The social structure of China has an extensive history which begins from the feudal society of Imperial China to the contemporary era. [from article]
Imperial China divided the country into four classes with the emperor ruling over them. Throughout this time period, there were attempts to eradicate this system. Social mobility was difficult, or sometimes nearly impossible, to achieve as social class was primarily defined by an individual's identity.
During the Song dynasty, there was a clear division in social structure which was enforced by law. However, commoners could move up in society through acquirement of wealth. Through passing an imperial exam or donating resources, people could become gentries. By the Yuan dynasty, there was a decrease in protection by the law for commoners. Gentries, however, were given more privileges. The Yuan dynasty also saw an increase in slavery as the slave status became hereditary. The new policy for commoners at this time also made the various categories within the commoner status hereditary. The Ming dynasty saw a decrease in the number of categories for commoners from the policy implemented during the Yuan dynasty. The three categories that remained were hereditary, making it nearly impossible to move between them. Gentries were also divided into two types. By the Qing dynasty, the working class was a very broad category with the peasants being seen as the most respected class, while merchants were at the bottom. The lower class was also divided into two separate categories. Hereditary slavery was still commonly seen at the beginning of this dynasty, although it was soon replaced largely by contractual slavery.
During China's economic reform of 1978, social structure in the country underwent many changes as the working class began to increase significantly. In 21st century China, social structure is more reliant on employment and education, which allows citizens to have more social mobility and freedoms.
- Focus on Qing dynasty & modern China
NOTE FOR SELF:
The article seems to be lacking in citations and requires more sources in order to back up a lot of the information. In terms of the information for the Qing dynasty, much of the information seems generalized and there is not enough information an detail. Additionally, when looking at the social structure of modern China, the section for after 1979 is greatly lacking in content. The lack of information makes the article seem outdated. Many citations also seem to be missing for the period from 1949 to 1976. The article does seem to be written neutrally and lacks a biased tone. While working on this article, my biggest focus should be placed on the adding content and making sure more reliable sources can be added. Any information without a citation should be removed.
Qing dynasty
editGentry
editThere was a large increase in the gentry class following the victory of the Hunan Army over Taiping in 1864, as many people were given quasi-official titles. Many took official local administrative positions. Those who didn't were able to use their military rewards to purchase land and also join the gentry class.[1]
Working Class
editLower Classes
editThose who worked in entertainment were given a special status that allowed for them to be punished severely without consequence. [also cite Fact in Fiction for civil service examination][2]
During the early Qing dynasty, hereditary slavery was a common practice that declined quickly. Slave girls(婢女), were largely sold and bought through contractual agreements where they would serve for a certain amount of years.[2]
Social structure in modern China
edit1911 to 1949
editMany laborers were hired to work on the various construction projects at this time. A small portion of the working class were apprentices. They were trained to work in the trades by masters, but were treated similarly to slave girls. Upon reaching the end of the apprenticeship, they were allowed to leave their masters and find work by themselves.[2]
1949 to 1978
edit[Want to change headings of dates for social structure in Modern China to make the timeline more cohesive and comprehensive]
Prior to the 1978 reform, the social structure of China was clearly hierarchical as the Communist Party cadres became the new upper class. [paragraph 1 of 1949 to 1976] Those who were included in this social class made up approximately 20% of the urban working class. Not only were they given benefits, but also provided with special training for their careers.[3]
[To be added to last paragraph in heading of 1949 to 1976] The large fifth star, surrounded by the four smaller stars, is meant to represent the Communist Party.[4]
Before the economic reform of 1978, the time period between the mid 1950s to 1977 saw a shift in China's focus as they began to remove outdated labels and thousands were granted working class status. The concept of "two classes and one stratum", a Soviet theory, was soon introduced and was composed of the peasant class, working class, and the intellectual stratum.[4][5] During this time, the number of individuals who were part of the working class increased greatly. Media also began to spread propaganda about the urban working class that painted them as superior, naming them the "leading class".[3][5] Soon after, people in society began to mirror this sentiment as the respect for the proletariat increased. In terms of the peasant class, the number of farmers increased year by year, despite the industrialization going on in China. The intellectual stratum consisted of those with high school or university education, making up a small portion of the population. Due to the vague definition of "intellectual", it's difficult to know exactly how many people were in this stratum. However, it's estimated that there were around 5 million people.[5]
1978 to 2000
edit[Want to change headings of dates for social structure in Modern China to make the timeline more cohesive and comprehensive]
During the 1978 reform, the previous "two classes and one stratum" theory underwent many changes. Both the working and peasant class were divided further. However, the peasant class became decreased in size while the working class saw significant growth.[5]
The years leading up to the 21st century brought great economic growth and industrialization for China, but this growth did not translate to the rate of social development as the income gap between urban and rural areas of China continued to widen. By 1993, approximately 22.4% of the working class population accounted for 51.8% of China's GDP.[5] By this point, social structure was no longer as hierarchical in comparison to the early years of the reform.[3]
In 1992, social inequality became a large topic of debate, as wealth continued to accumulate within a small minority population of the country. This was a result of the corruption of bureaucratic capitalism which, in turn, lead to the middle working class having access to very few resources. The imbalance of social structure at this time became evident as both the working and peasant class were extremely marginalized.[6]
The working class at this time was still divided, but a new stratum soon came into existence. This consisted of those who had lost their jobs, those who had retired, as well as migrant workers. Migrant workers were generally underpaid and had poor living conditions, but there were some that were able to start small businesses. Due to the difference in financial and career circumstances of different migrant workers, migrant workers spanned across multiple classes.[3]
21st century
editThe current social structure of China relies on strata, which are defined by an individual's economic and social status. There are a total of ten strata which, in a general sense, includes government officials, private and small business owners, industrial workers, agricultural laborers, and the unemployed.[5] By 2016, agricultural laborers made up only approximately 40% of China's working class. Service workers made up the largest portion of China's working class, surpassing the industrial workers.[4]
The working middle class at this time was seen to be the leading class as they gained more economic resources and production power. With the increase of people in the working class, they were seen to be representative of China's productive forces as well as the people who would improve the overall economy of the country.[4] There was also a positive viewpoint in China surrounding the middle class as they were seen to earn a decent amount of money and were well qualified for their positions.[7]
The 21st century also saw a decrease in the percentage of peasants in proportion to the overall working class as the economic reform gave them more freedom in their professional lives. Many young people living in rural communities also began to find it more appealing to attend university or find jobs in the city. There has been a major shift in the thinking of the youth, seen through the older ages of those working in farming. Finding individuals under the age of 40 still working in agriculture is now much more difficult than it was before.[4] Prior to the 21st century, social class was primarily determined by identity rather than employment and education. This reform presented citizens, especially rural workers, with more social mobility and choice.[5]
References
edit- ^ Chen, Hon Fai. Civilizing the Chinese, competing with the West : study societies in late Qing China. Hong Kong. ISBN 978-988-237-716-5. OCLC 1011626438.
- ^ a b c Stapleton, Kristin (2016-01-01). Fact in Fiction. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-9973-7.
- ^ a b c d Bian, Y.; Breiger, R.; Galaskiewicz, J.; Davis, D. (2005-06-01). "Occupation, Class, and Social Networks in Urban China". Social Forces. 83 (4): 1443–1468. doi:10.1353/sof.2005.0053. ISSN 0037-7732.
- ^ a b c d e Li, Peilin (2018-10-02). "China's Class Structure: Changes, Problems, and Policy Suggestions—A Study of Class Development since 1978". International Critical Thought. 8 (4): 574–595. doi:10.1080/21598282.2018.1539906. ISSN 2159-8282.
- ^ a b c d e f g Lu, Xueyi (2020). Social Structure and Social Stratification in Contemporary China. London. ISBN 978-0-429-35602-5. OCLC 1111652756.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Anagnost, Ann (2008). "From 'Class' to 'Social Strata': Grasping the Social Totality in Reform-Era China". Third World Quarterly. 29 (3): 497–519. ISSN 0143-6597.
- ^ Lui, Tai-lok; Liu, Shuo (2019-07-01), "The Anxious Middle Class of Urban China", The City in China, Policy Press, pp. 207–230, ISBN 978-1-5292-0547-3, retrieved 2020-12-17