Sabne, Suje, Samale, Sakre, Sawre, Sekapure, Sodre, Satej, Satele. (Total 42)

Pingle

• Surnames: Khapre, Khedde, Khawand, Gawankar, Dhongde, Dhonge, Dhame, Pingle, Lasurkar, Wairkar, Sade, Sanchare, Sawal, Sakude, Sawe, Sakharpande, Sakharkarkar, Sarokar, Sikare, Suke, Surese, Sukosk, Sengokar, Zatke, Nitambe, Nithale, Nirmal. (Total 28)

Pisal

• Lineage : Solar Clan
• Devak : Panchpallava
• Gotra : Kaushika
• Surnames: Khalke, Khekde, Garad, Rawre, Ghodmare, Ghodtonde, Ghodmode, Ghodel, Thokane, Bhinge, Bhorkad, Maind, Lakde, Rajoorkar, Latwe, Lipse, Likhirkar, Mhepse, Wadal, Wanchar, Sakchar, Sangrame, Sachite, Sarjerao, Sadafhal, Samgaur, Sawkar, Sayre, Sirpelkar, Singne, Sule, Supekar, Subhedar, Surpal, Surerkar, Zatpade, Nivedak, Neele, Sushte. (Total 40)

Phadtare

• Lineage : Moon Clan ( Chandravanshi )
• Devak : Panchpallavi
• Gotra : Bharadwaj
• Surnames: Khonde, Khode, Gawhankar, Gadam, Gandkate, Garmole, Gite, Gine, Golhar, Chamithaniha, Naringe, Padul, Pakhalee, Pathare, Phadtare, Phadnees, Waghol, Bharke, Bhekde, Bhed, Bholne, Bhasakshyetree, Labhade/Labde, Likhe, Whable, Waghole, Shivtare, Shingode, Shingade, Shelar, Zadpe, Zare. (Total 34)

Phalke

• Lineage :
• Devak :
• Gotra :
• Surnames: Khokle, Khodke, Chanorkar, Chalk, Talole, Nakhale, Padnepatange, Palsudkar, Fhalke, Bujruk, Bandook, Bhatkar, Bhadolkar, Bhaise, Bhokse, Maral, Rothe, Rakhaviye, Ringne, Rithe, Rode, Reenke, Wasekar, Pandhare, Shirsath, Tilskar, Sivankar, Shiledar, Shirastedar. (Total 35)

Phakde

• Surnames: Girsawle, Chakol, Chawre, Chandekar, Chavat, Chore, Chorale, Tarkale, Narkale, Nichak, Padade, Pahanpate, Panchdhare, Benale, Budhe, Bhange, Bharne, Bhadange, Bhoskar, Manvar, Lakhawe, Waykhale, Wadwad, Bagmode, Shingokar, Shingare, Shingne, Shete, Shejal, Takmode, Tandele, Tapte, Tarke. (Total 34)

Phatak

• Lineage :
• Gotra :
• Devak : Panch palavi (saundad)
• Surnames : Ambade, Andhoorkar, Kate, Kolkhade, Khote, Girkar, Gondol, Gursal, Gondhalee, Parvatkar, Dhapte, Dhamore, Ghare, Changole, Chafhale, Chambhare, Chorghe, Chokhalkar, Dhawlee, Dobade, Dhome, Turuk, Naraje, Namore, Nagpure, Nagwde, Nathe, Nimborkar, Nikase, Parhar, Parimal, Pagrut, Fhatak, Baghate, Bhakte, Bhadang, Mate, Madandhe, Mathakar, Miskane, Radake, Raigad, Lagad, Lahool, Lider, Levade, Vandale, Varekar, Vatkar, Vyadade, Vyatkar, Vadade, Vadhonkar, Vadhodkar, Varang, Sarodee, Sankar, Sangulwedhe, Simbare. (Total 50)

Rathod / Rashtrakuta / Rothe

• Lineage: Somavansha (lunar clan), descended from the Somavanshi king Rashtrakuta
• Original kingdom: Bankapur, Manyakheta (Malkhed) and Sugandavati (Saundatti), all in Karnataka, Manpur- Man in Satara district, Nandeevardhan, Achalpur, Latur .
• Colour of throne, sign, horse and canopy: Red
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Moon on flagpole
• Clan goddess: Jogeshwari *Clan object: Shankha (Conch-shell)
• Guru: Gargacharya *Mantra: Gayatri mantra *Gotra: Rathod*Veda: Yajurveda

• Surnames: Ajinkya, Anangpal, Avagpal, Aabhore, Gandgagrr, Gandghopal, Chand, Chandkiran, Chandol, Jagnnivas, Todmale, Dutonde, Dudhbhate, Dudhare, Panchnan, Bagul, Bhale, Bhor, Magmal, Marathe, Maharashtrarath, Rayjade, Lahule, Sinmore, Divale, Didhe, Dikpal, reddy, reddi, raddy, rattugudi, rattodi, rattadi.
• Information link for this clan :- *Rashtrakutas

• • Rashtrakuta / Rathod / Rothe
• Lineage: Somavansha (lunar clan), descended from the Somavanshi king Rashtrakuta
• Original kingdom: Bankapur, Manyakheta (Malkhed) and Sugandavati (Saundatti), all in Karnataka
• Colour of throne, sign, horse and canopy: Red colour
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Moon on flagpole
• Clan goddess:Jogeshwari *Clan object: Shankha (Conch-shell)
• Guru: Gargacharya*Mantra: Gayatri mantra *Gotra: Rathod*Veda: Yajurveda
• Surnames: Kanchan, Kaurmi, Kautuke, Tope, Dwikhand, Dwifhod, Dubhane, Daghe, Devbhane, Devkate, Mahattar, Malke, Malik, Musmare, Mehttare, Lampeete, Dehdande, Dwaitya, Dhadse.
• Information link for this clan :- *Rashtrakutas

(Total 29)

Chandle, Chandela

• Bhramwanshi king Chandle
• City :- Dwarka, * Throne, Canopy, Sighn & Horse:- Red, * Rudra on Flagepole, *Clan daiety :- Vishnunarayan, * Devak (Clan object) :- Wing of Egale bird or Kadamb Tree (Anthocephalus indicus Tree), * Guru :- Mujalmuni, *Gotra :- Chandle, *Veda :- Yajurveda, * Mantra :- Gayatri Mantra.
• Surnames :- Mane, Dabhade, Dhamale, Garud, Dhanik, Kawdhe

Rane, Rana

• Lineage: Suryavansha (solar clan), descended from the Suryavanshi king Sudhanwa
• Original kingdom: Udaipur (in Rajasthan)
• Colour of throne and canopy: Red
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Sun on flagpole,
• Clan deity (Kuladaivat): Maheshwar (Shankar) *Clan object (Devak): wad(Ficus bengalensis) or suryakanta (Sunflower)
• Guru: Jamadagni *Gotra: Rana *Veda: Rigveda *Mantra: Gayatri mantra

• Surnames:- Eeshaput, Chatre, Chittevan, Chendane, Chedoo, Choukhande, Chourale, Dunedar, Dudhe, Durdhrra, Dupathe, Devmaya, Deshmukh, Pathak, Bhingare, KHANVILKAR, Mangdare, Mule Alias Mulik, Sing Singnvan & rane itself (Total 21)

Raut or Raoot

• Lineage :
• Devak :
• Gotra :
• Surnames: Raut, Easadrrange, Ghaeet, Chatur, Chatake, Chaval, Chabke, Chindarkar, Bate, Bhikaree, Bhalla, Malthane, Manjrekar, Ratnakar, Rasike, Rasal, Raymale, Lone, Sasarkar. (Total 19)

Renuse

• Surnames: Anangveer, Oopase, Gaulkar, Ghodse, Chavle, Chalakh, Chalvale, Chalpe, Chandurkar, Chiktekar, Chokhat, Thakar, Thabee, Thak, Thavre, Dudhade, Devdhe, Bhaisoor, Bhasoor, Bhivankar, Mangulkar, Matle, Kshadang, Shamne, Mohitkar, Modhekar, Viraj, Dharmare, Dharsode, Vichake. (Total 31)
• Historian Shri.Suraj Renuse, Pune (currently England) is from this clan.

Shilahar, Shelar, Shelor, Silhara dynasty

• Lineage: Brahmavansha (also called Yaduvansha or Harivansha),
• Original kingdom: Kharepatna and Thane, Kolhapur, Radhanagari, Panhala, Konkan.
• Colour of throne, sign, horse and canopy: Yellow
  • Heraldic sign (Nishan): Hanuman on flagpole
• Clan deity (Kuladaivat): Brahmanath *Clan object (Devak): Lotus flower
• Guru: Bharadwaja *Gotra: Chulkee *Veda: Yajurveda *Mantra: Gayatri mantra

• Surnames:- Kaveemandan, Karhade, Kalkath, Kalekar, Kavre, Dhabadwan, Dhude, Nagle, Pole, Panchpade, Fhunke, Fhuskare, Bhand, Bhagat, Mhatre, Mabade, Mangte, Mire, Bakode, Visaee, Shilar, Shedke, Shedge, Shelke, Shetge, Shelar, Saved, Shelare, Sonevanee, Mahangare, Selar. (Total 32)

Shankhapal (Sankpal)

• Original kingdom: Malkhed (in Gulbarga district of Karnataka)
• Colour of throne, sign, horse and canopy: Red
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Moon on flagpole
• Clan goddess: Jogeshwari
• Clan object (Devak): Shankha (Conch shell)
• Guru: Gargacharya
• Gotra: Agasthi, Gargayan, Rathod
• Veda: Yajurveda-Madhyandin
• Mantra: Gayatri mantra
• Prawar :- Bhargav, Chyavan and Aapnavan.
• Victory weapon  :- Shstrakhand weapon puja.
• Guhyasutra :- Paraska

• Surnames:-Ambre, Amen, Aaware, Aabe, Aargade, Urade, Kalambe, Chatur, Chaturang, Chaturanan, Chatubhrruj, Joharee, Zunjar, Tatpute, Todkar, Thute, There, Dufhar, Dorkhand, Nalvant, Panpate, Panpate, Pachal, Peche, Pol, Fhukat, Fhonfhare, Dorde, Daulatraw, Dhanmode, Bire, Bhukne, Mirche, Rajhans, Banawar, Vasraj, Sarnobat, Sarawade, Sakhpal, Pofhale, Potfhode, Pyade, Mhasane, Mirge, Pol, Temke, Utekar. (Total 45)

Shinde, Scindia, Sindhia, Sindia, Shingade, shingadia, Sendrak

• Lineage: Sheshavansha (serpent clan), descended from the Sheshavanshi king Shinda
• Originalkingdom : Ranthamb (Ranthambore in Rajasthan) and Pattadakal (in Karnataka state
• Current kingdom  : Gwalior (in Madhya Pradesh)
• Colour of throne, sign, horse and canopy : Red colour
• Heraldic sign (Nishan) : Serpent on flagpole
• Clan Goddess  : Kalika Devi and Mahagauri.*Clan god :- Jyotiba. Ramvardayini Devi - In Chiplun Taluka - Maharashtra.
• Devak (Clan object) : morvelMrugvell or Aagada ( A kind of Plants find in Maharashtra ), Kalamb, Rui and Morvell.
• Guru  : Kaundinya rishi
• Gotra  : Kaundinya
• Veda  : Yajurveda - Madhyandin, *Mantra : Gayatri Mantra . *Prawar :-Angiras, Brihaspati and Kaundinya. *Victory weapon  :- Sword. *Guhyasutra :- Paraska.
• Surnames: Aapteekar, Bhuse, Desai, Kulhar, Kolhe, Kurvasinde, Jatayoo, Jadbuddhe, Jade, Jayshinde, Dable, Dorge, Durdayshinde, Nekulshinde, Neknamdar, Nebhale, Pratapshinde, Bhagalkar, Bhure, Bhore, Bhed, Mung, Ghate, Muke, Mungekar, Mugool, Vijayshinde, Valekar, Shishupalshinde, Saktpalshinde, Sitajashinde, Bhairavshinde, Mahakalshinde, Mulshinde, Mude, Paigude. (Total 33)

Shitole

• Kuli-Gaikwad
• Clan Devta - Shree Rotmalnath(ROTI)
• Devak-Suryaphul(Sunflower)
• Surnames: Aalat, Kawalkar, Jane, Jalambakar, Jawalkar, Davte, Dahee, Dandghor, Daoodpure, Datarkar, Danee, Dave, Davne, Dhandar, Bhagde, Bhunvar, Bhete, Bhute, Munjewar, Murkute, Murkund, Male, Nangude, Rahane, Lambat, Lat, Avhale, Wankhede, Wamkhade (Total 29).
• Jawalkar & Nangude :- Jawalkar & Nangude clan is in good number around fort Sinhagad.

Shirke

• Original surname: Kutur (Badshah)
• Arrived in Konkan state in early seventh century (705 A.D.).
• Original kingdom: Ahmedabad (in Gujarat state), Dabhol province in Konkan state.
• Guru: Saunalya *Clan goddess (Kuladaivat): Mahakali, Shirkaidevi in Mose Maval area Raigad fort, Shirkoli [near Panshet Dam]Pune
• Colour of throne and sign: White
• Other clan things are the same as for the Dhampal clan

• Surnames: Abhang, Andhak, Abhud, Asawale, Kasale, Kalyankar, Kathavde, Kirandate, Kolare, Kans, Kautuke, Khilate, Gabde, Dhobe, Tanvde, Tade, Taptraye, Dumge, Dungre, Bagwan, Valunjkar, Bhorawkar, Bhokle, Bhojke, Lamale, Veense, Veerdatta, Sinwar, Sankadam, Honmane, Hause, Saikar. Dudhane,Parghale (Total 32)

• Shirkes were prominent Marathas having good relationships with other Maratha Clans.
• Shirkehave their presence in Tamilnadu when Vyankoji Bhosale Ruled there, and At Satara, Nagpur, Baroda etc.plces Dominated by Maratha Clans and each time they were relatives of Kings of respective Kingdom.

King Shivaji's two brides were from the Shirke Maratha clan.

Salvi, Satavahanas, Andhras

Lineage :- Sun or Solar clan, Gotra:- Kauondinya, Devak (Clan objects ):- Kalamb, Rui or Mortel, Clan Gods:- Umamaheshwar and Bhavani goddess of Tuljapur and Khandoba of Jejuri.

• Surnames: Jarade, Jambekar, Jivdhevoo, Jivtode, Junare, Jenekar, Jainjahagirdar, Bahal, Borse, Bhaltilak, Bhumer, Bhedalkar, Mudvatye, Mudhe, Mumbarkar, Murankar, Musale, Muruk, Salvi, Swamiwah, Shalivahan, Shravne, Satav, Salav. (Total 25)

Sawant

• Lineage: Brahmavansha alias Yaduvansha alias Harivansha
• Original seat: Mahinagar
• Current kingdom: Sundarwadi (Sawantwadi in the Konkan region of Maharashtra)
• Colour of throne, sign, horse and canopy: Yellow
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Hanuman on flagpole
• Clan god: Brahmanath *Clan object (Devak): Lotus flower (Kamal)
• Guru: Bharadwaja *Veda: Yajurveda *Mantra: Gayatri mantra
• Surnames: Adhikaree, Esamulkar, Karne, Kamble, Kasle, Kathor, Jomdar, Chine, Tejpoore, Walse, Bahak, Baeera, Bhond, Bhoge, Mahiwar, Mahachitre, Vanjare, Visad, Salvi, Samant, Sutube, Satvat, Satpute, Suktankar, Supple. (Total 25)

Salunkhe, Salunke

• Lineage: Brahmavansha or Yaduvansha or Harivansha
• Original seat: Mahinagar and Anhilpur (Anhilpur Patan in Gujarat) and Delhi
• Colour of throne, sign, horse and canopy: Yellow
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Hanuman on flagpole*Clan god (Kuladaivat): Brahmanath *Clan object (Devak): LotusOr bakul flower
• Guru: Bharadwaja *Gotra: Chulkee *Veda: Rigveda *Mantra: Chatushpad Gayatri mantra
• Clan, Line: Attarde, Ambeeraw, Adhatraw, Anekraw, Andhak, Aatkaree, Engawle, Inraneel, Endap, Uste, Aauoshadhraw, Kalyanraw, Khadre, Kobal, Gadgeel, Gunjal, Ghanlave, Dhirte, Chandnasav, Zade, Takes, Dande, Dhadlag, Navtale, Navse, Navale, Nable, Nagele, Padvle, Pandhare, Patankar, Patole, Patade, Barnar, Barve, Birje, Bolave, Ranbavre, Rakhankar, Lahane, Londho,Londhe, Waghmare, Sarkale, Sarvare, Sarfare, Sakhale, Sabde, Shirkhaire, Sinhnade,Solanke, Shebale, Salunkhe, Salunkh, Salunke, Vyavahare, Waghchoure-Deshmukh(Alegaon Paga)

Sambare

• Surnames: Jikar, Sol, Tikar, Honge, Bhagle, Bhandaree, Bhusur, Bhongsal, Bhongde, Bhobde, Bhoje, Magar, Rajrosh, Raygane, Raybal, Sasan, Sambre, Sonagar, Sunsune, Sorakhe, Sondarkar, Hambeerraw, Harpal. (Total 23)

Shisode, Sisodia

• Original kingdom : Tuljapur and Udaipur (in Rajastan)
• Colour of throne, sign, horse and canopy: Bhagwe (Ochre)
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Rudra on flagpole
• Clan god (Kuladaivat): Mahadev (Shankar, Shiva) *Clan object (Devak): five leaves (Panchpallaw)
• Guru: Kaushika rishi *Veda: Rigveda *Mantra: Gayatri mantra
• Surnames: Guhilod, Guheet, Chaudharee, Jiskar, Joshee, Badekar, Bodh, Bhojve, Bhongde, Sail, Sarak, Sedval, Hadap, Hajare, Bhetau, Bhosale, Salav (Salve or Salvi), Apradhe, Bhauvar, Joshi, Sedval, Sail, Choudhare.

Surve

• Descendent from King Rama clan.
• Mulpurush (main clan male): Vajrapal
• Original kingdom: Ayodhya, Rewagadtharnagar and Shrungarpur in Konkan
• Original clan name: Gaykawad
• Vansh: Suryavansh (Solar)
• Colour of throne, canopy and sign: Twin colours (Red and White)
• Colour of horse (Varu): White
• Clan god: Khanderam, Prabakar *Clan object (Devak):, Suryatrun, Pancha-pallava (Five leaf)
• Guru: Vasishtha *Gotra: Kashyapa *Veda: Yajurveda (Full authority), Rigveda *Mantra: Gayatri mantra

• Surnames:- Kharde, Surve, Karpe, Karne, Kurhede, Kunwar, Khartha, Gawse, Surya, Gavandhal, Girgute, Ghad, Ghode, Ghane, Ghirte, Jumde, Dambeer, Degne, Doifhode, Dhone, Dhere, Talvate, Nake, Naik, Nakedar, Pune, Fhakne, Fhalkar, Bhandvalkar, Mule, Mone, Rajwade, Rasne, Rawal, Rede, Lalate, Laleete, Lafhange, Latke, Lahudkar, Vaze, Vajre, Valke, Vinchurkar, Vilhale, Shende, Shitole, Sarate, Sarde, Sabne, Sansane, Savtore, Singar, Sirsale, Sirsath, Sote, Surge, Sonane, Hakeem, Sabatkar. (Total 63)

Shirsagar

• Lineage: Suryavansha (solar clan)
• Original kingdom: Ayodhya
• Colour of throne: Twin colours (Red and white)
• Colour of canopy and sign: Twin colours
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Moon on flagpole
• Clan god (Kuladaivat): Prabhakar *Clan object (Devak): Pancha-pallava (Five leaf)
• Guru: Vasishtha *Gotra: Kashyapa *Veda: Yajurveda *Mantra: Gayatri mantra.

• Surnames:- Avachare, AvXare, Kalmukh, Kakde, Karmakhe, Karthe, Kadere, Karmukh, Kanole, Karul, Kikate, Kuber, Keskar, Khule, God, Godve, Gadge, Ghodke, Ghodchale, Chande, Chakke, Jaree, Zunjarraw, Dhore, Dhayte, Nade, Navdhee, Nache, Parvale, Polu, Fharte, Fhate, Fhukte, Bagrul, Bhandolkar, Bhope, Bhamburde, Bhoy, Malgunj, Made, Mhasale, Mhaswadkar, Ranchot, Ranwagure, Randheer, Ranvee, Rachode, Lokhande, Vankhade, Vavde, Velne, Velunke, Vadad, Vanzol, Vasande, Shelwad, Shardul, Shitole, Sarag, Satam, Sade, Sure, Surgathe, Suryvanshi, Hake, Shirsagar, Kshyatiya. (Total 68)

Thakur, Thakoor, Thakore

• Surnames: Karhal, Kharode, Gadge, Gadgeel, Gore, Gopal, Golandaj, Thakre, Thupare, Dak(Duck), Dege, Dokhe, Dange, Dhale, Dhoktirtha, Dahe, Dkhare, Baree, Burud, Wrankar, Wardhe, Wardhane, Wararkar, Samarth, Dhumawle, Dhumte, Dhukte, Maker, Mandloi, Satranje. (Total 32)

Tayde, Tawade

• Lineage: Somavansha or Moon or Lunar clan
• Kingdom: Jaipur (Rajasthan state)
• Clan goddess: Jogeshwari
• Colour of throne, sign, horse and canopy: Dhawala (White)
• Guru: Vishvamitra *Mantra: Gayatri *Gotra: Vishwavasu, Chyavana *Devak :sonvel
• Surnames:- Atulbalee, Upase, Urkud, Kitkite, Kombe, Luskase, Garat, Surya, Garekh, Gote, Chandel, Chandereea, Chandrakant Chamchame Chandrabal, Chandanan, Charfkal Chirphule, Jagbhan, Jagdale, Lawal, Jibe, Jeetkar, Jambuk, Janmadagni, Jind, Talekar, Tanbade, Tilak, Tanbateekar, Tarphade, Tantre, Tugare, Tailing, Tuphane, Diwane, Devrai, Dhumate, Namjade, Nagdev, Nagtilak, Nimit, Bure, Barade, borkar, Mandeesar, Murmure, Lote, Mrugwahan, Waghe, Wadhle, Wadade, Sathe, Sangal, Sosate, Hawle, Lobhe, Veerkar, Tawade . (Total 58)

Tonwar, Tuwar,Tomara, Taware

• Lineage: Suryavansha (solar clan)
• Original kingdom: Karnataka in south India
• Colour of throne, sign and canopy: Green *Colour of horse: Yellow
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Hanuman on flagpole*Clan goddess (Kuladaivat): Jogeshwari *Devak (Clan object): Umbar (Ficus racemosa tree)
• Guru: Parshar *Gotra: Nikam *Veda: Yajurveda *Mantra: Gayatri mantra
• Surnames:- Kukde,

[[Kulat]] (Families in Maharashtra): - Amravati District), Kukte, Kene, Keche, Kedarne, Gunjwate, Ghumbhar, Tarte, Tawar now most changed to Deosarkar/Devsarkar, Tamte, Tangde, Tigharkar, Turudkar, Tirole, Tinmode, Tulankar, Turwe, Telkhade, Burade, Miratkar, Malpawar. (Total 24

Teje

• Surnames: Kuttarmare, Kurmure, Kurkure, Khapne, Khanwilkar, Gawhar, Garpal, Tupt, Ganganaik. (Total 10)

Thorat

Lineage :- Sun or Solar Clan, Gotra:- Bharadwaj, Devak (Clan objects):- Gold, Kalamb, Turmeric, Ketki, Clan Gods:-Bhavani Goddess of Tuljapur.

• Surnames: Kuwadi, Kurmap, Kumar, Kulwan, Kore, Kuleen, Khandokar, Guhal, Dhamaila, Ghorpade, Tamkhade, Tathe, Tiwkshyekar. (Total 14)

Thite/Thote

Lineage : Solar clan. Devak : Gotra :

• Surnames:Thite, Kusumb, Kekne, Kodale, Kothe, Khond, Gaygol, Gudwe, Chirkale, Chirphal, Jalguj, Jijkar, Dhakre, Ghatge, Narkhamb, Nayak, Patil, Pusdkar, Pete, Pethe, Behade, Yadgire. (Total 23)

Vichare

Lineage : Solar clan Devak : Panchpallavi Gotra : Shounak

• Surnames: Chopne, Chaukane, Chopdar, Chaukeedar, Zale, Tote, Todkaree, Dhatkar, Dhudhgaw, Dod Alis Dode, Dhmrale, Dhandar, Pethakar, Fhole, Fhausdar, Bhuskate, Maparee, Mirjapure, Misar, Mohitkar, Modhekar, Meen, Viraj, Dharmare, Dharsade, Vichare, Dhamralkar. (Total 30)

Waghmare

• Surnames: Indhe, Edhe, Janbhulkar, Jeth, Jogal, Jore, Zagre, Thel, Thembdee, Dumne, Lumbe, Waghmare, Tombal, Devee, Thapre, Daitya, Daud, Dhaskat, Dhapale, Paisole, Fhatkar, Fhundkar, Fhokmare, Vaichitre, Vaitage, Vidwan, Bhamborkar, Bhujale, Bhongal, Bhongale, Misle, Mimile, Monmal, Mondekar Aliasm Hallamare, Varhade, Sagjam, Saval, Sirsale, Thape, Edhate. (Total 43)

Maratha Notables from Each Clan

Angre :

• Agnre : Kanhojee Aangrey, the Maratha Naval commander, was from this clan.

Bhosale : The great Indian King Shivaji Maharaj the founder of modern Maratha Empire is from this clan.

• Chh. Udayanraje Pratapsinhraje Bhosale is the present descendant of Chhattrapati Shivaji Maharaj Bhosale.
• Bhosale royal clan was once patil of Vavi village in Sinnar Taluka in Nashik district.
• Bhosale royal clan also found in western maharashtra region (Bhosari village, waki, khed, wafhgaon in Pune district); (Papari, Bembale in solapur district) some family were deshmukh of their region. All Bhosale-Patil families in Maharashtra having Panch-pallava as devak are represent this royal clan.
• Desale surname is found in Malegaon Taluka in Nashik district, and at Zhodage in Dhule district. The history for this surname is, during King Shivaji time, some of the Bhosale family lineage migrated from Desh to Khandesh, and were stationed in Khandesh to keep Mughal Empire in check, coming from north India. Due to this Desh change, the Bho-sale surname was changed to De-sale.
• Babasaheb Bhosale - Chief Minister of Maharashtra (January 21 1982–February 1 1983)
• King Shivaji's main spy Hiroji Fharjad alias .....Bhosale from town Khamgaon Maval near fort Sinhagad
• Kanase's are from Satara Maharashtra.Captain Narayanrao Kanase,.....Doctor B.A Kanase,....Principal B.A Kanase.
• The sur-name kharade found in satara, karad, Maanjarade(Tasgaon)in sangali, kolhapur, etc. The original surname Bhosale change due to village name kharadi. Subhnaji kharade was famous sardar of shivaji maharaji. kalayanji Kharade was sardar of Sambhaji Maharaja. Tanaji kharade was sardar in Panipat war & play great role.
• More information link for Bhosale clan:-
• Tanjore :- http://www.uq.net.au/%7Ezzhsoszy/ips/t/tanjore.html
• Tanjore :- http://www.4dw.net/royalark/India4/tanjore.htm
• Satara :- http://www.4dw.net/royalark/India4/satara.htm
• Satara :- http://www.uq.net.au/~zzhsoszy/ips/s/satara.html
• Kolhapur :- http://www.uq.net.au/~zzhsoszy/ips/k/kolhapur.html
• Akalkot :- http://www.uq.net.au/%7Ezzhsoszy/ips/a/akalkot.html
• For flag :- http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/in-kolha.html

* Ghorpade ( Sub Clan of Bhosale ):

• More information link for Ghorpade clan :-
• http://www.uq.net.au/%7Ezzhsoszy/ips/s/sandur.html
• Brief history of Sandur and a genealogy of its ruling chiefs
• Genealogy of the Ghorpade dynasty of Sandur
• http://www.4dw.net/royalark/India2/sandur.htm
• For Flag :- http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/in-mudho.html
• http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/in-sandh.html
• Grate Maratha Sardar Santaji Ghorpade was from this clan.

Bhoite :

• More Information about Bhoite Clan.

• Bhoite marathas main royal clan members situated in Tadawale Sammat Wagholi, Wagholi ( In Koregaon tehsil, satara ), Hingangaon, Aradgaon( Phaltan tehsil, satara)in Maharashtra.

• Bhoite marathas are prominent a Maratha royal clan with their titles including Inamdar, Vatandar, Deshmukh, Sardar, Saranjamdar, Sarkar, Jahagirdar, Patil.

This Family can be found in mainly Satara, Sangli, Kolhapur, Jalgaon, Pune, Nasik, Ahmadnagar & Other Maharashtra region also.

• However, Bhoite Families are also present in Baroda, Surat, Bhopal, Gwalior etc.

Also Like Many Other Maratha Clans, Bhoite Maratha Clan members is Serving in Maratha Kingdom as the Prestigious Shiledar's i.e. Warrior One Who Bears His Own Sword & Horse and as a Bargirs means who received Sword and Horse from the King.

• The word Bhoite means Brave.

• Bhoites supposedly originate from Aryan Royal Rajput clan of Jaisalmair; history claims that they are descendants of three royal brothers who stayed at Tadawale sammat Wagholi, Wagholi, Hingangaon in ancient time.

• Many Bhoites serve their nation as do other marathas. Bhoite has good relations with other prominent marathas. Bhoite having their presence in all lists of 96K Marathas. They are religious, brave Warriors, agrarians, land lords, peasants, Kattar Marathas.

• Ranoji Bhoite: Famous Maratha Warrior, Commander of Maratha troop in Panipat War belongs this clan. He fought & won many wars bravely along with supreme Marathas.
• Jiwaji Bhoite,was famous Maratha warrior from Royal Bhoite Clan.
• Naikji Bhoite, Maratha Sardar in Peshwa Period who fought and won war along with other Maratha troop leader like Antaji Mankeshwar, Tukoji Holkar, Govindpant Bundele etc.
• Durgoji Bhoite is also one of the famous Commander served Maratha Empire.
• http://books.google.co.in/books?id=VT0i1GWgoQEC&pg=PA247&lpg=PA247&dq=maratha+ranoji+bhoite&source=web&ots=PTr5FXk5KZ&sig=NIvCFluoHO2KCRevYXb1xm_81q0&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result
• http://airavat.googlepages.com/thepanipatcampaign
• http://www.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/JALGAON/agri_tenures.html
• Royal Race of Clan :
• http://www.uq.net.au/%7Ezzhsoszy/ips/j/jaisalmer.html
• Main clan God: Shree JawalSiddhanath ( shankar, Shiv ), Jawali in Phaltan, where Bhoite had first right to worship God.

• Present Personalities :
• Mr. Krushnachandra Bhoite, Former MLA Phaltan.
• Mr. Ashok Bhoite, Former Secretary, Rayat Shikshan Sanstha, Satara.
• Ajit Bhoite, Crecketer of Baroda.
• Mr. Sunil Bhoite, (Famous member of Environmental Organisation DRONGO)
• Mr. B.Y. Bhoite. (anna), EX. Sabhapati of Koregaon Panchayat Samiti.
• Mr. Sharad Bhoite, EX. Sabhapati of Phaltan Panchayat Samiti.
• Mr. Namdevrao Bhoite, Former MLA From Radhanagari( 1995–1999), Kolhapur.
• Mr. Pramod Bhoite, The President of Akhil Bharatiya Bajrang Dal.

• Bhapkar Maratha Clan is present in Loni Bhapkar village, Pune.
• Sardar Durgoji Bhapkar is from Bhapkar Dynasty of Maratha.
• http://books.google.co.in/books?id=cdXnVOKKkssC&pg=PA179&lpg=PA179&dq=bhapkar+marathas&source=web&ots=8MsKxXIyJ-&sig=gGAsrkRodmk8hQfQi3rG3Osi7us&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result
• Yewale family is situated in Akole tehasil, Ahemadnagar District in Maharashtra.

Kuladaivat:- JEJURI KHANDOBA.

Bagawe :

• Waghale

Another name for the Bagawe clan

• Original seat: Bhavnagar (in Gujarat)
• Throne, Sign, Horse, Canopy: Yellow *Heraldic sign (Nishan): Moon on flagpole
• Clan goddess: Jogeshwari
• Clan object (Devak): Umbar Tree (Ficus racemosa Tree)
• Gotra: Dhampal
• Veda: Rigveda
• Mantra: Panchakshari.

Chavan :

• Chavan or Chouhan is a common name among Kshatriyas of India including Maratha, Ror, Rajput and others. Notable Chavan's were produced from Rajput and Maratha clans. Chavans are prominent Maratha's and active contributors in Maratha Empire.
• Late Yashwantrao Chavan, Chief Minister of Maharashtra
• Shree Prithviraj Chavan, the Member of Parliment|MP(PMO Minister) from Karad in Maharashtra is prominent figure from this clan.
• Late Shankarrao Chavan (February 21, 1975–May 17, 1977) - Chief Minister of Maharashtra (February 21 1975–May 17 1977 and March 12 1986–June 26 1988)

More information on the Chavan clan

• Jath: http://www.4dw.net/royalark/India2/jath.htm
• Jath: http://uqconnect.net/~zzhsoszy/ips/j/jath.html

Dalvi :

• One branch of the Royal Puars family, by descent Rajputs of the Puar clan, adopted the family name of Dalvi many generations back, in 12th century. They are at present are Hindu Rajput-Marathas, native to Lakhmapur (or old Lakshmipur) and nearby area, ( had Ahiwantwadi Fort) near Wani-Dindori, Nasik and have the social honor of being “Deshmukh”. The Dalvis of Lakhmapur held many important positions as regional war-lords and Chiefs of private armies.

• First modern days Maratha historian shree Gopal Dajiba Dalwi author of the books Maratha Kulancha Etihas - Part 1,2,3,4,5,6 Published from 1912 onwards.
• The name Dalvi means the brave king / chief who rules the people and fights wars.

Dabhade :

• Dabhade clan is the Jahagirdar family of the town Talegaon Dabhade in Pune District. Dabhade clan served in Maratha army.
• Great Maratha Sardar Khanderao Dabhade is from this clan. Sardar Satyasheelraje Padmasenraje Dabhade is the present descendant of Sarsenapati Khanderao Dabhade.
• Sardar Khanderao Dabhade was appointed "Sarsenapati or Commander-in-Chief" of the Maratha Army by Chh. Shahu Maharaj of Satara on 11 January 1717.
• Sarsenapati Umabaisaheb Khanderao Dabhade is the only lady to become Commander-in-Chief of the Maratha Army in 1732. She defeated a Mughal Sardar in Ahmedabad and was therefore given the honour to wear the Gold Toda in the leg. The descendants of the Royal Family of Talegaon Dabhade therefore have the honour of wearing the Gold Toda in the leg.
• Dabhade are Sardars and also held deshmukhi of a number of villages.
• Sarsenapati Khanderao Dabhade held the title of "Rajdeshmukh". This title is only with the Sarsenapati Sardar Dabhade Family of Talegaon Dabhade.

Dhumal :

• Dhumal's are prominant from Veer Gaon & also appears in Mulshi.
• Dhumal is one of the prominent Maratha Clan and they showed bravery in the panipat war along with their allies like Bhoite and Phadtare.
• In satara District villages like Karanjkhop and Sonake ,major inhabitians are Dhumal.

Dhamale : Dhamales are prominent Maratha clan and many supreme warriors of this clan showed their bravery in Maratha's martial operations which leads to expansion of Maratha Empire.

Dhamdhere :

• The Dhamdhere clan is concentrated in Talegaon Dhamdhere in Pune District
• Dhamdheres proved their worth in Malwa Operation of Maratha and they held Saranjami Rights of the winning regions like Maratha clans as Dabhade, Kadam, Pawar, Wagh, Bhoite, Jadhav, Bhosale, Shinde, Gaikwad and others along with some Brahman Warriors under peshwa centric Maratha Expansion.

Dhaybar :

• This clan is related to the royal family of Sondur and Baroda.
• One branch served as Killedar of Baroda.
• Also They are Prominent Maratha Knights in Peshwa Period like some powerful Maratha Clans Bhosale's of Akkalkot, Nimbalkar's of Phaltan, Bhoite's, Powar's, Pawars of Dharnagari etc.

Ingale :

• (Adhau, Atkare, Burghate, Dhonde, Dongre, Gode, Gorle, Ingle, Ingole, Jumde, Karale, Khade, Modak, Mohod, Patil, Sagne, Shelke, Taral are settled in Amravati and Akola, Burhanpur, and bordering villages of Maharashtra in MP )
• Mate :- Late shree Namdeorao Mate MLA
• Mandlik :- Sadashivrao Dadoba Mandlik MLA of the Nationalist Congress Party, Kolhapur.
• Notable Warriors :
• Balaji Ingale, Maratha Cavalrymen under peshwa's Service.
• Ambaji Ingale, Maratha Sardar.

Gujar :

• Prataprao Gujar (actual name Kudtoji Bargujar) was the second Sarnaubat (Commander-in-chief) of Shivaji's army.
• BAWISKAR (BAVISKAR, BAVIsarkar) - In North Maharashtra Bawiskar settled at ASODA (Tal & Dist. JALGAON), Ghodgaon, Hated, Mirache Palaskhede, Chahardi and SAKRE (Tal:DHARANGAON Dist:JALGAON)

Gaikwad :

• Harpale-Patil - Harpale from phursungi (near pune city) are also gaikwad's. The Gaikwads came from baroda to Pune in the 18th century to support maratha army in panipat war.They possess a "Tamr-Pat" of Gaikwad's. Now Harpale-Patil are watandar patil of phursungi, they are in good numbers there.Some Harpale families from Nagpur district claim to be Deshmukh of towns near by.
• The 3rd wife of Chh.Shivaji Maharaj, Sakwarbaisaheb belonged to the "Rao-Vishwasrao" Gaikwad family of Kolhapur. Rao - Vishwasrao Gaikwad was originally from the village Mundhwa near pune as mentioned in his book 'Rao vishwasrao Gharanyacha Itihaas' The present direct descendants of the "Rao-Vishwasrao" Gaikwad family still reside in Kolhapur. Govindrao Gaikwad, Col. Gaikwad are some of them. The other related family still resides in Mundhwa and is the patil gharana of Mundhwa. They still hold correspondence letters from Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj to their name.

• Some of the Gaikwads are in and around Solapur District in Maharashtra and particularly in Mohol area(With surname Deshmukh) and in Omerga Taluka in Osmanabad District. Prof. Ravin dra Gaikwad, MLA from Omerga, Shri V V Gaikwad (Secretary, Govt. of Maharashtra), Adv. Hiraji Gaikwad are few among others in Omerga Taluka. Justice P B Gaikwad in Osmanabad taluka. Similarly few GAIKWADS are also residing in NANDED district, Kandhar taluka . Prominents are Justice M G GAIKWAD, Mr. Prataprao Patil MLA. These Gaikwads were came to fight Nizams during the Ancient war with Nizam and Maratha's.

• Some Gaikwads also migrated from village TAKALI of PUNE district to village Chinchkheda of district DHULE in khandesh (north maharastra). It is said that a lady with her two young children come to Chinchkheda, buy a Gadhi (small fort like structure) from sister of gawali king of Khandesh and settled there. After then one of her two children moved towards north and is the ancestor of Gaekwads of Baroda, Gujarat.
• It is also said that gaikwads were related with the fort KISHANGADH, i.e. killedar of KISHANGADH
• Royal Gaykawad clan of Badoda was once Patil of the village of Lalvan in MalegaonTaluka in Nashik district .
• some gaikwads are also available in rohana(pota) tah.saoner, dist.nagpur, mr.ranojirao gaikwad came to rohana who was son of ragbajirao gaikwad, Gaikwad's clangodess is bhavani & clangod is khandoba. some gaikwads from same origin will found in osmanabad dist.(maharashtra) and mansar dist.nagpur(maharshtra).
• More information link for Gaikawad clan :-
• Badoda :- http://www.4dw.net/royalark/India/baroda.htm
• http://www.uq.net.au/~zzhsoszy/ips/b/baroda.html
• For clan flag :- http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/in-barod.html

Ghatge :

• Ghatge clan was Prominant Maratha under Sultanet,Under Reigns of Chhatrapatis and One of the Ghatge Royal Sardar was Senakarta of Shinde's Of Gwalior.
• Bollywood - Sagarika Ghatge from Kolhapur is the famous actress (Preeti Sabharwal Of film "Chak de India")
• Politics : VikramSingha Ghatge, from Kolhapur.

Hande :

Jagdale :

• Jagdale were the Deshmukh or Watandar Clan during Shivaji reign but due to disputes they often disputed with Rulers like Bahamani, Other Sultanets and until King Shahu Reign.
• There are a lot of Jagdale's who use the surname Pawar in Konkan
• Vikhe :- Padmashree Dr. Vithalrao Vikhe Patil Vill. Astagaon, Distt. Ahmednagar (Maharashtra) , Shri Eknathrao Vikhe Patil, fondly known as Shri Balasaheb Vikhe Patil MLA Ahmednagar Lok Sabha Constituency former Cabinet Minister For Heavy Industry & Public Enterprises, Govt. of India .

• Link :- http://www.pravara.com/
• http://www.pravaragroup.org

Jagdhane :

• Jagdhane was the Sardar Clan Under Peshwa periodic Maratha and morever they known as Sardars of Barhanpur.

Jagtap :

• Harjiraje jagtap Deshmukh is mulepurush of jagtap clan.
• Sardar Godajirao Jagtap was a brave soldier in King Shivaji's Army.
• Saswad city near Pune city is main town where Jagtap clan can be found in good numbers. some of Jagtap Deshmukh migrated from Purandhar to Jambut village, Shirur taluka (Pune) as a Watandar. Some had migrated from satara to Amravati and Nagpur. They can be found in good numbers in these two districts too. They also found in good number in Pandare and Jalgaon (Supe) town near to Baramati having roots from Saswad.
• Late Boburao Ganpatrao Jagtap Pune city Mayor in 1962. The Jagtap clan lives largely in Murum Tal-Baramati district in Pune and Wanewadi.

Kale :

• Devaji Raje Kale is Mulpurush of Royal Family which is live in Gonawadi-Ghodegaon, Tal-Ambegaon, Dist-Pune.

• Majority in PUNE, MUMBAI, SOLAPUR, AHMADNAGAR in MAHARASTRA, etc.

• NOTE* DANI it Common surname in Vidharbha. ( Nagpur Side) is belong to Brahman Familiy.

Their Family Deity is same (Shri Bhavani - Tulajapur). This Family has contains big list of its famility tree and it goes upto Saint Eknath from Paithan. Saint Bhanudas from Devgari.

Prominent Person from this clad known in Recent history is Dr. Shantabai Dani from Amarvati.Social worker.

Another , Shree. Vaidyaraj LALA Dani, for his Medicine and astrology.

Kale SubClan Kalamkar : कळमकर or kalamkar is Marathi last name. Normally belongs to Forward Caste under Marathas, Brahmins & Jains. Kalamkar Maratha clan are found in good number in A'Nagar district. Shri. Dadabhau Dasharat Kalamkar Ex. MLA of Ahmadnagar city and present district Presedent of Rastrawadi congress party A'Nagar

Kakade : In Purandar village Pangare & Baramati taluka village Nimbut. In Pune district and city Kakade clan is in good number, Also in Jalgaon District Taluka Bodwad there is a village Chickhali where Kakade dwell.

Kadam : Padmbhushan Dr. Vasantrao(Dada) Banduji Kadam-Patil Sangli Ex CM, Maharashtra, Ex Governor of Rajastan state. Dr. Patangrao Shripatrao Kadam Minister for Industries, Trade & Commerce and Parliamentary affairs. Chairman - MIDC Maharashtra state. MLA from 270 - Bhilwadi Wangi Assembly Constituency in Sangli.Honourable Dr. Patangrao Kadam has Founded the Esteemed Educational Institute - Bharati Vidyapeeth, Pune., at a young age, on 10 May 1964. He was born on 8 January 1944 in a farmer's family, in rural area of Maharashtra, India.

• Link :- http://www.bharatividyapeeth.edu/html/about_bvdu.shtml
• Kolhe Shankarrao Genuji MLA Kopargaon
• Bhausaheb Hire MLA Jalgaon District
• Chimanrao Kadam from Girvi, Former MLA of Phaltan, Dist-Satara.

Khadtare :

• Khadtare clan is distributed all over Maharastra, Mostly in west and south Maharastra.
• Info Link :- 1)http://www.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/SANGLI/places_Kharsundi.html

2) http://www.maplandia.com/india/maharashtra/sangli/kharsundi/

Khaire :

• Historical devotee of god Khandoba Kaire (Patil) of Supa, Supe village in Baramati district were from this clan.
• Shree Chandrakant Khaire MLA from Aurangabad city.
• Shree Deepak Khaire propritor of|Khaire patil infrastructure from Pune.

Mane :

• Politics - Smt. Nivedita Mane MLA NCP Ichalkaranji (Maharashtra )
• Wrestler Hindkesari Shree Maruti Mane.
• Telecommunications Amol Mohan Mane of Islampur(Sangli) Is well known Wi_Fi Engineer.
• Journalist - Shrimant Mane from Akola, Nagpur (Resident Editor Daily Deshonnati and Editor Coordination Weekly Krushkonnati)
• Weight lifter Ujwala Uttamrao Mane Common wealth Silver medalist & world police game gold medalist(satara).
• Basket Ball Pradnya Uttamrao Mane(satara) captioned Indian Basket ball team .

More :

• See :- Category:Mauryan dynasty
• Jawali in Satara district ( ? ) was another main center for More clan . Chandrarao More was prominent More. He had disputes with king Sivaji as he had declared himself as the king of Jawali region, that extended from Wai, Satara towards the konkan region of Raigad district right up to the seacoast of Shrivardhan.The Mahadev temple of HareHareshwar was patronised byChandrarao Morey. The fort of Rairi present day Raigad was in the possession of More's at that time. They are famous as " Jawali che More ".
• Another house of Morey's of Vardhangad near Koregaon in Satara was also famous as vatandars of the region, which was surrendered after the war of Jawali.Presently Shri Amarsinh( Shivkumar ) Ramesh Morey a senior merchant naval officer & Shri Sanjay Moray(businessman & politician) are easily trackable & well known descendants from Vardhangad branch of Moray's who have settled in Pune(Rastha Pet) city.
• More clan in Pune district is well known from town Dehu. The great Marathi saint, Vaikunthvasi Tukaram Bolhoba More, fondly known as Sant Tukaram, is from this clan.
• King Chandragupta Maurya, King Ashoka Maurya of Patliputra presently(Patna Bihar).

Moray were known as "Moria" the rulers of th Konkan area around 500 AD.To know more visit ebook - Shivaji & his times at : http://books.google.co.in/books?id=YDXu6rzwUwsC&pg=PA46&lpg=PA46&dq=Shivaji's+war+history&source=web&ots=3t0KdVOE8h&sig=3VbSbcvb4p_F0r5Pz3s-RKgdacc&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=result#PPA35,M1

Mohite :

• Mohite's are prominent Maratha Clan having relations with prominent Marathas and morever the brides of Bhosale i.e. King Shivaji's House from mainly Mohite.as King Shivaji, and his successors and other Nagpurkar Bhosale used to marry from Mohite Brides.

• Shree Vijaysinh Mohite-Patil Minister Public Works Department (PWD) Maharashtra State. MLA from Akluj township in Solapur district
• Link :- http://www.akluj.com/

• Shri Diliprao Mohite MLA Khed Maharastra

• Shri Subodhrao Mohite MLA Ramtek (Maharashtra)

• Shri Dhondiram Mahadeo Mohite Mohityanche Vadgaon Dist: Sangli, Maharashtra The founder of only man-made sanctuary "Sagareshwar Abhayaranya" in India.

• Commander in Chief of Maratha Army(Sarsenapati) : Hambirrao Mohite Patil the great often referred as 'Dhanya Wagh'? His descendents leave in Talbid. The family is known as Baji Mohite from Talbid.

• Major General Hanmantrao Mohite.

Nalawade : Nalawde's are good number in Pune district. Pune city Mayor Late Ganpatrao Nalawde.

Nikam : The "Khalate" surname are found in "Late","Khunte","Shirasane", and ""Kambaleshwar" villages of Satara and Pune district. The "Matsagar" surname has been changed from the original surname "Nikam" after a tale about unity shown by a group of people in killing a man-eater snake. Mat (मत) stands for 'opinion' in Marathi language, whereas Sāgar (सागर) stands for 'Ocean'; thereby मतसागर signifies collection (unity) of opinions for a good cause! These community people are found in the two neighboring villages in Vaijapur taluka namely Jarul and Aaghur, in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra; and in Niphad taluka namely Pimplas, in Nasik district of Maharashtra. Therefore, the marriages between two families from Matsagar and Nikam are never happen.

Dalvi :

• Dalvi rulers of Paramara lineage

Shrimant Jaswantrao Dalvi was the Raja of Palvan Sansthan at time of the Shivaji Maharaj era (1662).He was the best friend of Shirke Raja of Shrungarpure. Pesent day this location come under the Mandangad tahasil in Ratnagiri District. This dalvi family are the migrated from royal Parmara family of Dhar.Most of the family of this lineage have social honor as Khot. Present day Dalvi's of Soveli, Palvani, Nighavani, Dudhere, Dahagao; Pawar's of Bhamghar, Sakhri; Ghosalkar's of Ghosale are comes under the Dharpawar kuli, tharefore this family are not marriage each other.

Pawar ( Parmar ):

• More information link for Pawar clan :-
• Kalika temple Dhar: 22.59806°N 75.282435°E / 22.59806; 75.282435
• Dewas senior :- http://www.4dw.net/royalark/India/dewass.htm
• Dewas Junior :- http://www.4dw.net/royalark/India/dewasj.htm
• http://www.4dw.net/royalark/India/dhar.htm
• http://www.uq.net.au/~zzhsoszy/ips/d/dewasjnr.html
• http://www.uq.net.au/~zzhsoszy/ips/d/dewassnr.html
• Dhar :- http://www.uq.net.au/~zzhsoszy/ips/d/dhar.html
• http://www.uq.net.au/~zzhsoszy/ips/c/chhatarpur.html
• http://www.uq.net.au/~zzhsoszy/ips/r/rajgarh.html
• http://www.uq.net.au/~zzhsoszy/ips/r/rajgarh_malwa.html
• Pawar
• Phaltan :- http://www.uq.net.au/~zzhsoszy/ips/p/phaltan.html

• Parab
• Original kingdom: Dharanagari (Dhar in Madhya Pradesh)
• Colour of throne, canopy, sign (Nishan), and Horse (Varu): Red
• Heraldic sign (Nishan): Moon on flagpole
• Clan god (Kuladaivat): Ling Ravalnath
• Clan object (Devak): Edge of the sword / five leaves
• Guru: Vasishtha
• Gotra: Shandilya
• Veda: Rigveda
• Mantra: Gayatri mantra
• Surnames:- Amir, Areeraw, Ambekar, Bagway, Eangal, Karbe, Kanorte, Kashmirkar, Khanedar, Garudmane, Gabru, Garud, Gawdhal, Gihile, Chitrawadhe, Chitragupt, Chipde, Chipte, Jape, Janmandh, Zapate, Jamdande, Dhongiraw, Tikhate, Jamkhindee, Dhivde, Dhanurdhar, Dhaneshwar, Dhamal, Dhampal, Dhamdhar, Dhande, Dhaybar, Nahane, Naringe, Naydu, Nistane, Nerpagar, Prabhu, Pasubal, Pandav, Premed, Barve, Bandge, Mahiwar, Mokashe, Walunj, Sheshavansha, suryawanshi, Vasindkar. (Total 50)

Pisal : Clan Information Of Pisal :

• Once Pisal Deshmukh family was administrator of Wai Pargana, Satara District Maharashtra but In King Shivaji Era, King discarded Watans of His officers and he used to pay them Salary in Cash.They were Administrator of about 200 Villages near Wai.
• Suryajirao Pisal was prominent figure from this clan but due to his unpatriotic contribution he lost his glory and prestige.except his deeds, he was brave sardar of Maratha Clan.
• Supekarwere the Maratha Knights in Peshwa Period along With Maratha's like Bhosale, Bhoite, Pawar, Nimbalkar, Ghorpade, Powar, Angre etc. Maratha Clans.
• Many pisal marathas are found in khandala Tehsil, satara.Bawdhan is main village where Pisal's are present in many number.Also They are In Ozarde Village.

Present Personality : Mr.Madanrao pisal.( former MLA, Minister of Maharashtra )

Pansare :

• Sardar Mambajirao Pansare was one of the fellow of King Shivaji and who was brought stone from Gandaki River, Nepal for the sake of Goddess Bhavani's Memorial at Pratapgarh..

Phadtare :

• Phadtare :- Phadtare clan is in good number in Purandhar - Village Bopgaon and are also in village {Loni} teshil -khatav, dist-Satara

clan with their titals as including Inamdar and Deshmukh

• Phadtare Clan Members are one of the prominent Maratha Sardar's who shows bravery along with fellow Maratha Clans like Bhoite and Dhumal in Panipat War.

Phalke :

• Phalke is one of the good Maratha clan and they have relationships with Bhosale's of Nagpur.they were among the seven clans selected by the Bhosale for the sake of Marriage.

Kate( Sub clan of Phatak ):

• Kate is also anicient Maratha Clan who served Sultanet before joining Maratha Empire under King Shivaji.
• Sardar Bapuji Rao Kate was one of the prominent figure in Sultanet and he was ally of King Shivaji's Father Shahaji Rao Bhosale.

Rane :

• Shree Narayan Rane,Minister of Maharashtra is prominant figure of Rane Clan.
• Shree Vilasrao Deshmukh Chief Minister of Maharashtra (Term: October 2004–October 2009).
• Chife minister of Goa state Shree Pratapsingh Raoji Rane
• Mahur ( District Nanded ) :- Last king of Mahur city and great Marathi Author Raje Madhukarrao Jagjeenavrao Deshmukh died on 23 Augast 2006. He has a daughter Meenatai Jalnekarand wife Indumati Raje. He was fluent in English, Arabic, Marathi, Sanskrit, Gujarati and Urdu languages. He had written two books "Shikari Raja" and "Shikarnama."
• Dr.Panjabrao Deshmukh—social activist and a Farmer's leader in India.
• http://books.google.co.in/books?id=lYSd-3yL9h0C&pg=PA475&lpg=PA475&dq=Khanvilkars&source=bl&ots=aClmCh04PN&sig=KA43BfJit8CPfFJXDrFxPbsHVXk&hl=en&ei=TBzOSdfmDqWK6APiwPTXAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=10&ct=result.

Raout : This is the title awarded to the Horse riders at the times of Kings. In the Army of Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, there were about 1lakh Rauts. They were much famous for their speed and bravery. Even this title will be found in the Rajputs. Today they are spread all over Maharashtra, Goa, Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana etc. Most of the Rauts will be found at the base of Panhala Fort (Padal Village) & Also in Thane District. Raut originated from Aryas. Initially they were doing Ruling and protection of Kingdoms, also sometimes these people do pooja like Brahmins. They had given dual role The all spread in Konkan also. Some of their native places are Kankavali, Kudal, Nerur, Nirom, Vengurla. Bhandari Raut are different from from Kshatrya Raut.

Shinde :

• Shinde Royal clan of Gwalior is originally from Kanherkhed village near Satara city in Maharashtra State. Shinde are Patil of Kanherkhed village. Shri Jyotiraditya Madhavrao Scindia INC Guna (Madhya Pradesh).
• The Brave Shinde clan From Jaoli Taluka District Satara, Maharashtra. There are prominent numbers in Vele,kudal,Akhad,Humgaon village.

Some Prominent Personalities Of Shinde-Deshmukh From Vele.

• Late Dadasaheb Shripatrao Shinde-Deshmukh(Vele,Jaoli Taluka,District Satara, Maharashtra).
• Leading Marathi Actor Sayaji Shinde From Vele.
• Shinde clan is also in Ratnagiri District, Maharashtra. In Ratnagiri at Chiplun Taluka.- there are 10 villages of Shinde clan. These Shinde's are known as Daspatkar's as this a distinct clan. This 10 villages are known as 'Daspati'. Who Adelshah ascribed this tag Daspatkar as ten times heroic and bold Maratha worriors.
• Shinde clan is also in Koparde-Khandala Taluka,District Satara, Maharashtra and Asangaon-Koregaon Taluka, District Satara, Maharashtra. Kopardekar and Asangaonkar Shinde are basically from Daspati-Chiplun Taluka, District Ratnagiri, Maharashtra.

Some Prominent Personalities from Shinde(Kopardekar):

• Late Shivajirao Malharrao Shinde(Inamdar) , Ex Sarpanch Koparde
• Late Balasaheb Marutrao Shinde, Ex Sarpanch Koparde
• Late Gulabrao Bajirao Shinde(Patil)
• Late Abasaheb Tukaram Shinde
• Late Yashavantrao Shinde(Bhaiyyasaheb Inamdar) Former Chief Engineer, Irrigation Department Maharashtra.
• Dasharathrao Shinde,Krushnrao Shinde,Vijaysingh Shinde -- Shindencha Got,Gwalior.
• Ramesh Chandrakant Shinde, Sabhapati-Lonand Bajar Samiti-Khandala Taluka, District Satara, Maharashtra,Ex Sarpanch Koparde.

More information link for shinde clan :-

• 1) Sindhia :- http://en.wiki.x.io/wiki/Sindhia
• 2)Gwalior :- http://www.4dw.net/royalark/India/gwalior.htm
• 3) Gwalior :- http://www.uq.net.au/~zzhsoszy/ips/g/gwalior.html
• 4) Category:Scindia dynasty of Gwalior
• 5) For Shinde clan Flag :- http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/in-gwali.html

Shitole :

• Shitole Deshmukh were prominent Maratha Deshmukh Branch, who once administrated about 100 villages Under Sultanets.

Near Patas & surrounding Villages, Pune District, there are about no.of Shitole's present.many honoured as Deshmukh

• Urjitsigha Shitole Sarkar - Organizer of Saint DnyaneshwarAlandi Palkhi Festival.)Shitole sarkar, Shitole Wada situated at Kasba Peth, near Kasba Ganpati mandir- Pune city. Shitole Sarkar of Ankali, viz Mahadaji Shitole Sarkar, Anandsinh Dattajirao Shitole, Ashwath Ashokrao Shitole, Mansingh Ashokrao Shitole of Siddapurwadi

Ankali is a small town which located in tq: Chikodi, Dist: BelgaumAnkali is nice village but created its own identity in Karnataka as well as in Maharashtra. Because Ankali is historic place & owned by Shrimant Shitole Sarkar who have much respect in Pandharpur as well as in Alandi(Shri sant. Dnyaneshwar Maharaj's place). Holy horses u all know how much they have respect, people assume that one of horse as a "MAULI" means Shri Sant Dnyaneshwar Maharaj's 'Ashwa'.We all Ankalians are proud of this. Through this community all Ankalians & relative of Ankalians get together in one arena. We all proud to be Ankalians.Shitole Deshmukhs are basically from punawadi(PUNE).Near pune, Lawale, Baner, Patas, Kusegaon, Padavi and Ambewadi in Satara district, are their villages.Their chief deity (kuldevata)ROTMALNATH temple is in Roti village in Dound Tehsil of Pune district.They are Suryawanshi.

• Late Prof. Shri Sudhakar Anandrao Shitole was Professor in K. J. Somaiya College of Arts And Commerce, Vidyavihar, Mumbai. He died on 18 May 1977. He has 02 Sons.
• Late shri. Audumbaranna Patil (Shitole).Ex M.L.A. of Pandharpur & Founder Chairman Of Vitthal Sahakari Karkhana Ltd.; Venunagar of yevati village tq: Mohol Dist: Sholapur.

Shirke :

• Shirke is prominant Maratha clan and Two Brides of King Shivaji belongs this clan also wife of Chhatrapati Sambhaji ,Rajaram and Royal Bhosale,Royal Clans of Maratha were from this clan.
• B.G.Shirke industrialist and businessman.

http://newstodaynet.com/2006sud/06nov/2111ss1.htm

Shelar :

• Sardar Shelar known as Shelar Mama was prominent Maratha Sardar Under King Shivaji and welknown Lionheart Sardar Tanaji Malusare's Maternal Uncle.Who Killed Udaibhan, the rajput killedar of Kondhana i.e. Sinhagadh.

Sawant :

• More information link for Savant clan :-
• http://www.4dw.net/royalark/India/savant.htm
• http://www.uq.net.au/~zzhsoszy/ips/s/savantvadi.html

Thote ( Thite )

• Late shree Dr Shrikant Jijkar MLA was prominent figure from Jijkar clan.
• 'Thite' clan is in good number in village Kendur in Pune District.

See also

• Marathi people
• Maratha Empire
• Maratha
• Marathi Language
• Imperial Maratha Conquests

Sources

Written in the Marathi language

• Kshytriya Marathyanchi Vanshavali and Shannavkuli aani Surya, Som, Bhramh and Sheshvant., Balagi Nathugi Gavand and Govind Moroba Karlekar. Tukaram book Depo, Madhavbag, Mumbai 4. Edition 9 th Dated 1997 Printer: Sumangal artec, G-8 MIDC, Marol bus depo, Andheri, (East) Mumbai - 400093

• Shree Shatradharma, Prachalit and pramikh kshtravansh and tyanche gotra, pravar, kuldaivat, kuldevata a Devak. Bhramibhoot sadguru param pujya Moredada. Publisher: Shree Swami Samarth Seva And Adhyatmik vikas pradhan kendra District Nasik, Taluka Dindori, Maharashtra state. Printer: Shree Swami Samarth Gurukul Shree Shetra Trambkeshwar. Edition: Thursday 11 July 2002

• Maratha Kulancha Etihas - Part 1,2,3,4,5,6. Gopal Dajiba Dalwi. Publisher: Induprakash Press, Mumbai. Dated : 1912. [www.dnyan.in]Dnyaneshwar vidyapeeth

• Sharad Pawar, the Making of a Modern Maratha: The Making of a Modern Maratha By P. K. Ravindranath Published by UBS Publishers' Distributors, 1992 Original from the University of California Digitized 1 Feb 2007 ISBN 8185674469, 9788185674469 184 pages

• Bibliography of Dr. Pissurlencar Collection By Bhagamandala Seetharama Shastry, V. R. Navelkar, Goa University Published by Goa University, 1989 Item notes: v.1 Original from the University of Michigan Digitized 9 Aug 2007

• Folk-dance of Maharashtra By A. J. Agarkar Published by R. Joshi, 1950 Original from the University of Michigan Digitized 19 Jul 2007 172 pages

• Rajah Serfoji-II, with a Short History of Thanjavur Mahrattas By Tulajendra Rajah P. Bhosale Published by T.R.P. Bhosale, 1995 Original from the University of California Digitized 3 Oct 2008 63 pages

*

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1. REDIRECT Caste system in India

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−

− Indian society has consisted of thousands of endogamous clans and groups called jatis. The Brahminical scriptures and texts tried to bring this diversity under a comprehensible scheme which hypothesised four idealised meta groups called varna. The first mention of the formal varna Indian caste system is in the famous Purusha Sukta of the Rigveda, although it is the only mention in the entire body of the Vedas and has been decried as a much later, non-Vedic insertion by numerous Indologists like Max Müller and also by India's first law minister and principal architect of the Constitution of India, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar.

− − Historically, caste systems are also found among Christians, Muslims, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Jains.

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Hindu scriptures

− In the Vedic period, there also seems to have been no discrimination against the Shudras on the issue of hearing the sacred words of the Vedas and fully participating in all religious rituals, something which became progressively restricted in the later times.

− − Manusmriti, contains some laws that codified the professions. The Manu Smriti belongs to a class of books that are geared towards ethics, morals, and social conduct - not spirituality or religion.

− −

Emergence of rigid caste structures

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− In its later stages, the caste system is said to have become rigid, and caste began to be inherited rather than acquired by merit. In the past, members of different castes would not partake in various activities, such as dining and religious gatherings, together. In addition, the performance of religious rites and rituals were restricted to Brahmins, who were the designated priesthood.

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Mobility across the castes

− The view of the caste system as "static and unchanging" has been disputed by many scholars. For instance, sociologists such as Bernard Buber and Marriott McKim describe how the perception of the caste system as a static and textual stratification has given way to the perception of the caste system as a more processual, empirical and contextual stratification. Other sociologists such as Y.B Damle have applied theoretical models to explain mobility and flexibility in the caste system in India. According to these scholars, groups of lower-caste individuals could seek to elevate the status of their caste by attempting to emulate the practices of higher castes.

− − Some scholars believe that the relative ranking of other castes was fluid or differed from one place to another prior to the arrival of the British.

− − According to some psychologists, mobility across broad caste lines may have been "minimal", though sub-castes (jatis) may change their social status over the generations by fission, re-location, and adoption of new rituals.

− − Sociologist M. N. Srinivas has also debated the question of rigidity in Caste. In an ethnographic study of the Coorgs (Kodavas) of Karnataka, he observed considerable flexibility and mobility in their caste hierarchies. He asserts that the caste system is far from a rigid system in which the position of each component caste is fixed for all time. Movement has always been possible, and especially in the middle regions of the hierarchy. It was always possible for groups born into a lower caste to "rise to a higher position by adopting vegetarianism and teetotalism" i.e. adopt the customs of the higher castes. While theoretically "forbidden", the process was not uncommon in practice. The concept of sanskritization, or the adoption of upper-caste norms by the lower castes, addressed the actual complexity and fluidity of caste relations.

− − Historical examples of mobility in the Indian Caste System among Hindus have been researched. There is also precedent of certain Shudra families within the temples of the Shrivaishava sect in South India elevating their caste.

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Reform movements

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− − There have been cases of upper caste Hindus warming to the Dalits and Hindu priests, demoted to outcaste ranks, who continued practising the religion. An example of the latter was Dnyaneshwar, who was excommunicated from society in the 13th century, but continued to compose the Dnyaneshwari, a Dharmic commentary on the Bhagavad Gita. Other excommunicated Brahmins, such as Eknath, fought for the rights of untouchables during the Bhakti period. Historical examples of lower caste priests include Chokhamela in the 14th century, who was India's first recorded lower caste poet, Raidas, born into Dalit cobblers, and others. The 15th-century saint Ramananda also accepted all castes, including untouchables, into his fold. Most of these saints subscribed to the Bhakti movements in Hinduism during the medieval period that rejected casteism. Nandanar, a low-caste Hindu cleric, also rejected castes and supported lower caste.

− − In the 19th century, the Brahmo Samaj under Raja Ram Mohan Roy, actively campaigned against untouchability. The Arya Samaj founded by Swami Dayanand also renounced discrimination against Dalits. Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa founded the Ramakrishna Mission that participated in the emancipation of Dalits. Upper caste Hindus, such as Mannathu Padmanabhan also participated in movements to abolish Untouchability against Dalits, opening his family temple for Dalits to worship. While there always have been places for Dalits to worship, the first "upper-caste" temple to openly welcome Dalits into their fold was the Laxminarayan Temple in Wardha in the year 1928 (the move was spearheaded by reformer Jamnalal Bajaj). Also, the Satnami movement was founded by Guru Ghasidas, a Dalit himself. Other reformers, such as Mahatma Jyotirao Phule also worked for the emancipation of Dalits. Another example of Dalit emancipation was the Temple Entry Proclamation issued by the last Maharaja of Travancore in the Indian state of Kerala in the year 1936. The Maharaja proclaimed that "outcastes should not be denied the consolations and the solace of the Hindu faith". Even today, the Sri Padmanabhaswamy temple that first welcomed Dalits in the state of Kerala is revered by the Dalit Hindu community. The 1930s saw key struggles between Mahatma Gandhi and B.R. Ambedkar, most notably over whether Dalits would have separate electorates or joint electorates with reserved seats. The Indian National Congress was the only national organisation with a large Dalit following, but Gandhi failed to gain their commitment. Ambedkar, a Dalit himself, developed a deeper analysis of Untouchability, but lacked a workable political strategy: his conversion to Buddhism in 1956, along with millions of followers, highlighted the failure of his political endeavours.

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References

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External links

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• The International Dalit Solidarity Network: Dalits in India

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• Caste in Medieval India: The Beginnings of a Reexamination

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• Seventy-two Specimens of Castes in India Full-color hand-painted images of men and women of the various castes and religious and ethnic groups found in Madura, India in 1837 from the collection of the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University

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− Category:Indian caste system

− Category:Social history of India

Medieval cuisine

A group of peasants sharing a simple meal of bread and drink; Livre du roi Modus et de la reine Ratio, 14th century. (Bibliothèque nationale)

Medieval cuisine includes the foods, eating habits, and cooking methods of various European cultures during the Middle Ages, a period roughly dating from the 5th to the 15th century. During this period, diets and cooking changed less across Europe than they did in the briefer early modern period that followed, when those changes helped lay the foundations for modern European cuisine. Cereals remained the most important staples during the early Middle Ages as rice was a late introduction to Europe and the potato was only introduced in 1536, with a much later date for widespread usage. Barley, oat and rye among the poor, and wheat for the governing classes, were eaten as bread, porridge, gruel and pasta by all members of society. Fava beans and vegetables were important supplements to the cereal-based diet of the lower orders. (Phaseolus beans, today the "common bean," were of New World origin and were introduced after the Columbian Exchange in the 16th century.)

Meat was more expensive and therefore more prestigious and in the form of game was common only on the tables of the nobility. The most prevalent butcher's meats were pork, chicken and other domestic fowl; beef, which required greater investment in land, was less common. Cod and herring were mainstays among the northern populations; dried, smoked or salted they made their way far inland, but a wide variety of other saltwater and freshwater fish was also eaten.

Slow transportation and food preservation techniques (based on drying, salting, smoking and pickling) made long-distance trade of many foods very expensive. Because of this, the food of the nobility was more prone to foreign influence than the cuisine of the poor; it was dependent on exotic spices and expensive imports. As each level of society imitated the one above it, innovations from international trade and foreign wars from the 12th century onwards gradually disseminated through the upper middle class of medieval cities. Aside from economic unavailability of luxuries such as spices, decrees outlawed consumption of certain foods among certain social classes and sumptuary laws limited conspicuous consumption among the nouveaux riches. Social norms also dictated that the food of the working class be less refined, since it was believed there was a natural resemblance between one's labour and one's food; manual labour required coarser, cheaper food.

A type of refined cooking developed in the late Middle Ages that set the standard among the nobility all over Europe. Common seasonings in the highly spiced sweet-sour repertory typical of upper-class medieval food included verjuice, wine and vinegar in combination with spices such as black pepper, saffron and ginger. These, along with the widespread use of sugar or honey, gave many dishes a sweet-sour flavour. Almonds were very popular as a thickener in soups, stews, and sauces, particularly as almond milk.

Dietary norms

The cuisines of the cultures of the Mediterranean Basin had since antiquity been based on cereals, particularly various types of wheat. Porridge, gruel and later, bread, became the basic food staple that made up the majority of calorie intake for most of the population. From the 8th to the 11th centuries, the proportion of various cereals in the diet rose from about 1⁄3 to 3⁄4. Dependence on wheat remained significant throughout the medieval era, and spread northwards with the rise of Christianity. In colder climates, however, it was usually unaffordable for the majority population, and was associated with the higher classes. The centrality of bread in religious rituals such as the Eucharist meant that it enjoyed an especially high prestige among foodstuffs. Only (olive) oil and wine had a comparable value, but both remained quite exclusive outside the warmer grape- and olive-growing regions. The symbolic role of bread as both sustenance and substance is illustrated in a sermon given by Saint Augustine:

This bread retells your history … You were brought to the threshing floor of the Lord and were threshed … While awaiting catechism, you were like grain kept in the granary … At the baptismal font you were kneaded into a single dough. In the oven of the Holy Ghost you were baked into God's true bread.

The Church

Nuns dining in silence while listening to a Bible reading. Note the use of hand gestures for communicating; The Life of Blessed Saint Humility by Pietro Lorenzetti, 1341.

The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches and their calendars had great influence on eating habits; consumption of meat was forbidden for a full third of the year for most Christians, and all animal products, including eggs and dairy products (but not fish), were generally prohibited during Lent and fast. Additionally, it was customary for all citizens to fast prior to taking the Eucharist, and these fasts were occasionally for a full day and required total abstinence.

Both the Eastern and the Western churches ordained that feast should alternate with fast. In most of Europe, Fridays were fast days, and fasting was observed on various other days and periods, including Lent and Advent. Meat, and animal products such as milk, cheese, butter and eggs, were not allowed, only fish. The fast was intended to mortify the body and invigorate the soul, and also to remind the faster of Christ's sacrifice for humanity. The intention was not to portray certain foods as unclean, but rather to teach a spiritual lesson in self-restraint through abstention. During particularly severe fast days, the number of daily meals was also reduced to one. Even if most people respected these restrictions and usually made penance when they violated them, there were also numerous ways of circumventing them, a conflict of ideals and practice summarized by writer Bridget Ann Henisch:

It is the nature of man to build the most complicated cage of rules and regulations in which to trap himself, and then, with equal ingenuity and zest, to bend his brain to the problem of wriggling triumphantly out again. Lent was a challenge; the game was to ferret out the loopholes.

During the Middle Ages it was believed that beaver tails were of such a fish-like nature that they could be eaten on fast days; Livre des simples médecines, ca. 1480.

While animal products were to be avoided during times of penance, pragmatic compromises often prevailed. The definition of "fish" was often extended to marine and semi-aquatic animals such as whales, barnacle geese, puffins and even beavers. The choice of ingredients may have been limited, but that did not mean that meals were smaller. Neither were there any restrictions against (moderate) drinking or eating sweets. Banquets held on fish days could be splendid, and were popular occasions for serving illusion food that imitated meat, cheese and eggs in various ingenious ways; fish could be moulded to look like venison and fake eggs could be made by stuffing empty egg shells with fish roe and almond milk and cooking them in coals. While Byzantine church officials took a hard-line approach, and discouraged any culinary refinement for the clergy, their Western counterparts were far more lenient. There was also no lack of grumbling about the rigours of fasting among the laity. During Lent, kings and schoolboys, commoners and nobility, all complained about being deprived of meat for the long, hard weeks of solemn contemplation of their sins. At Lent, owners of livestock were even warned to keep an eye out for hungry dogs frustrated by a "hard siege by Lent and fish bones".

The trend from the 13th century onward was toward a more legalistic interpretation of fasting. Nobles were careful not to eat meat on fast days, but still dined in style; fish replaced meat, often as imitation hams and bacon; almond milk replaced animal milk as an expensive non-dairy alternative; faux eggs made from almond milk were cooked in blown-out eggshells, flavoured and coloured with exclusive spices. In some cases the lavishness of noble tables was outdone by Benedictine monasteries, which served as many as sixteen courses during certain feast days. Exceptions from fasting were frequently made for very broadly defined groups. Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225–1274) believed dispensation should be provided for children, the old, pilgrims, workers and beggars, but not the poor as long as they had some sort of shelter. There are many accounts of members of monastic orders who flouted fasting restrictions through clever interpretations of the Bible. Since the sick were exempt from fasting, there often evolved the notion that fasting restrictions only applied to the main dining area, and many Benedictine friars would simply eat their fast day meals in what was called the misericord (at those times) rather than the refectory. Newly assigned Catholic monastery officials sought to amend the problem of fast evasion not merely with moral condemnations, but by making sure that well-prepared non-meat dishes were available on fast days.

Class constraints

Medieval society was highly stratified. In a time when famine was commonplace and social hierarchies were often brutally enforced, food was an important marker of social status in a way that has no equivalent today in most developed countries. According to the ideological norm, society consisted of the three estates of the realm: commoners, that is, the working classes—by far the largest group; the clergy, and the nobility. The relationship between the classes was strictly hierarchical, with the nobility and clergy claiming worldly and spiritual overlordship over commoners. Within the nobility and clergy there were also a number of ranks ranging from kings and popes to dukes, bishops and their subordinates, such as priests. One was expected to remain in one's social class and to respect the authority of the ruling classes. Political power was displayed not just by rule, but also by displaying wealth. Nobles dined on fresh game seasoned with exotic spices, and displayed refined table manners; rough laborers could make do with coarse barley bread, salt pork and beans and were not expected to display etiquette. Even dietary recommendations were different: the diet of the upper classes was considered to be as much a requirement of their refined physical constitution as a sign of economic reality. The digestive system of a lord was held to be more discriminating than that of his rustic subordinates and demanded finer foods.

In the late Middle Ages, the increasing wealth of middle class merchants and traders meant that commoners began emulating the aristocracy, and threatened to break down some of the symbolic barriers between the nobility and the lower classes. The response came in two forms: didactic literature warning of the dangers of adapting a diet inappropriate for one's class, and sumptuary laws that put a cap on the lavishness of commoners' banquets.

Dietetics

Main article: Medieval medicine

Medical science of the Middle Ages had a considerable influence on what was considered healthy and nutritious among the upper classes. One's lifestyle—including diet, exercise, appropriate social behavior, and approved medical remedies—was the way to good health, and all types of food were assigned certain properties that affected a person's health. All foodstuffs were also classified on scales ranging from hot to cold and moist to dry, according to the four bodily humours theory proposed by Galen that dominated Western medical science from late Antiquity until the 17th century.

Medieval scholars considered human digestion to be a process similar to cooking. The processing of food in the stomach was seen as a continuation of the preparation initiated by the cook. In order for the food to be properly "cooked" and for the nutrients to be properly absorbed, it was important that the stomach be filled in an appropriate manner. Easily digestible foods would be consumed first, followed by gradually heavier dishes. If this regimen were not respected it was believed that heavy foods would sink to the bottom of the stomach, thus blocking the digestion duct, so that food would digest very slowly and cause putrefaction of the body and draw bad humours into the stomach. It was also of vital importance that food of differing properties not be mixed.

Before a meal, the stomach would preferably be "opened" with an apéritif (from Latin aperire, "to open") that was preferably of a hot and dry nature: confections made from sugar- or honey-coated spices like ginger, caraway and seeds of anise, fennel or cumin, wine and sweetened fortified milk drinks. As the stomach had been opened, it should then be "closed" at the end of the meal with the help of a digestive, most commonly a dragée, which during the Middle Ages consisted of lumps of spiced sugar, or hypocras, a wine flavoured with fragrant spices, along with aged cheese. A meal would ideally begin with easily digestible fruit, such as apples. It would then be followed by vegetables such as lettuce, cabbage, purslane, herbs, moist fruits, light meats, such as chicken or goat kid, with potages and broths. After that came the "heavy" meats, such as pork and beef, as well as vegetables and nuts, including pears and chestnuts, both considered difficult to digest. It was popular, and recommended by medical expertise, to finish the meal with aged cheese and various digestives.

The most ideal food was that which most closely matched the humour of human beings, i.e. moderately warm and moist. Food should preferably also be finely chopped, ground, pounded and strained to achieve a true mixture of all the ingredients. White wine was believed to be cooler than red and the same distinction was applied to red and white vinegar. Milk was moderately warm and moist, but the milk of different animals was often believed to differ. Egg yolks were considered to be warm and moist while the whites were cold and moist. Skilled cooks were expected to conform to the regimen of humoral medicine. Even if this limited the combinations of food they could prepare, there was still ample room for artistic variation by the chef.

Caloric structure

The caloric content and structure of medieval diet varied over time, from region to region, and between classes. However, for most people, the diet tended to be high-carbohydrate, with most of the budget spent on, and the majority of calories provided by, cereals and alcohol (such as beer). Even though meat was highly valued by all, lower classes often could not afford, nor were they allowed by the church to consume it every day. In England in the 13th century, meat contributed a negligible portion of calories to a typical harvest worker's diet; however, its share increased after the Black Death and, by the 15th century, it provided about 20% of the total. Even among the lay nobility of medieval England, grain provided 65–70% of calories in the early 14th century, though a generous provision of meat and fish was included, and their consumption of meat increased in the aftermath of the Black Death as well. In one early 15th-century English aristocratic household for which detailed records are available (that of the Earl of Warwick), gentle members of the household received a staggering 3.8 pounds (1.7 kg) of assorted meats in a typical meat meal in the autumn and 2.4 pounds (1.1 kg) in the winter, in addition to 0.9 pounds (0.41 kg) of bread and 1⁄4 imperial gallon (1.1 L; 0.30 US gal) of beer or possibly wine (and there would have been two meat meals per day, five days a week, except during Lent). In the household of Henry Stafford in 1469, gentle members received 2.1 pounds (0.95 kg) of meat per meal, and all others received 1.04 pounds (0.47 kg), and everyone was given 0.4 pounds (0.18 kg) of bread and 1⁄4 imperial gallon (1.1 L; 0.30 US gal) of alcohol. On top of these quantities, some members of these households (usually, a minority) ate breakfast, which would not include any meat, but would probably include another 1⁄4 imperial gallon (1.1 L; 0.30 US gal) of beer; and uncertain quantities of bread and ale could have been consumed in between meals. The diet of the lord of the household differed somewhat from this structure, including less red meat, more high-quality wild game, fresh fish, fruit, and wine.

In monasteries, the basic structure of the diet was laid down by the Rule of Saint Benedict in the 7th century and tightened by Pope Benedict XII in 1336, but (as mentioned above) monks were adept at "working around" these rules. Wine was restricted to about 10 imperial fluid ounces (280 mL; 9.6 US fl oz) per day, but there was no corresponding limit on beer, and, at Westminster Abbey, each monk was given an allowance of 1 imperial gallon (4.5 L; 1.2 US gal) of beer per day. Meat of "four-footed animals" was prohibited altogether, year-round, for everyone but the very weak and the sick. This was circumvented in part by declaring that offal, and various processed foods such as bacon, were not meat. Secondly, Benedictine monasteries contained a room called the misericord, where the Rule of Saint Benedict did not apply, and where a large number of monks ate. Each monk would be regularly sent either to the misericord or to the refectory. When Pope Benedict XII ruled that at least half of all monks should be required to eat in the refectory on any given day, monks responded by excluding the sick and those invited to the abbot's table from the reckoning. Overall, a monk at Westminster Abbey in the late 15th century would have been allowed 2.25 pounds (1.02 kg) of bread per day; 5 eggs per day, except on Fridays and in Lent; 2 pounds (0.91 kg) of meat per day, 4 days/week (excluding Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday), except in Advent and Lent; and 2 pounds (0.91 kg) of fish per day, 3 days/week and every day during Advent and Lent. This caloric structure partly reflected the high-class status of late Medieval monasteries in England, and partly that of Westminster Abbey, which was one of the richest monasteries in the country; diets of monks in other monasteries may have been more modest.

The overall caloric intake is subject to some debate. One typical estimate is that an adult peasant male needed 2,900 calories (12,000 kJ) per day, and an adult female needed 2,150 calories (9,000 kJ). Both lower and higher estimates have been proposed. Those engaged in particularly heavy physical labor, as well as sailors and soldiers, may have consumed 3,500 calories (15,000 kJ) or more per day. Intakes of aristocrats may have reached 4,000 to 5,000 calories (17,000 to 21,000 kJ) per day. Monks consumed 6,000 calories (25,000 kJ) per day on "normal" days, and 4,500 calories (19,000 kJ) per day when fasting. As a consequence of these excesses, obesity was common among upper classes. Monks especially frequently suffered from obesity-related (in some cases) conditions such as arthritis.

Regional variation

Main article: Regional cuisines of medieval Europe

The regional specialties that are a feature of early modern and contemporary cuisine were not in evidence in the sparser documentation that survives. Instead, medieval cuisine can be differentiated by the cereals and the oils that shaped dietary norms and crossed ethnic and, later, national boundaries. Geographical variation in eating was primarily the result of differences in climate, political administration, and local customs that varied across the continent. Though sweeping generalizations should be avoided, more or less distinct areas where certain foodstuffs dominated can be discerned. In the British Isles, northern France, the Low Countries, the northern German-speaking areas, Scandinavia and the Baltic the climate was generally too harsh for the cultivation of grapes and olives. In the south, wine was the common drink for both rich and poor alike (though the commoner usually had to settle for cheap second pressing wine) while beer was the commoner's drink in the north and wine an expensive import. Citrus fruits (though not the kinds most common today) and pomegranates were common around in the Mediterranean. Dried figs and dates were available in the north, but were used rather sparingly in cooking.

Olive oil was a ubiquitous ingredient in Mediterranean cultures, but remained an expensive import in the north where oils of poppy, walnut, hazel and filbert were the most affordable alternatives. Butter and lard, especially after the terrible mortality during the Black Death made them less scarce, were used in considerable quantities in the northern and northwestern regions, especially in the Low Countries. Almost universal in middle and upper class cooking all over Europe was the almond, which was in the ubiquitous and highly versatile almond milk, which was used as a substitute in dishes that otherwise required eggs or milk, though the bitter variety of almonds came along much later.

Meals

Banquet given in Paris in 1378 by Charles V of France (center, blue) for Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor (left) and his son Wenceslaus, King of the Romans. Each diner has two knives, a square salt container, napkin, bread and a plate; by Jean Fouquet, 1455–60.

In Europe there were typically two meals a day: dinner at mid-day and a lighter supper in the evening. The two-meal system remained consistent throughout the late Middle Ages. Smaller intermediate meals were common, but became a matter of social status, as those who did not have to perform manual labor could go without them. Moralists frowned on breaking the overnight fast too early, and members of the church and cultivated gentry avoided it. For practical reasons, breakfast was still eaten by working men, and was tolerated for young children, women, the elderly and the sick. Because the church preached against gluttony and other weaknesses of the flesh, men tended to be ashamed of the weak practicality of breakfast. Lavish dinner banquets and late-night reresopers (from Occitan rèire-sopar, "late supper") with considerable amounts of alcoholic beverage were considered immoral. The latter were especially associated with gambling, crude language, drunkenness, and lewd behavior. Minor meals and snacks were common (although also disliked by the church), and working men commonly received an allowance from their employers in order to buy nuncheons, small morsels to be eaten during breaks.

Etiquette

As with almost every part of life at the time, a medieval meal was generally a communal affair. The entire household, including servants, would ideally dine together. To sneak off to enjoy private company was considered a haughty and inefficient egotism in a world where people depended very much on each other. In the 13th century, English bishop Robert Grosseteste advised the Countess of Lincoln: "forbid dinners and suppers out of hall, in secret and in private rooms, for from this arises waste and no honour to the lord and lady." He also recommended watching that the servants not make off with leftovers to make merry at rere-suppers, rather than giving it as alms. Towards the end of the Middle Ages, the wealthy increasingly sought to escape this regime of stern collectivism. When possible, rich hosts retired with their consorts to private chambers where the meal could be enjoyed in greater exclusivity and privacy. Being invited to a lord's chambers was a great privilege and could be used as a way to reward friends and allies and to awe subordinates. It allowed lords to distance themselves further from the household and to enjoy more luxurious treats while serving inferior food to the rest of the household that still dined in the great hall. At major occasions and banquets, however, the host and hostess generally dined in the great hall with the other diners. Although there are descriptions of dining etiquette on special occasions, less is known about the details of day-to-day meals of the elite or about the table manners of the common people and the destitute. However, it can be assumed there were no such extravagant luxuries as multiple courses, luxurious spices or hand-washing in scented water in everyday meals.

John, Duke of Berry enjoying a grand meal. The Duke is sitting at the high table in front of the fireplace, tended to by several servants including a carver. On the table to the left of the Duke is a golden salt cellar, or nef, in the shape of a ship; Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, ca 1410.

Things were different for the wealthy. Before the meal and between courses, shallow basins and linen towels were offered to guests so they could wash their hands, as cleanliness was emphasized. Social codes made it difficult for women to uphold the ideal of immaculate neatness and delicacy while enjoying a meal, so the wife of the host often dined in private with her entourage or ate very little at such feasts. She could then join dinner only after the potentially messy business of eating was done. Overall, fine dining was a predominantly male affair, and it was uncommon for anyone but the most honored of guests to bring his wife or her ladies-in-waiting. The hierarchical nature of society was reinforced by etiquette where the lower ranked were expected to help the higher, the younger to assist the elder, and men to spare women the risk of sullying dress and reputation by having to handle food in an unwomanly fashion. Shared drinking cups were common even at lavish banquets for all but those who sat at the high table, as was the standard etiquette of breaking bread and carving meat for one's fellow diners.

Food was mostly served on plates or in stew pots, and diners would take their share from the dishes and place it on trenchers of stale bread, wood or pewter with the help of spoons or bare hands. In lower-class households it was common to eat food straight off the table. Knives were used at the table, but most people were expected to bring their own, and only highly favored guests would be given a personal knife. A knife was usually shared with at least one other dinner guest, unless one was of very high rank or well-acquainted with the host. Forks for eating were not in widespread usage in Europe until the early modern period, and early on were limited to Italy. Even there it was not until the 14th century that the fork became common among Italians of all social classes. The change in attitudes can be illustrated by the reactions to the table manners of the Byzantine princess Theodora Doukaina in the late 11th century. She was the wife of Domenico Selvo, the Doge of Venice, and caused considerable dismay among upstanding Venetians. The foreign consort's insistence on having her food cut up by her eunuch servants and then eating the pieces with a golden fork shocked and upset the diners so much that there was a claim that Peter Damian, Cardinal Bishop of Ostia, later interpreted her refined foreign manners as pride and referred to her as "...the Venetian Doge's wife, whose body, after her excessive delicacy, entirely rotted away." However this is ambiguous since Peter Damian died in 1072 or 1073, and their marriage (Theodora and Domenico) took place in 1075.

Food preparation

A cook at the hearth with his trademark ladle; woodcut illustration from Kuchenmaistrey, the first printed cookbook in German, woodcut, 1485.

All types of cooking involved the direct use of fire. Kitchen stoves did not appear until the 18th century, and cooks had to know how to cook directly over an open fire. Ovens were used, but they were expensive to construct and only existed in fairly large households and bakeries. It was common for a community to have shared ownership of an oven to ensure that the bread baking essential to everyone was made communal rather than private. There were also portable ovens designed to be filled with food and then buried in hot coals, and even larger ones on wheels that were used to sell pies in the streets of medieval towns. But for most people, almost all cooking was done in simple stewpots, since this was the most efficient use of firewood and did not waste precious cooking juices, making potages and stews the most common dishes. Overall, most evidence suggests that medieval dishes had a fairly high fat content, or at least when fat could be afforded. This was considered less of a problem in a time of back-breaking toil, famine, and a greater acceptance—even desirability—of plumpness; only the poor or sick, and devout ascetics, were thin.

Fruit was readily combined with meat, fish and eggs. The recipe for Tart de brymlent, a fish pie from the recipe collection Forme of Cury, includes a mix of figs, raisins, apples and pears with fish (salmon, codling or haddock) and pitted damson plums under the top crust. It was considered important to make sure that the dish agreed with contemporary standards of medicine and dietetics. This meant that food had to be "tempered" according to its nature by an appropriate combination of preparation and mixing certain ingredients, condiments and spices; fish was seen as being cold and moist, and best cooked in a way that heated and dried it, such as frying or oven baking, and seasoned with hot and dry spices; beef was dry and hot and should therefore be boiled; pork was hot and moist and should therefore always be roasted. In some recipe collections, alternative ingredients were assigned with more consideration to the humoral nature than what a modern cook would consider to be similarity in taste. In a recipe for quince pie, cabbage is said to work equally well, and in another turnips could be replaced by pears.

The completely edible shortcrust pie did not appear in recipes until the 15th century. Before that the pastry was primarily used as a cooking container in a technique known as 'huff paste' . Extant recipe collections show that gastronomy in the Late Middle Ages developed significantly. New techniques, like the shortcrust pie and the clarification of jelly with egg whites began to appear in recipes in the late 14th century and recipes began to include detailed instructions instead of being mere memory aids to an already skilled cook.

The medieval kitchen

Fowl roasting on a spit. Under the spit is a narrow, shallow basin to collect the drippings for use in sauces or for basting the meat; The Decameron, Flanders, 1432.

In most households, cooking was done on an open hearth in the middle of the main living area, to make efficient use of the heat. This was the most common arrangement, even in wealthy households, for most of the Middle Ages, where the kitchen was combined with the dining hall. Towards the Late Middle Ages a separate kitchen area began to evolve. The first step was to move the fireplaces towards the walls of the main hall, and later to build a separate building or wing that contained a dedicated kitchen area, often separated from the main building by a covered arcade. This way, the smoke, odors and bustle of the kitchen could be kept out of sight of guests, and the fire risk lessened.

Many basic variations of cooking utensils available today, such as frying pans, pots, kettles, and waffle irons, already existed, although they were often too expensive for poorer households. Other tools more specific to cooking over an open fire were spits of various sizes, and material for skewering anything from delicate quails to whole oxen. There were also cranes with adjustable hooks so that pots and cauldrons could easily be swung away from the fire to keep them from burning or boiling over. Utensils were often held directly over the fire or placed into embers on tripods. To assist the cook there were also assorted knives, stirring spoons, ladles and graters. In wealthy households one of the most common tools was the mortar and sieve cloth, since many medieval recipes called for food to be finely chopped, mashed, strained and seasoned either before or after cooking. This was based on a belief among physicians that the finer the consistency of food, the more effectively the body would absorb the nourishment. It also gave skilled cooks the opportunity to elaborately shape the results. Fine-textured food was also associated with wealth; for example, finely milled flour was expensive, while the bread of commoners was typically brown and coarse. A typical procedure was farcing (from the Latin farcio, "to cram"), to skin and dress an animal, grind up the meat and mix it with spices and other ingredients and then return it into its own skin, or mold it into the shape of a completely different animal.

The kitchen staff of huge noble or royal courts occasionally numbered in the hundreds: pantlers, bakers, waferers, sauciers, larderers, butchers, carvers, page boys, milkmaids, butlers and numerous scullions. While an average peasant household often made do with firewood collected from the surrounding woodlands, the major kitchens of households had to cope with the logistics of daily providing at least two meals for several hundred people. Guidelines on how to prepare for a two-day banquet can be found in the cookbook Du fait de cuisine ("On cookery") written in 1420 in part to compete with the court of Burgundy by Maistre Chiquart, master chef of Amadeus VIII, Duke of Savoy. Chiquart recommends that the chief cook should have at hand at least 1,000 cartloads of "good, dry firewood" and a large barnful of coal.

Preservation

Food preservation methods were basically the same as had been used since antiquity, and did not change much until the invention of canning in the early 19th century. The most common and simplest method was to expose foodstuffs to heat or wind to remove moisture, thereby prolonging the durability if not the flavor of almost any type of food from cereals to meats; the drying of food worked by drastically reducing the activity of various water-dependent microorganisms that cause decay. In warm climates this was mostly achieved by leaving food out in the sun, and in the cooler northern climates by exposure to strong winds (especially common for the preparation of stockfish), or in warm ovens, cellars, attics, and at times even in living quarters. Subjecting food to a number of chemical processes such as smoking, salting, brining, conserving or fermenting also made it keep longer. Most of these methods had the advantage of shorter preparation times and of introducing new flavors. Smoking or salting meat of livestock butchered in autumn was a common household strategy to avoid having to feed more animals than necessary during the lean winter months. Butter tended to be heavily salted (5–10%) in order not to spoil. Vegetables, eggs or fish were also often pickled in tightly packed jars, containing brine and acidic liquids (lemon juice, verjuice or vinegar). Another method was to seal the food by cooking it in sugar or honey or fat, in which it was then stored. Microbial modification was also encouraged, however, by a number of methods; grains, fruit and grapes were turned into alcoholic drinks thus killing any pathogens, and milk was fermented and curdled into a multitude of cheeses or buttermilk.

Professional cooking

The disreputable cook from Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. Note the long meat hook in his left hand, one of the most common cook's tools during the Middle Ages; the Ellesmere manuscripts, c. 1410.

The majority of the European population before industrialization lived in rural communities or isolated farms and households. The norm was self-sufficiency with only a small percentage of production being exported or sold in markets. Large towns were exceptions and required their surrounding hinterlands to support them with food and fuel. The dense urban population could support a wide variety of food establishments that catered to various social groups. Many of the poor city dwellers had to live in cramped conditions without access to a kitchen or even a hearth, and many did not own the equipment for basic cooking. Food from vendors was in such cases the only option. Cookshops could either sell ready-made hot food, an early form of fast food, or offer cooking services while the customers supplied some or all of the ingredients. Travellers, such as pilgrims en route to a holy site, made use of professional cooks to avoid having to carry their provisions with them. For the more affluent, there were many types of specialist that could supply various foods and condiments: cheesemongers, pie bakers, saucers, waferers, etc. Well-off citizens who had the means to cook at home could on special occasions hire professionals when their own kitchen or staff could not handle the burden of throwing a major banquet.

Urban cookshops that catered to workers or the destitute were regarded as unsavory and disreputable places by the well-to-do and professional cooks tended to have a bad reputation. Geoffrey Chaucer's Hodge of Ware, the London cook from the Canterbury Tales, is described as a sleazy purveyor of unpalatable food. French cardinal Jacques de Vitry's sermons from the early 13th century describe sellers of cooked meat as an outright health hazard. While the necessity of the cook's services was occasionally recognized and appreciated, they were often disparaged since they catered to the baser of bodily human needs rather than spiritual betterment. The stereotypical cook in art and literature was male, hot-tempered, prone to drunkenness, and often depicted guarding his stewpot from being pilfered by both humans and animals. In the early 15th century, the English monk John Lydgate articulated the beliefs of many of his contemporaries by proclaiming that "Hoot ffir [fire] and smoke makith many an angry cook."

Cereals

A baker caught trying to cheat customers is punished by being dragged around the community on a sleigh with the offending loaf of bread tied around his neck.

The period between c. 500 and 1300 saw a major change in diet that affected most of Europe. More intense agriculture on an ever-increasing acreage resulted in a shift from animal products, like meat and dairy, to various grains and vegetables as the staple of the majority population. Before the 14th century bread was not as common among the lower classes, especially in the north where wheat was more difficult to grow. A bread-based diet became gradually more common during the 15th century and replaced warm intermediate meals that were porridge- or gruel-based. Leavened bread was more common in wheat-growing regions in the south, while unleavened flatbread of barley, rye or oats remained more common in northern and highland regions, and unleavened flatbread was also common as provisions for troops.

The most common grains were rye, barley, buckwheat, millet, and oats. Rice remained a fairly expensive import for most of the Middle Ages and was grown in northern Italy only towards the end of the period. Wheat was common all over Europe and was considered to be the most nutritious of all grains, but was more prestigious and thus more expensive. The finely sifted white flour that modern Europeans are most familiar with was reserved for the bread of the upper classes. As one descended the social ladder, bread became coarser, darker, and its bran content increased. In times of grain shortages or outright famine, grains could be supplemented with cheaper and less desirable substitutes like chestnuts, dried legumes, acorns, ferns, and a wide variety of more or less nutritious vegetable matter.

One of the most common constituents of a medieval meal, either as part of a banquet or as a small snack, were sops, pieces of bread with which a liquid like wine, soup, broth, or sauce could be soaked up and eaten. Another common sight at the medieval dinner table was the frumenty, a thick wheat porridge often boiled in a meat broth and seasoned with spices. Porridges were also made of every type of grain and could be served as desserts or dishes for the sick, if boiled in milk (or almond milk) and sweetened with sugar. Pies filled with meats, eggs, vegetables, or fruit were common throughout Europe, as were turnovers, fritters, doughnuts, and many similar pastries. By the Late Middle Ages biscuits (cookies in the U.S.) and especially wafers, eaten for dessert, had become high-prestige foods and came in many varieties. Grain, either as bread crumbs or flour, was also the most common thickener of soups and stews, alone or in combination with almond milk.

A baker with his assistant. As seen in the illustration, round loaves were among the most common.

The importance of bread as a daily staple meant that bakers played a crucial role in any medieval community. Bread consumption was high in most of Western Europe by the 14th century. Estimates of bread consumption from different regions are fairly similar: around 1 to 1.5 kilograms (2.2 to 3.3 lb) of bread per person per day. Among the first town guilds to be organized were the bakers', and laws and regulations were passed to keep bread prices stable. The English Assize of Bread and Ale of 1266 listed extensive tables where the size, weight, and price of a loaf of bread were regulated in relation to grain prices. The baker's profit margin stipulated in the tables was later increased through successful lobbying from the London Baker's Company by adding the cost of everything from firewood and salt to the baker's wife, house, and dog. Since bread was such a central part of the medieval diet, swindling by those who were trusted with supplying the precious commodity to the community was considered a serious offense. Bakers who were caught tampering with weights or adulterating dough with less expensive ingredients could receive severe penalties. This gave rise to the "baker's dozen": a baker would give 13 for the price of 12, to be certain of not being known as a cheat.

Fruit and vegetables

Harvesting cabbage; Tacuinum Sanitatis, 15th century.

While grains were the primary constituent of most meals, vegetables such as cabbage, beets, onions, garlic and carrots were common foodstuffs. Many of these were eaten daily by peasants and workers, but were less prestigious than meat. The cookbooks, which appeared in the late Middle Ages and were intended mostly for those who could afford such luxuries, contained only a small number of recipes using vegetables as the main ingredient. The lack of recipes for many basic vegetable dishes, such as potages, has been interpreted not to mean that they were absent from the meals of the nobility, but rather that they were considered so basic that they did not require recording. Carrots were available in many variants during the Middle Ages: among them a tastier reddish-purple variety and a less prestigious green-yellow type. Various legumes, like chickpeas, fava beans and peas were also common and important sources of protein, especially among the lower classes. With the exception of peas, legumes were often viewed with some suspicion by the dietitians advising the upper class, partly because of their tendency to cause flatulence but also because they were associated with the coarse food of peasants. The importance of vegetables to the common people is illustrated by accounts from 16th-century Germany stating that many peasants ate sauerkraut from three to four times a day.

Fruit was popular and could be served fresh, dried, or preserved, and was a common ingredient in many cooked dishes. Since sugar and honey were both expensive, it was common to include many types of fruit in dishes that called for sweeteners of some sort. The fruits of choice in the south were lemons, citrons, bitter oranges (the sweet type was not introduced until several hundred years later), pomegranates, quinces, and, of course, grapes. Farther north, apples, pears, plums, and strawberries were more common. Figs and dates were eaten all over Europe, but remained rather expensive imports in the north.

Common and often basic ingredients in many modern European cuisines like potatoes, kidney beans, cacao, vanilla, tomatoes, chili peppers and maize were not available to Europeans until the late 15th century after European contact with the Americas, and even then it often took considerable time for the new foodstuffs to be accepted by society at large.

Dairy products

Preparing and serving cheese; Tacuinum Sanitatis, 14th century.

Milk was an important source of animal protein for those who could not afford meat. It would mostly come from cows, but milk from goats and sheep was also common. Plain fresh milk was not consumed by adults except the poor or sick, and was usually reserved for the very young or elderly. Poor adults would sometimes drink buttermilk or whey or milk that was soured or watered down. Fresh milk was overall less common than other dairy products because of the lack of technology to keep it from spoiling. On occasion it was used in upper-class kitchens in stews, but it was difficult to keep fresh in bulk and almond milk was generally used in its stead.

Cheese was far more important as a foodstuff, especially for common people, and it has been suggested that it was, during many periods, the chief supplier of animal protein among the lower classes. Many varieties of cheese eaten today, like Dutch Edam, Northern French Brie and Italian Parmesan, were available and well known in late medieval times. There were also whey cheeses, like ricotta, made from by-products of the production of harder cheeses. Cheese was used in cooking for pies and soups, the latter being common fare in German-speaking areas. Butter, another important dairy product, was in popular use in the regions of Northern Europe that specialized in cattle production in the latter half of the Middle Ages, the Low Countries and Southern Scandinavia. While most other regions used oil or lard as cooking fats, butter was the dominant cooking medium in these areas. Its production also allowed for a lucrative butter export from the 12th century onward.

Meats

A 14th-century butcher shop. A large pig is being bled in preparation for slaughter. A whole pig carcass and cuts are hanging from a rack and various cuts are being prepared for a customer.

While all forms of wild game were popular among those who could obtain it, most meat came from domestic animals. Domestic working animals that were no longer able to work were slaughtered but not particularly appetizing and therefore were less valued as meat. Beef was not as common as today because raising cattle was labor-intensive, requiring pastures and feed, and oxen and cows were much more valuable as draught animals and for producing milk. Mutton and lamb were fairly common, especially in areas with a sizeable wool industry, as was veal. Far more common was pork, as domestic pigs required less attention and cheaper feed. Domestic pigs often ran freely even in towns and could be fed on just about any organic waste, and suckling pig was a sought-after delicacy. Just about every part of the pig was eaten, including ears, snout, tail, tongue, and womb. Intestines, bladder and stomach could be used as casings for sausage or even illusion food such as giant eggs. Among the meats that today are rare or even considered inappropriate for human consumption are the hedgehog and porcupine, occasionally mentioned in late medieval recipe collections. Rabbits remained a rare and highly prized commodity. In England, they were deliberately introduced by the 13th century and their colonies were carefully protected. Further south, domesticated rabbits were commonly raised and bred both for their meat and fur. They were of particular value for monasteries, because newborn rabbits were allegedly declared fish (or, at least, not-meat) by the church and therefore they could be eaten during Lent.

A wide range of birds were eaten, including swans, peafowl, quail, partridge, storks, cranes, larks, linnets and other songbirds that could be trapped in nets, and just about any other wild bird that could be hunted. Swans and peafowl were domesticated to some extent, but were only eaten by the social elite, and more praised for their fine appearance as stunning entertainment dishes, entremets, than for their meat. As today, geese and ducks had been domesticated but were not as popular as the chicken, the fowl equivalent of the pig. Curiously enough the barnacle goose was believed to reproduce not by laying eggs like other birds, but by growing in barnacles, and was hence considered acceptable food for fast and Lent. But at the Fourth Council of the Lateran (1215), Pope Innocent III explicitly prohibited the eating of barnacle geese during Lent, arguing that they lived and fed like ducks and so were of the same nature as other birds.

Meats were more expensive than plant foods. Though rich in protein, the calorie-to-weight ratio of meat was less than that of plant food. Meat could be up to four times as expensive as bread. Fish was up to 16 times as costly, and was expensive even for coastal populations. This meant that fasts could mean an especially meager diet for those who could not afford alternatives to meat and animal products like milk and eggs. It was only after the Black Death had eradicated up to half of the European population that meat became more common even for poorer people. The drastic reduction in many populated areas resulted in a labor shortage, meaning that wages dramatically increased. It also left vast areas of farmland untended, making them available for pasture and putting more meat on the market.

Fish and seafood

Fishing lamprey in a stream; Tacuinum Sanitatis, 15th century.

Although less prestigious than other animal meats, and often seen as merely an alternative to meat on fast days, seafood was the mainstay of many coastal populations. "Fish" to the medieval person was also a general name for anything not considered a proper land-living animal, including marine mammals such as whales and porpoises. Also included were the beaver, due to its scaly tail and considerable time spent in water, and barnacle geese, due to the belief that they developed underwater in the form of barnacles. Such foods were also considered appropriate for fast days, though rather contrived classification of barnacle geese as fish was not universally accepted. The Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II examined barnacles and noted no evidence of any bird-like embryo in them, and the secretary of Leo of Rozmital wrote a very skeptical account of his reaction to being served barnacle goose at a fish-day dinner in 1456.

Especially important was the fishing and trade in herring and cod in the Atlantic and the Baltic Sea. The herring was of unprecedented significance to the economy of much of Northern Europe, and it was one of the most common commodities traded by the Hanseatic League, a powerful north German alliance of trading guilds. Kippers made from herring caught in the North Sea could be found in markets as far away as Constantinople. While large quantities of fish were eaten fresh, a large proportion was salted, dried, and, to a lesser extent, smoked. Stockfish, cod that was split down the middle, fixed to a pole and dried, was very common, though preparation could be time-consuming, and meant beating the dried fish with a mallet before soaking it in water. A wide range of mollusks including oysters, mussels and scallops were eaten by coastal and river-dwelling populations, and freshwater crayfish were seen as a desirable alternative to meat during fish days. Compared to meat, fish was much more expensive for inland populations, especially in Central Europe, and therefore not an option for most. Freshwater fish such as pike, carp, bream, perch, lamprey, and trout were common.

Drink

An abbey cellarer testing his wine. Illumination from a copy of Li livres dou santé by Aldobrandino of Siena. British Library, Sloane 2435, f. 44v.

In modern times, water is seen as a common choice to drink with a meal. In the Middle Ages, however, concerns over purity, medical recommendations and its low prestige value made it less favored, and alcoholic beverages were always preferred. They were seen as more nutritious and beneficial to digestion than water, with the invaluable bonus of being less prone to putrefaction due to the alcohol content. Wine was consumed on a daily basis in most of France and all over the Western Mediterranean wherever grapes were cultivated. Further north it remained the preferred drink of the bourgeoisie and the nobility who could afford it, and far less common among peasants and workers. The drink of commoners in the northern parts of the continent was primarily beer or ale.

Juices, as well as wines, of a multitude of fruits and berries had been known at least since Roman antiquity and were still consumed in the Middle Ages: pomegranate, mulberry and blackberry wines, perry, and cider which was especially popular in the north where both apples and pears were plentiful. Medieval drinks that have survived to this day include prunellé from wild plums (modern-day slivovitz), mulberry gin and blackberry wine. Many variants of mead have been found in medieval recipes, with or without alcoholic content. However, the honey-based drink became less common as a table beverage towards the end of the period and was eventually relegated to medicinal use. Mead has often been presented as the common drink of the Slavs. This is partially true since mead bore great symbolic value at important occasions. When agreeing on treaties and other important affairs of state, mead was often presented as a ceremonial gift. It was also common at weddings and baptismal parties, though in limited quantity due to its high price. In medieval Poland, mead had a status equivalent to that of imported luxuries, such as spices and wines. Kumis, the fermented milk of mares or camels, was known in Europe, but as with mead was mostly something prescribed by physicians.

Plain milk was not consumed by adults except the poor or sick, being reserved for the very young or elderly, and then usually as buttermilk or whey. Fresh milk was overall less common than other dairy products because of the lack of technology to keep it from spoiling. Tea and coffee, both made from plants found in the Old World, were popular in East Asia and the Muslim world during the Middle Ages. However, neither of these non-alcoholic social drinks were consumed in Europe before the late 16th and early 17th century.

Wine

Main article: History of wine

A matron demonstrates how to properly treat and conserve wine.

Wine was commonly drunk and was also regarded as the most prestigious and healthy choice. According to Galen's dietetics it was considered hot and dry but these qualities were moderated when wine was watered down. Unlike water or beer, which were considered cold and moist, consumption of wine in moderation (especially red wine) was, among other things, believed to aid digestion, generate good blood and brighten the mood. The quality of wine differed considerably according to vintage, the type of grape and more importantly, the number of grape pressings. The first pressing was made into the finest and most expensive wines which were reserved for the upper classes. The second and third pressings were subsequently of lower quality and alcohol content. Common folk usually had to settle for a cheap white or rosé from a second or even third pressing, meaning that it could be consumed in quite generous amounts without leading to heavy intoxication. For the poorest (or the most pious), watered-down vinegar (similar to Ancient Roman posca) would often be the only available choice.

The aging of high quality red wine required specialized knowledge as well as expensive storage and equipment, and resulted in an even more expensive end product. Judging from the advice given in many medieval documents on how to salvage wine that bore signs of going bad, preservation must have been a widespread problem. Even if vinegar was a common ingredient, there was only so much of it that could be used. In the 14th century cookbook Le Viandier there are several methods for salvaging spoiling wine; making sure that the wine barrels are always topped up or adding a mixture of dried and boiled white grape seeds with the ash of dried and burnt lees of white wine were both effective bactericides, even if the chemical processes were not understood at the time. Spiced or mulled wine was not only popular among the affluent, but was also considered especially healthy by physicians. Wine was believed to act as a kind of vaporizer and conduit of other foodstuffs to every part of the body, and the addition of fragrant and exotic spices would make it even more wholesome. Spiced wines were usually made by mixing an ordinary (red) wine with an assortment of spices such as ginger, cardamom, pepper, grains of paradise, nutmeg, cloves and sugar. These would be contained in small bags which were either steeped in wine or had liquid poured over them to produce hypocras and claré. By the 14th century, bagged spice mixes could be bought ready-made from spice merchants.

Beer

Main article: History of beer

While wine was the most common table beverage in much of Europe, this was not the case in the northern regions where grapes were not cultivated. Those who could afford it drank imported wine, but even for nobility in these areas it was common to drink beer or ale, particularly towards the end of the Middle Ages. In England, the Low Countries, northern Germany, Poland and Scandinavia, beer was consumed on a daily basis by people of all social classes and age groups. By the mid-15th century, barley, a cereal known to be somewhat poorly suited for breadmaking but excellent for brewing, accounted for 27% of all cereal acreage in England. However, the heavy influence from Arab and Mediterranean culture on medical science (particularly due to the Reconquista and the influx of Arabic texts) meant that beer was often heavily disfavored. For most medieval Europeans, it was a humble brew compared with common southern drinks and cooking ingredients, such as wine, lemons and olive oil. Even comparatively exotic products like camel's milk and gazelle meat generally received more positive attention in medical texts. Beer was just an acceptable alternative and was assigned various negative qualities. In 1256, the Sienese physician Aldobrandino described beer in the following way:

But from whichever it is made, whether from oats, barley or wheat, it harms the head and the stomach, it causes bad breath and ruins the teeth, it fills the stomach with bad fumes, and as a result anyone who drinks it along with wine becomes drunk quickly; but it does have the property of facilitating urination and makes one's flesh white and smooth.

The intoxicating effect of beer was believed to last longer than that of wine, but it was also admitted that it did not create the "false thirst" associated with wine. Though less prominent than in the north, beer was consumed in northern France and the Italian mainland. Perhaps as a consequence of the Norman conquest and the travelling of nobles between France and England, one French variant described in the 14th century cookbook Le Menagier de Paris was called godale (most likely a direct borrowing from the English "good ale") and was made from barley and spelt, but without hops. In England there were also the variants poset ale, made from hot milk and cold ale, and brakot or braggot, a spiced ale prepared much like hypocras.

That hops could be used for flavoring beer had been known at least since Carolingian times, but was adopted gradually due to difficulties in establishing the appropriate proportions. Before the widespread use of hops, gruit, a mix of various herbs, had been used. Gruit had the same preserving properties as hops, though less reliable depending on what herbs were in it, and the end result was much more variable. Another flavoring method was to increase the alcohol content, but this was more expensive and lent the beer the undesired characteristic of being a quick and heavy intoxicant. Hops may have been widely used in England in the tenth century; they were grown in Austria by 1208 and in Finland by 1249, and possibly much earlier.

Before hops became popular as an ingredient, it was difficult to preserve this beverage for any time, and so, it was mostly consumed fresh. It was unfiltered, and therefore cloudy, and likely had a lower alcohol content than the typical modern equivalent. Quantities of beer consumed by medieval residents of Europe, as recorded in contemporary literature, far exceed intakes in the modern world. For example, sailors in 16th century England and Denmark received a ration of 1 imperial gallon (4.5 L; 1.2 US gal) of beer per day. Polish peasants consumed up to 3 litres (0.66 imp gal; 0.79 US gal) of beer per day.

In the Early Middle Ages beer was primarily brewed in monasteries, and on a smaller scale in individual households. By the High Middle Ages breweries in the fledgling medieval towns of northern Germany began to take over production. Though most of the breweries were small family businesses that employed at most eight to ten people, regular production allowed for investment in better equipment and increased experimentation with new recipes and brewing techniques. These operations later spread to the Netherlands in the 14th century, then to Flanders and Brabant, and reached England by the 15th century. Hopped beer became very popular in the last decades of the Late Middle Ages. In England and the Low Countries, the per capita annual consumption was around 275 to 300 litres (60 to 66 imp gal; 73 to 79 US gal), and it was consumed with practically every meal: low alcohol-content beers for breakfast, and stronger ones later in the day. When perfected as an ingredient, hops could make beer keep for six months or more, and facilitated extensive exports. In Late Medieval England, the word beer came to mean a hopped beverage, whereas ale had to be unhopped. In turn, ale or beer was classified into "strong" and "small", the latter less intoxicating, regarded as a drink of temperate people, and suitable for consumption by children. As late as 1693, John Locke stated that the only drink he considered suitable for children of all ages was small beer, while criticizing the apparently common practice among Englishmen of the time to give their children wine and strong alcohol.

By modern standards, the brewing process was relatively inefficient, but capable of producing quite strong alcohol when that was desired. One recent attempt to recreate medieval English "strong ale" using recipes and techniques of the era (albeit with the use of modern yeast strains) yielded a strongly alcoholic brew with original gravity of 1.091 (corresponding to a potential alcohol content over 9%) and "pleasant, apple-like taste".

Distillates

The ancient Greeks and Romans knew of the technique of distillation, but it was not practiced on a major scale in Europe until some time around the 12th century, when Arabic innovations in the field combined with water-cooled glass alembics were introduced. Distillation was believed by medieval scholars to produce the essence of the liquid being purified, and the term aqua vitae ("water of life") was used as a generic term for all kinds of distillates. The early use of various distillates, alcoholic or not, was varied, but it was primarily culinary or medicinal; grape syrup mixed with sugar and spices was prescribed for a variety of ailments, and rose water was used as a perfume and cooking ingredient and for hand washing. Alcoholic distillates were also occasionally used to create dazzling, fire-breathing entremets (a type of entertainment dish after a course) by soaking a piece of cotton in spirits. It would then be placed in the mouth of the stuffed, cooked and occasionally redressed animals, and lit just before presenting the creation.

Aqua vitae in its alcoholic forms was highly praised by medieval physicians. In 1309 Arnaldus of Villanova wrote that "[i]t prolongs good health, dissipates superfluous humours, reanimates the heart and maintains youth." In the Late Middle Ages, the production of moonshine started to pick up, especially in the German-speaking regions. By the 13th century, Hausbrand (literally "home-burnt" from gebrannter wein, brandwein; "burnt [distilled] wine") was commonplace, marking the origin of brandy. Towards the end of the Late Middle Ages, the consumption of spirits became so ingrained even among the general population that restrictions on sales and production began to appear in the late 15th century. In 1496 the city of Nuremberg issued restrictions on the selling of aquavit on Sundays and official holidays.

Herbs, spices and condiments

Harvesting pepper; French manuscript of The Travels of Marco Polo, early 15th century.

Spices were among the most luxurious products available in the Middle Ages, the most common being black pepper, cinnamon (and the cheaper alternative cassia), cumin, nutmeg, ginger and cloves. They all had to be imported from plantations in Asia and Africa, which made them extremely expensive, and gave them social cachet such that pepper for example was hoarded, traded and conspicuously donated in the manner of gold bullion. It has been estimated that around 1,000 tons of pepper and 1,000 tons of the other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the late Middle Ages. The value of these goods was the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1.5 million people. While pepper was the most common spice, the most exclusive (though not the most obscure in its origin) was saffron, used as much for its vivid yellow-red color as for its flavor, for according to the humours, yellow signified hot and dry, valued qualities; turmeric provided a yellow substitute, and touches of gilding at banquets supplied both the medieval love of ostentatious show and Galenic dietary lore: at the sumptuous banquet that Cardinal Riario offered the daughter of the King of Naples in June 1473, the bread was gilded. Among the spices that have now fallen into obscurity are grains of paradise, a relative of cardamom which almost entirely replaced pepper in late medieval north French cooking, long pepper, mace, spikenard, galangal and cubeb. Sugar, unlike today, was considered to be a type of spice due to its high cost and humoral qualities. Few dishes employed just one type of spice or herb, but rather a combination of several different ones. Even when a dish was dominated by a single flavor it was usually combined with another to produce a compound taste, for example parsley and cloves or pepper and ginger.

Common herbs such as sage, mustard, and parsley were grown and used in cooking all over Europe, as were caraway, mint, dill and fennel. Many of these plants grew throughout all of Europe or were cultivated in gardens, and were a cheaper alternative to exotic spices. Mustard was particularly popular with meat products and was described by Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179) as poor man's food. While locally grown herbs were less prestigious than spices, they were still used in upper-class food, but were then usually less prominent or included merely as coloring. Anise was used to flavor fish and chicken dishes, and its seeds were served as sugar-coated comfits.

Picking green grapes for making verjuice; Tacuinum Sanitatis, 1474.

Surviving medieval recipes frequently call for flavoring with a number of sour, tart liquids. Wine, verjuice (the juice of unripe grapes or fruits) vinegar and the juices of various fruits, especially those with tart flavors, were almost universal and a hallmark of late medieval cooking. In combination with sweeteners and spices, it produced a distinctive "pungeant, fruity" flavor. Equally common, and used to complement the tanginess of these ingredients, were (sweet) almonds. They were used in a variety of ways: whole, shelled or unshelled, slivered, ground and, most importantly, processed into almond milk. This last type of non-dairy milk product is probably the single most common ingredient in late medieval cooking and blended the aroma of spices and sour liquids with a mild taste and creamy texture.

Salt was ubiquitous and indispensable in medieval cooking. Salting and drying was the most common form of food preservation and meant that fish and meat in particular were often heavily salted. Many medieval recipes specifically warn against oversalting and there were recommendations for soaking certain products in water to get rid of excess salt. Salt was present during more elaborate or expensive meals. The richer the host, and the more prestigious the guest, the more elaborate would be the container in which it was served and the higher the quality and price of the salt. Wealthy guests were seated "above the salt", while others sat "below the salt", where salt cellars were made of pewter, precious metals or other fine materials, often intricately decorated. The rank of a diner also decided how finely ground and white the salt was. Salt for cooking, preservation or for use by common people was coarser; sea salt, or "bay salt", in particular, had more impurities, and was described in colors ranging from black to green. Expensive salt, on the other hand, looked like the standard commercial salt common today.

Sweets and desserts

The term "dessert" comes from the Old French desservir, "to clear a table", literally "to un-serve", and originated during the Middle Ages. It would typically consist of dragées and mulled wine accompanied by aged cheese, and by the Late Middle Ages could also include fresh fruit covered in sugar, honey or syrup and boiled-down fruit pastes. Sugar, from its first appearance in Europe, was viewed as much as a drug as a sweetener; its long-lived medieval reputation as an exotic luxury encouraged its appearance in elite contexts accompanying meats and other dishes that to modern taste are more naturally savoury. There was a wide variety of fritters, crêpes with sugar, sweet custards and darioles, almond milk and eggs in a pastry shell that could also include fruit and sometimes even bone marrow or fish. German-speaking areas had a particular fondness for krapfen: fried pastries and dough with various sweet and savory fillings. Marzipan in many forms was well known in Italy and southern France by the 1340s and is assumed to be of Arab origin. Anglo-Norman cookbooks are full of recipes for sweet and savory custards, potages, sauces and tarts with strawberries, cherries, apples and plums. The English chefs also had a penchant for using flower petals such as roses, violets, and elder flowers. An early form of quiche can be found in Forme of Cury, a 14th-century recipe collection, as a Torte de Bry with a cheese and egg yolk filling.

In northern France, a wide assortment of waffles and wafers was eaten with cheese and hypocras or a sweet malmsey as issue de table ("departure from the table"). The ever-present candied ginger, coriander, aniseed and other spices were referred to as épices de chambre ("parlor spices") and were taken as digestibles at the end of a meal to "close" the stomach. Like their Muslim counterparts in Spain, the Arab conquerors of Sicily introduced a wide variety of new sweets and desserts that eventually found their way to the rest of Europe. Just like Montpellier, Sicily was once famous for its comfits, nougat candy (torrone, or turrón in Spanish) and almond clusters (confetti). From the south, the Arabs also brought the art of ice cream making that produced sorbet and several examples of sweet cakes and pastries; cassata alla Siciliana (from Arabic qas'ah, the term for the terra cotta bowl with which it was shaped), made from marzipan, sponge cake and sweetened ricotta and cannoli alla Siciliana, originally cappelli di turchi ("Turkish hats"), fried, chilled pastry tubes with a sweet cheese filling.

Historiography and sources

Research into medieval foodways was, until around 1980, a much neglected field of study. Misconceptions and outright errors were common among historians, and are still present in as a part of the popular view of the Middle Ages as a backward, primitive and barbaric era. Medieval cookery was described as revolting due to the often unfamiliar combination of flavors, the perceived lack of vegetables and a liberal use of spices. The heavy use of spices has been popular as an argument to support the claim that spices were employed to disguise the flavor of spoiled meat, a conclusion without support in historical fact and contemporary sources. Fresh meat could be procured throughout the year by those who could afford it. The preservation techniques available at the time, although crude by today's standards, were perfectly adequate. The astronomical cost and high prestige of spices, and thereby the reputation of the host, would have been effectively undone if wasted on cheap and poorly handled foods.

The common method of grinding and mashing ingredients into pastes and the many potages and sauces has been used as an argument that most adults within the medieval nobility lost their teeth at an early age, and hence were forced to eat nothing but porridge, soup and ground-up meat. The image of nobles gumming their way through multi-course meals of nothing but mush has lived side by side with the contradictory apparition of the "mob of uncouth louts (disguised as noble lords) who, when not actually hurling huge joints of greasy meat at one another across the banquet hall, are engaged in tearing at them with a perfectly healthy complement of incisors, canines, bicuspids and molars".

The numerous descriptions of banquets from the later Middle Ages concentrated on the pageantry of the event rather than the minutiae of the food, which was not the same for most banqueters as those choice mets served at the high table. Banquet dishes were apart from mainstream of cuisine, and have been described as "the outcome of grand banquets serving political ambition rather than gastronomy; today as yesterday" by historian Maguelonne Toussant-Samat.

Cookbooks

A page from a late 14th-century manuscript of Forme of Cury with recipes for "drepee", parboiled birds with almonds and fried onions, and the first part of a recipe for "mawmenee", a sweet stew of capon or pheasant with cinnamon, ginger, cloves, dates and pine nuts and colored with sandalwood.

Cookbooks, or more specifically, recipe collections, compiled in the Middle Ages are among the most important historical sources for medieval cuisine. The first cookbooks began to appear towards the end of the 13th century. The Liber de coquina, perhaps originating near Naples, and the Tractatus de modo preparandi have found a modern editor in Marianne Mulon, and a cookbook from Assisi found at Châlons-sur-Marne has been edited by Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat. Though it is assumed that they describe real dishes, food scholars do not believe they were used as cookbooks might be today, as a step-by-step guide through the cooking procedure that could be kept at hand while preparing a dish. Few in a kitchen, at those times, would have been able to read, and working texts have a low survival rate.

The recipes were often brief and did not give precise quantities. Cooking times and temperatures were seldom specified since accurate portable clocks were not available and since all cooking was done with fire. At best, cooking times could be specified as the time it took to say a certain number of prayers or how long it took to walk around a certain field. Professional cooks were taught their trade through apprenticeship and practical training, working their way up in the highly defined kitchen hierarchy. A medieval cook employed in a large household would most likely have been able to plan and produce a meal without the help of recipes or written instruction. Due to the generally good condition of surviving manuscripts it has been proposed by food historian Terence Scully that they were records of household practices intended for the wealthy and literate master of a household, such as the Ménagier de Paris from the late 14th century. Over 70 collections of medieval recipes survive today, written in several major European languages.

The repertory of housekeeping instructions laid down by manuscripts like the Ménagier de Paris also include many details of overseeing correct preparations in the kitchen. Towards the onset of the early modern period, in 1474, the Vatican librarian Bartolomeo Platina wrote the De honesta voluptate et valetudine ("On honourable pleasure and health") and the physician Iodocus Willich edited Apicius in Zurich in 1563.

High-status exotic spices and rarities like ginger, pepper, cloves, sesame, citron leaves and "onions of Escalon" all appear in an eighth-century list of spices that the Carolingian cook should have at hand. It was written by Vinidarius, whose excerpts of Apicius survive in an eighth century uncial manuscript. Vinidarius' own dates may not be much earlier.

See also

• Frumenty
• Sop
• Entremet
• Guillaume Tirel
• Early modern European cuisine
• Medieval household

References

• Adamson, Melitta Weiss (editor), Food in the Middle Ages: A Book of Essays. Garland, New York. 1995. ISBN 0-85976-145-2
• Adamson, Melitta Weiss (editor), Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe: A Book of Essays. Routledge, New York. 2002. ISBN 0-415-92994-6
• Adamson, Melitta Weiss, Food in Medieval Times. Greenwood Press, Westport, CT. 2004. ISBN 0-313-32147-7
• Bynum, Caroline, Holy Feast and Holy Fast: The Religious Significance of Food to Medieval Women. University of California Press, Berkeley. 1987. ISBN 0-520-05722-8
• Carlin, Martha & Rosenthal, Joel T. (editors), Food and Eating in Medieval Europe. The Hambledon Press, London. 1998. ISBN 1-85285-148-1
• Carnevale Schianca, Enrico, La cucina medievale. Lessico, storia, preparazioni. Olschki, Firenze. 2011. ISBN 978-88-222-6073-4
• Dembinska, Maria, Food and Drink in Medieval Poland: Rediscovering a Cuisine of the Past. translated by Magdalena Thomas, revised and adapted by William Woys Weaver. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. 1999. ISBN 0-8122-3224-0
• Dickie, John, Delizia! The epic history of the Italians and their food. 2008.
• Dyer, Christopher, Everyday life in medieval England, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2000
• Eßlinger, Hans Michael (editor), Handbook of Brewing: Processes, Technology, Markets. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. 2009. ISBN 978-3-527-31674-8
• Fenton, Alexander & Kisbán, Eszter (editors), Food in Change: Eating Habits from the Middle Ages to the Present Day. John Donald Publishers, Edinburgh. 1986. ISBN 0-85976-145-2
• The Fontana Economic History of Europe: The Middle Ages. Fontana, London. 1972. ISBN 0-00-632841-5
• Freedman, Paul Out of the East: Spices and the Medieval Imagination. Yale University Press, New Haven. 2008. ISBN 978-0-300-11199-6
• Hanson, Davd J. Preventing alcohol abuse: alcohol, culture, and control. Greenwood Publishing Group, Westport. 1995. ISBN 0-275-94926-5
• Harvey, Barbara F., Living and dying in England, 1100–1540: the monastic experience, Oxford University Press, 1993
• Henisch, Bridget Ann, Fast and Feast: Food in Medieval Society. The Pennsylvania State Press, University Park. 1976. ISBN 0-271-01230-7
• Hicks, Michael A., Revolution and consumption in late medieval England, Boydell & Brewer, 2001
• Hunt, Edwin S. & Murray, James H., A history of business in Medieval Europe, 1200–1550. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 1999. ISBN 0-521-49923-2
• Glick, Thomas, Livesey, Steven J. & Wallis, Faith (editors), Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: an Encyclopedia. Routledge, New York. 2005. ISBN 0-415-96930-1
• (in French) Mulon, "Deux traités d'art culinaire médié", Bulletin philologique et historique. Comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques, Paris. 1958.
• Scully, Terence, The Art of Cookery in the Middle Ages. The Boydell Press, Woodbridge. 1995. ISBN 0-85115-611-8
• Toussant-Samat, Maguelonne, The History of Food. 2nd edition (translation: Anthea Bell) Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester. 2009. ISBN 978-1-4051-8119-8
• Unger, Richard W., Beer in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. 2007. ISBN 978-0-8122-1999-9
• Woolgar, C.M., Food in medieval England: diet and nutrition, Oxford University Press, 2006
• Rambourg, Patrick, Histoire de la cuisine et de la gastronomie françaises, Paris, Ed. Perrin (coll. tempus n° 359), 2010, 381 pages. ISBN 978-2-262-03318-7

s considered by many to be Maharashtra's cultural capital and the form of Marathi spoken in Pune is considered to be the standard form of the language. The culture of Pune encompasses both the traditional Maharashtrian lifestyle that is prevalent in the heart of the city, as well as a modern, progressive outlook resulting from its being a hub for education and liberal thought. People from multiple religions and speaking different regional languages reside here. It also hosts various nat and cultural events throughout the year. Due to a large student population, Pune also hosts many youth festivals.

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Ganapati (Ganesh) Festival

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Ganpati Celebration Pune Preeti-Parashar 08

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Dagdusheth Halwai Ganpati

− It was in Pune in 1894 that Bal Gangadhar Tilak initiated the concept of the "Sarvajanik Ganeshotsav" — the collective communal celebration of the festival of Lord Ganesha. During the month of August or September each year, the city celebrates the Hindu festival of Ganesh Chaturthi. Almost every neighborhood puts up a pandal with an idol of Lord Ganesha, often amidst a mythological setting, complete with decorative lights and festive music. The 10-day festival culminates in a carnival-like procession along the busy thoroughfares of the city, with every pandal leading the idol on a float to finally immerse (visarjan) it in the local rivers. This is one of the most important yearly events in the city.

− There are many pandals set up in important places of the city.

− The city has the five Maanache Ganpati- The respected Ganpati- at different places. They are the Kasba Ganpati at Kasba Peth, Tambdi Jogeshwari Ganpati at Appa Balwant Chowk, Guruji Talim at Laxmi Road, Tulshibaugh Ganpati at Tulshibaugh and Kesariwada Ganpati at Kesariwada, the ancestral home of the Tilaks.

− Every year, the Dagdusheth Halwai Ganpati trust creates a pandal which is a replica of famous monuments and temples in India. In 2014, it was the replica of the Kailash Temple at Ellora.

− − Concerns about pollution in Pune rivers has led to the growing use of eco-friendly and biodegradable materials in the manufacture of idols of Lord Ganesha. Over some places the processions are also banned to help reduce the noise and air pollution.

− − During this time, the Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation organises the month-long Pune Festival which hosts classical dance and music recitals, a film and drama festival, automobile rallies and some traditional sports.

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Religion

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Chaturshringi Temple

− − The "Tambadi Jogeshwari" is the goddess of the city - Gramdevi. The temple was built in 15th century. The Kasba Ganapati is (gramadevata) of the city. The temple was built in 16th century. It occupies the premier position amongst the idols during Ganpati Festival. The procession of Ganpati Festival begins from this temple. Another important temple in the city is Sarasbaug Ganpati built by Srimant Sawai Madhavrao Peshwe on a small island in Saras Lake. The Chaturshringi goddess is the other most important deity of the city of Pune. A temple dedicated to the goddess is situated on the slopes of a mountain in the northwest part of the city. In the month of September there is a huge procession for the Navaratris and people flock in to visit and receive blessings of the Goddess.

− − Another famous temple is the Parvati Temple, located on a hill in Pune.

− − Pune was also home to a considerable population of the Indian Jewish community, the Bene Israel. It is home to Asia's largest synagogue (outside Israel), The Ohel David Synagogue (Popularly called Lal Deval - the Red Temple ).

− − The Sadhu Vaswani Mission is a noted charitable, religiously inclined, organisation based in Pune. It is engaged in various philanthropic activities in fields such as education, healthcare, social service, animal rights, feeding of the poor and spiritual upliftment. It's spiritual head is the educationist, poet, U Thant Peace Award winner and modern saint J. P. Vaswani.

− − Close to Pune, near the Malavali hills, is the Vedanta Academy, founded by one of the world's most noted exponents of Vedanta, Swami Parthasarathy. The academy offers free Vedantic education to young seekers from all corners of the world.

− − The Shrutisagar Ashram, located at Phulgaon village off Ahmednagar road, houses the Vedanta Research Center and a unique temple of Lord Dakshinamurthy situated near the confluence of rivers Bhima, Bhama and Indrayani. It was established in 1989 by Swami Swaroopanand Saraswati. Here one can find detailed Marathi and English explanations of the great 'Shruti' and 'Smruti' which include Vedas, Bhagwat Gita, Upanishads and Purana.

− − Radha Kunjbihari temple, situated at the heart of the city is becoming attraction for the thousands of youths across the India. This temple belongs to ISKCON(International Society for Krishna Consciousness).

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Spirituality

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With 200,000 visitors annually, the Osho International Meditation Resort in Pune is one of the largest spiritual growth centres in the world

− Rajneesh resided and taught in Pune for much of the 1970s and 1980s; he died here. The Osho International Meditation Resort of the Rajneesh movement is located in the Koregaon Park area. Pune is also the birthplace of spiritual guru Meher Baba.

− − Yoga Master B. K. S. Iyengar established his Yoga Institute in Pune.

− − Close to Pune are the villages of Alandi and Dehu where [Dnyaneshwar] and Tukaram lived during the 13th and 17th centuries, respectively. Each year, thousands of pilgrims from all over Maharashtra gather here and start the vari, a procession carrying Palkhi of Dnyaneshwar and Tukaram to Pandharpur. Pandharpur has a temple to Viṭhobā and is about 300 kilometres (190 mi) from Pune. All pilgrims walk this distance to reach Pandharpur on the auspicious days of 'Aashadhi Ekadasshi' and 'Kartiki Ekadasshi' when the Vari ends.

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Sawai Gandharva Music Festival

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Further information: Sawai Gandharva Music Festival

− − In December Pune hosts the Sawai Gandharva Music Festival. It is dedicated to the classical forms of music — both Hindustani and Carnatic. Many renowned artists perform through 3 consecutive days creating a hype unique to this city. It is one of the most eagerly awaited festivals in the city, and it attracts music lovers from Pune and other parts of Maharashtra and India.

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Shaniwarwada Dance Festival

− In the bracing winter air, Pune has had the privilege of seeing some of the best exponents of dance.

− World-renowned classical dancers like, Pt. Birju Maharajji, the doyen of the kathak, the legendary maestro Padma Vibhushan Guru Kelucharan Mohapatra, along with his son Ratikant and daughter in law Sujata Mohanty presented the graceful lyrical dance style from the eastern shores of our country.

− The beautifully illuminated Shaniwarwada is an ideal backdrop which when combined the melodious sound of ghungroos creates a magical aura under the twinkling stars. The rich cultural heritage of Pune is brought to life with a perfect blend of history, music and dance.

− − The Shaniwarwada Dance Festival held under the auspices of The Pune Festival.

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Literature and Theatre

− Pune has given birth to or attracted a body of organisation for the Marathi literati. Marathi theatre (Drama नाटक — रंगभूमी ) is an integral part of Marathi culture. Both — Experimental (प्रायोगिक रंगभूमी) and Professional Theatre — receive whole-hearted patronage from the Marathi community. Tilak Smarak Mandir, Bala Gandharva Rangmandir, Bharat Natya Mandir, Yashwantrao Chavan Natyagriha and Sudarshan Rangmanch continue to serve these art forms.

− − Pune have several arts institutes.

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Historical and architectural Attractions

− Apart from its various temples, other historical attractions in and around Pune include the rock-cut Pataleshwar cave temple, Aga Khan Palace, Shaniwarwada, Lal Mahal, Shinde Chhatri and Sinhagad fort.

− − The city is also known for its British Raj "bungalow architecture" and the Garden Cities Movement layout of the Cantonment in the early Twentieth Century. Christopher Charles Benninger landmark architectural works surround the city, including the Mahindra United World College of India, the Centre for Development Studies and Activities, the YMCA Retreat at Nilshi and the Samundra Institute of Maritime Studies.

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Museums, Parks and Zoos

− − Prominent museums in Pune include the Raja Dinkar Kelkar Museum, Mahatma Phule Museum, Babasaheb Ambedkar Museum, Pune Tribal Museum and the National War Museum.

− − Pune has a number of public gardens, such as the Kamala Nehru Park, Sambhaji Park, Shahu Udyan, Peshwe Park, Saras Baug, Empress Garden and Bund Garden. The Pune-Okayama Friendship Garden is located on Sinhagad road, and is also named as Pu La Deshpande Udyan. It is a recreation of the Korakuen Garden in Okayama, Japan.

− − The Rajiv Gandhi Zoological Park is located at Katraj, close to the city. The zoo, which was earlier located at Peshwe Park was merged with the reptile park at Katraj.

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Food

− Pune has a variety of foods and cuisines. A common meal item is bhakri-pitla, or flat millet pancakes and flour-based curry. Savoury items such as chivda and bakarvadi, and sweets are available in various shops and restaurants. Street vendors also offer snacks such as Vada pav, Bhelpuri, Misal and Kutchi Dabeli. One can also find the Mastani, a thick milkshake with dried fruits, which is named after Queen Mastani of the Peshwas.

− − Several restaurants in Pune offer Udupi cuisine, Kolhapuri cuisine, Maharashtrian cuisine and other Indian and Western cuisines. Pune has many dining Halls spread out across the city catering to students and office goers. These are modest sit-down eateries that serve all-you-can-eat meals at affordable prices. Indian and western fastfood franchises such as Pizza Hut, Domino's, McDonald's, Subway, Smokin Joes and Papa Johns have outlets in the city, and are comparatively more expensive. There are several coffee houses (including Irani cafes) and modern chains such as Cafe Coffee Day, Aromas Cafe and Barista Coffee.

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Entertainment

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− Pune has many multiplexes and cinema theatres, showing the latest Bollywood and Hollywood movies. These multiplexes are situated in various parts of the city. Marathi movies are screened at Prabhat and City Pride. Multiplexes include INOX near Pune station, E Square on University road, City Pride on Satara road, City Pride at Kothrud, City Pride at Deccan, BIG Cinemas at Kalyani Nagar and Chinchwad, Fame at Akurdi and Wanowarie, Pimpri-chinchwad, Mangala at Corporation. Other than the cinema there are various other leisure facilities such as go-karting at Manas Resorts and the Pancard club. a bowling alley at 3D Destination

− Pune Theatres and Cinema Halls

− − Pune is becoming a good party destination with people from multinational cultures flocking to Pune. Discos, pubs and bars are becoming common in Pune.

Shankar Puntambekar

Shankar Puntambekar (1923 - 2016) was an author who wrote mainly in Hindi language. His literary work includes novels, plays,satire, humour, and reviews. His popular work includes Ek mantri swarg mein, Gulel, Kalankrekha, Farzi se paida bhayo, Aakharmaar, and Ravan tum bahar aao. He was head of department at MJ College Jalgaon for 35 years.

References

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