Wikipedia

Timeline of the Han dynasty

See also: Timeline of the Chu–Han Contention and Timeline of the Three Kingdoms period

This is a timeline of the Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD).

Han dynasty (60 BC)

3rd century BC

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Year Date Event
202 BC 28 February Liu Bang becomes emperor of the Han dynasty (posthumously known as Emperor Gaozu of Han)[1]
Emperor Gaozu of Han moves the capital from Luoyang to Chang'an[2]
201 BC Battle of Baideng: Emperor Gaozu of Han's army is defeated by the Xiongnu[3]
Xin, King of Han defects to the Xiongnu[3]

2nd century BC

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200s BC

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Year Date Event
197 BC The Xiongnu invade Dai Commandery with the help of Chen Xi and Han Xin[4]
196 BC Emperor Gaozu of Han replaces nine of the ten Kings of the Han dynasty with his brothers and sons[5]
The Xiongnu invade Dai Commandery with the help of Han Xin[4]
195 BC 1 June Emperor Gaozu of Han dies and is succeeded by Liu Ying (posthumously Emperor Hui of Han)[6]
The Xiongnu invade You Province with the help of Lu Wan[5]

190s BC

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Year Date Event
188 BC Emperor Hui of Han dies and is succeeded by Liu Gong (posthumously Emperor Qianshao of Han)[7]
184 BC Emperor Qianshao of Han dies and is succeeded by Liu Hong (posthumously Emperor Houshao of Han)
182 BC The Xiongnu invade Longxi Commandery and Tianshui[8]
181 BC Nanyue invades Changsha[8]
The Xiongnu invade Longxi Commandery[4]

180s BC

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Year Date Event
180 BC Lü Clan Disturbance: Empress Lü dies and her clan is slaughtered[8]
Emperor Houshao of Han is deposed and succeeded by Liu Heng (posthumously Emperor Wen of Han)[9]
179 BC Earliest archaeological evidence of paper[10]
The Xiongnu invade Yunzhong Commandery[4]
177 BC The Xiongnu invade Ordos[11]
176 BC The kingdoms of Liang, Zhao, Qi, Dai, and Huainan are split up[12]

170s BC

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Year Date Event
169 BC The Xiongnu raid Han[4]
166 BC A 140,000 strong Xiongnu force invade near Chang'an[13]

160s BC

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Year Date Event
160 BC A system of beacon and lookout stations is deployed[13]
158 BC A 30,000 strong Xiongnu force attacks Yunzhong Commandery and Dai Commandery[4]
157 BC Emperor Wen of Han dies and is succeeded by Liu Qi (posthumously Emperor Jing of Han)[14]
154 BC Rebellion of the Seven States: Liu Pi and six other kings rebel but are defeated[15]

150s BC

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Year Date Event
148 BC The Xiongnu attack Yan Province[4]
144 BC The Xiongnu raid Yanmen Pass for horses[4]
142 BC The Xiongnu attack Yanmen Pass[4]
141 BC Emperor Jing of Han dies and is succeeded by Liu Che (posthumously Emperor Wu of Han)[16]

140s BC

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Year Date Event
139 BC Zhang Qian sets off for the Western Regions[17]
136 BC Official posts are created for academicians[18]
135 BC Han campaigns against Minyue: A puppet king is installed in Minyue[19]
133 BC June Battle of Mayi: The Han army fails to ambush the Xiongnu[17]
132 BC Yellow River dikes burst[20]

130s BC

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Year Date Event
129 BC Han forces (40,000) under Wei Qing, Gongsun Ao, Gongsun He, and Li Guang engage in combat with the Xiongnu[21]
128 BC The Xiongnu attack Liaoxi and engage in combat with Han forces (40,000) under Wei Qing and Li Xi[22]
Nan Lü of Dongye surrenders to Han and the Canghai Commandery is created[22]
127 BC The Xiongnu raid Liaoxi and Yanmen
Han forces under Wei Qing, Hao Xian, and Li Xi plunder the Xiongnu for livestock[21]
126 BC The Canghai Commandery is abandoned[22]
The Xiongnu army (900,000) raids Han territory
123-124 BC Han forces (100,000) under Wei Qing attack the Xiongnu[21]
122 BC The Prince of Huainan rebels and is defeated[23]
The Xiongnu raid Shanggu
121 BC Han forces under Huo Qubing, Zhao Ponu, Zhang Qian, and Li Guang attack the Xiongnu[21]

120s BC

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Year Date Event
120 BC The Xiongnu raid Youbeiping and Xingxiang, taking 1,000 captives
119 BC June Battle of Mobei: Han generals Huo Qubing and Wei Qing defeat the Xiongnu[17]
Introduction of the iron and salt monopoly[11]
New taxes are levied on market transactions, vehicles, and property[24]
Zhang Qian goes on another trip to the Western Regions[17]
116 BC The Xiongnu raid Liang Province
113 BC Reign names are introduced[25]
112 BC State monopoly on minting is enacted[26]
A Han force of 20,000 attack the Qing in eastern Tibet
111 BC Han conquest of Nanyue: Han annexes Nanyue[27]
Han campaigns against Minyue: Âu Việt is defeated but the Han evacuate the Yue area rather than annex it; with the exception of Dongye at the mouth of the Min River, modern Fujian would not see significant colonization until 200 AD[28]
Han forces (25,000)) under Gongsun He and Zhao Ponu try to attack the Xiongnu but can't find them[21]
Modern Guizhou is incorporated into the empire[29]

110s BC

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Year Date Event
110 BC Emperor Wu of Han personally leads Han forces (180,000) against the Xiongnu but their chanyu decides to retreat[21]
Han secures a marriage alliance with the Wusun through Liu Jieyou[30]
109 BC Han conquest of Dian: The Dian Kingdom becomes a Han vassal[31]
108 BC Han conquest of Gojoseon: Han annexes Gojoseon[32] and sets up the Lelang, Lintun, Xuantu, and Zhenfan commanderies[33]
Battle of Loulan: Han subjugates Qiemo and the Jushi Kingdom[34]
106 BC Thirteen regional inspectors are appointed to be directly answerable to the central government[35]
105 BC Cai Lun improves on paper using a combination of rags and plant fibers[36]
Aboriginals rebel in the southwest[29]
104 BC War of the Heavenly Horses: Li Guangli fails to make it to Dayuan[37]
103 BC Han forces (20,000) under Zhao Ponu attack the Xiongnu but are defeated[21]
102 BC The Xiongnu raid Jiuquan and Zhangye, capturing several thousand people
101 BC War of the Heavenly Horses: Li Guangli forces Dayuan to provide horses[37]
Han vassalizes Fergana[30]

1st century BC

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100s BC

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Year Date Event
99 BC Battle of Tian Shan: Han forces (35,000) under Li Guangli and Li Ling are defeated by the Xiongnu[38]
98 BC State monopoly on liquor is enacted[26]
97 BC Han forces (140,000) under Li Guangli attack the Xiongnu without results[21]
94 BC Summer Han forces under Xu Xiangru kill the king of Suoju (around modern Yarkant County) and capture 1,500 people[39]
91 BC Factional strife in Chang'an results in the deaths of thousands[40]

90s BC

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Year Date Event
90 BC Han forces (79,000) under Li Guangli are defeated by the Xiongnu but another Han army (30,000) under Shang Qiucheng manages to force the Xiongnu to flee[38]
Han forces under Cheng Wan conquer Jushi Kingdom[21]
87 BC Han forces under Wen Zhong capture a city near modern Islamabad[41]
29 March Emperor Wu of Han dies and is succeeded by Liu Fuling (posthumously Emperor Zhao of Han)[42]
86 BC Liu Dan's coup fails[43]
Rebellion occurs in the southwest[44]
83 BC Rebellion occurs in the southwest[44]
82 BC Zhenfan and Lintun commanderies are abandoned[45]
Hainan is abandoned for a time[27]
81 BC Discourses on Salt and Iron
State monopoly on liquor is abolished[26]

80s BC

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Year Date Event
80 BC Liu Dan attempts another coup, which also fails[46]
78 BC Han forces under (20,000) under Fan Mingyou attack the Wuhuan
77 BC After several Han envoys are killed in or near the Loulan Kingdom, supreme general Huo Guang has an envoy named Fu Jiezi assassinate the Loulan King Angui[47]
75 BC Goguryeo attacks Xuantu Commander[48]
74 BC 18 July Emperor Zhao of Han dies and the Marquis of Haihun is enthroned[49]
14 August The Marquis of Haihun is deposed and replaced by Liu Bingyi (posthumously Emperor Xuan of Han)[49]
71 BC The Han, Wusun, Dingling, and Wuhuan coalition defeats the Xiongnu[50]

70s BC

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Year Date Event
69 BC Han forces under Chang Hui retaliate against Qiuci for killing Colonel Laidan[51]
67 BC Battle of Jushi: Han forces conquer the Jushi Kingdom[50]
65 BC Han forces under Feng Fenshi force the king of Suoju to commit suicide and enthrone another king[52]
Han vassalizes Qiuci[30]
The Qiang revolt in eastern Tibet
64 BC The people of the Jushi Kingdom are moved to Quli to work the land[52]
The Xiongnu attack Jiaohe in the aftermath of the Battle of Jushi
61 BC Han forces under Zhao Chongguo advance into Qinghai and establish colonies

60s BC

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Year Date Event
60 BC The Protectorate of the Western Regions is established under Zheng Ji[30]
53 BC Wusun submit to Han suzerainty and are split into Greater and Lesser Kunmi[53]

50s BC

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Year Date Event
49 BC Emperor Xuan of Han dies and is succeeded by Liu Shi (posthumously Emperor Yuan of Han)[54]
46 BC Hainan is abandoned for a time[27]
44 BC The state monopoly on salt and iron is temporarily abolished[55]
42 BC Qiang tribes revolt in the west[56]
41 BC The state monopoly on salt and iron is restored[57]
Han forces (60,000) under Feng Fengshi crush the Qiang rebels

40s BC

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Year Date Event
39 BC Yellow River dikes burst[58]
38 BC Emperor Yuan of Han deposes Liu Yuan, King of Hejian, disestablishing his kingdom[59]
36 BC Battle of Zhizhi: Han forces defeat the Xiongnu[60]
33 BC Emperor Yuan of Han dies and is succeeded by Liu Ao (posthumously Emperor Cheng of Han)[61]
32 BC The Hejian Kingdom is re-established[59]

30s BC

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Year Date Event
29 BC Yellow River dikes burst[58]
27 BC Aboriginals rebel in the southwest[29]

10s BC

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Year Date Event
7 BC 7 May Emperor Cheng of Han dies and is succeeded by Liu Xin (posthumously Emperor Ai of Han)[61]
3 BC The cult of the Queen Mother of the West spreads throughout China[62]
1 BC 15 August Emperor Ai of Han dies and is succeeded by Liu JIzi (posthumously Emperor Ping of Han[63]

1st century

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0s

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Year Date Event
1 Earliest extant blast furnaces[64]
3 The Yellow River floods and changes course[65]
6 2 February Emperor Ping of Han dies and Ruzi Ying becomes heir apparent but Wang Mang becomes acting emperor[66]
7 Wang Mang is accused of murdering Emperor Ping of Han[67]
9 10 January Wang Mang declares his own Xin dynasty (literally "new dynasty")[68]
The slave trade is outlawed[69]

10s

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Year Date Event
12 Wang Mang extends Xin territory into Qinghai[70]
Xin forces defeat Goguryeo in battle[71]
Aboriginals in Zangke Commandery (Guizhou) rebel[29]
The slave trade ban is rescinded[26]
13 Karasahr rebels[70]
14 Aboriginals in Yi Province rebel[29]
16 A Xin expeditionary army under Guo Qin massacres the population of Karasahr[70]
17 Red Eyebrows: Rebellion erupts in modern Shandong[20]

20s

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Year Date Event
22 Lulin: Rebellion erupts in Nanyang[72]
11 March Liu Xuan (later known as the Gengshi Emperor) is enthroned by the rebels[73]
Red Eyebrows: Xin forces are defeated by the rebels[20]
23 January Lulin: Xin forces are defeated by rebels[73]
7 July Battle of Kunyang: Xin forces are defeated by rebels[74]
6 October Lulin: Rebels take Chang'an and kill Wang Mang; Luoyang falls soon after[75]
Koreans raid the Lelang Commandery and take slaves[19]
The Protectorate of the Western Regions is abandoned[56]
24 March The Gengshi Emperor relocates to Chang'an[76]
25 July Red Eyebrows: The Red Eyebrows enthrone their own emperor, Liu Penzi[77]
5 August Liu Xiu proclaims himself emperor (posthumously Emperor Guangwu of Han)[78]
October Red Eyebrows: The Red Eyebrows take Chang'an and strangle the Gengshi Emperor[77]
27 November Emperor Guangwu of Han takes Luoyang[78]
Wang Diao takes over Lelang Commandery[79]
27 15 March Red Eyebrows: Rebels surrender to Emperor Guangwu of Han[80]
29 Emperor Guangwu of Han pacifies the northern Central Plains and Nanyang[80]
The Taixue is created[81]

30s

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Year Date Event
30 Emperor Guangwu of Han pacifies the Lelang Commandery, southern Central Plains and Shandong[80]
31 Du Shi uses waterwheels to power piston-bellows for blast furnaces[82]
32 Ban Gu is born
34 Emperor Guangwu of Han defeats Wei Ao and pacifies the northwest[80]
36 25 December Emperor Guangwu of Han defeats Gongsun Shu and takes Chengdu, restoring the Han[80]

40s

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Year Date Event
40 Trung sisters' rebellion: Yue tribes rebel in Jiaozhi[83]
43 Trung sisters' rebellion: The Trưng Sisters are decapitated[83]
44 Han forces under Ma Yuan are defeated by Xiongnu
45 Ban Zhao is born
Aboriginals rebel in the southwest[84]
Xiongnu raid Changshan
48 Aboriginals rebel in Wuling Commandery (northwestern Hunan)[85]
49 Wuhuan settle in the northwest and north of the Central Plain[86]
Qiang tribes retake the Qinghai region[87]

50s

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Year Date Event
51 An Ailao tribe defects to Han[88]
57 29 March Emperor Guangwu of Han dies and is succeeded by Liu Yang (posthumously Emperor Ming of Han)[89]

60s

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Year Date Event
63 The Xiongnu gain control of the Western Regions and start raiding Han[90]
65 Liu Ying becomes the first documented sponsor of Buddhism in China[89]
69 An Ailao tribe defects to Han[88]

70s

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Year Date Event
70 The southern flow of the Yellow River is eliminated[20]
73 Battle of Yiwulu: Han general Dou Gu defeats the Xiongnu and restores the Protectorate of the Western Regions[91]
74 Han forces capture Jushi Kingdom
75 5 September Emperor Ming of Han dies and is succeeded by Liu Da (posthumously Emperor Zhang of Han)[92]
77 The Protectorate of the Western Regions is abandoned[93]

80s

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Year Date Event
88 9 April Emperor Zhang of Han dies and is succeeded by Liu Zhao (posthumously Emperor He of Han)[94]
89 Battle of the Altai Mountains: Han general Dou Xian defeats the Xiongnu[95]

90s

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Year Date Event
90 The Protectorate of the Western Regions is restored[93]
92 Ban Gu dies
93 The Xiongnu settle in southern Shaanxi[96]

2nd century

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100s

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Year Date Event
106 13 February Emperor He of Han dies and is succeeded by Liu Long (posthumously Emperor Shang of Han)[97]
21 September Emperor Shang of Han dies and is succeeded by Liu Hu (posthumously Emperor An of Han)[97]
Goguryeo invades Xuantu Commandery[19]
107 The Protectorate of the Western Regions is abandoned[93]
Aboriginals rebel in the southwest[84]
108 Qiang tribes raid the Central Plains[87]

110s

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Year Date Event
111 The Book of Han is finished by Ban Zhao
116 Ban Zhao dies
Aboriginals rebel in the southwest[84]
117 Han forces under Ren Shang defeat the Qiang

120s

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Year Date Event
123 Aboriginals rebel in the southwest[84]
125 30 April Emperor An of Han dies and is succeeded by the Marquess of Beixiang[98]
16 December Eunuch loyalists overthrow the Marquess of Beixiang and enthrone Liu Bao (posthumously Emperor Shun of Han)[98]

130s

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Year Date Event
132 Han retakes some of Xuantu Commandery from Goguryeo[19]
Zhang Heng invents the seismometer[99]
137 Rebellion erupts in Rinan[100]

140s

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Year Date Event
140 The Xiongnu overrun the Tiger's Teeth encampment near Chang'an[101]
The Qiang rebel
142 The Qiang rebellion is defeated
144 20 September Emperor Shun of Han dies and is succeeded by Liu Bing (posthumously Emperor Chong of Han)[102]
December Rebellion erupts in Jiujiang[103]
145 15 February Emperor Chong of Han dies and is succeeded by Liu Zuan (posthumously Emperor Zhi of Han)[102]
Rebels attack Guangling and Jiujiang[103]
Xianbei raid Dai Commandery[103]
Hua Meng declares himself the Black Emperor and gets killed[103]
146 26 July Emperor Zhi of Han dies and is succeeded by Liu Zhi (posthumously Emperor Huan of Han)[102]
Policy of assimilation in the southwest is implemented through education programs[44]

150s

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Year Date Event
156 Aboriginals rebel in the southwest[84]
159 Aboriginals rebel in the southwest[84]

160s

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Year Date Event
166 The Xianbei raid Han territory
167 Han forces under Duan Jiong massacre the Qiang
168 25 January Emperor Huan of Han dies and is succeeded by Liu Hong (posthumously Emperor Ling of Han)[104]
169 Duan Jiong defeats the Xianlian Qiang[105]

170s

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Year Date Event
176 Aboriginals rebel in the southwest[84]
177 Han forces (20,000) under Xia Yu and Tian Yan are defeated by the Xianbei

180s

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Year Date Event
184 spring Yellow Turban Rebellion: The Yellow Turbans ravage the north and east and are defeated[106][107]
winter Liang Province rebellion: A rebellion occurs in Liang province (Liangzhou; 涼州; roughly present-day Wuwei, Gansu)[106]
185 The imperial palace is damaged by fire and special taxes are levied for rebuilding[106]
188 Governors are appointed to unify provincial administrations[106]
189 summer Emperor Ling of Han dies; Empress He and her brother He Jin enthrone Liu Bian and establish a regency government[106]
winter The Ten Eunuchs kill He Jin and are themselves massacred by Yuan Shao;[107] Dong Zhuo takes control of Luoyang and deposes Liu Bian in favor of his half-brother Liu Xie, Emperor Xian of Han[106]

190s

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Year Date Event
190 Campaign against Dong Zhuo: An anti-Dong Zhuo alliance forms in the east, led by Yuan Shao[106]
Dong Zhuo burns Luoyang, loots the imperials tombs, and relocates to Chang'an;[107] the coalition breaks up and local officials set themselves up as warlords[106]
Cai Yong dies[107]
191 Zhang Lu sets up a theocracy in Hanzhong[106]
192 Wang Yun and Lü Bu kill Dong Zhuo and Wang Yun himself is killed by Dong Zhuo's officers Li Jue and Guo Si[106]
Cao Cao takes over Yan Province[106]
195 Emperor Xian of Han escapes from Chang'an[106]
Sun Ce sets up south of the Changjiang[106]
196 Emperor Xian of Han relocates to Xuchang under Cao Cao's control[106]
197 Campaign against Yuan Shu: Yuan Shu takes the imperial title but is driven south by Cao Cao[106]
199 Battle of Yijing: Yuan Shao eliminates Gongsun Zan in You Province[106]
Yuan Shu dies[106]

3rd century

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Year Date Event
200 Battle of Guandu: Yuan Shao is defeated by Cao Cao northeast of modern Zhongmou, Henan[106]
Sun Ce dies and is succeeded by his brother Sun Quan[106]
Zheng Xuan dies[107]
202 Yuan Shao dies and is succeeded by his younger son Yuan Shang[106]
203 Cao Cao's campaigns to unify northern China begin[106]
207 Battle of White Wolf Mountain: Cao Cao defeats the Wuhuan and unites northern China[106]
208 Liu Biao dies in Jing Province and Cao Cao takes over[106]
Battle of Red Cliffs: Cao Cao is defeated on the Changjiang, west of modern Jiangxia, Hubei, by Sun Quan and Liu Bei[106]
210 Liu Bei occupies the south of Jing Province[106]
211 Battle of Tong Pass: Cao Cao defeats Ma Chao and Han Sui and starts campaigning in northwestern China[106]
Liu Bei's takeover of Yi Province: Liu Zhang invites Liu Bei to Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing)[106]
214 Liu Bei's takeover of Yi Province: Liu Bei takes control of Yi Province from Liu Zhang[106]
215 Battle of Yangping: Zhang Lu surrenders Hanzhong to Cao Cao[106]
216 Cao Cao declares himself King of Wei[108]
219 spring Battle of Mount Dingjun: Liu Bei defeats Cao Cao's general Xiahou Yuan and takes Hanzhong[106]
autumn Liu Bei becomes King of Hanzhong[106]
Battle of Fancheng: Liu Bei's general Guan Yu attacks north in Jing Province[106]
winter Lü Meng's invasion of Jing Province: Sun Quan's general Lü Meng attacks Guan Yu and seizes the south of Jing Province[106]
220 Guan Yu is executed by Sun Quan[108]
spring Cao Cao dies at Luoyang and is succeeded by his son Cao Pi[106]
The Nine-rank system is implemented[108]
winter Cao Pi forces Emperor Xian of Han to abdicate and declares himself Emperor of the Wei dynasty; so ends the Han dynasty[106]
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Citations

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  1. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 119.
  2. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 122.
  3. ^ a b Twitchett 2008, p. 127.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i Chang 2007, p. 143.
  5. ^ a b Twitchett 2008, p. 124.
  6. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 130.
  7. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 135.
  8. ^ a b c Twitchett 2008, p. 136.
  9. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 137.
  10. ^ David Buisseret (1998), Envisaging the City, U Chicago Press, p. 12, ISBN 978-0-226-07993-6
  11. ^ a b Twitchett 2008, p. 151.
  12. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 140.
  13. ^ a b Twitchett 2008, p. 152.
  14. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 138.
  15. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 141.
  16. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 144.
  17. ^ a b c d Twitchett 2008, p. 164.
  18. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 154.
  19. ^ a b c d Twitchett 2008, p. 450.
  20. ^ a b c d Twitchett 2008, p. 243.
  21. ^ a b c d e f g h i Chang 2007, p. 164.
  22. ^ a b c Twitchett 2008, p. 448.
  23. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 156.
  24. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 160.
  25. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 155.
  26. ^ a b c d Twitchett 2008, p. 234.
  27. ^ a b c Twitchett 2008, p. 453.
  28. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 456.
  29. ^ a b c d e Twitchett 2008, p. 235.
  30. ^ a b c d Twitchett 2008, p. 197.
  31. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 458.
  32. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 170.
  33. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 449.
  34. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 410.
  35. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 157.
  36. ^ Barrett 2008, p. 34.
  37. ^ a b Twitchett 2008, p. 168.
  38. ^ a b Twitchett 2008, p. 169.
  39. ^ Chang 2007, p. 219.
  40. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 178.
  41. ^ Chang 2007, p. 220.
  42. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 179.
  43. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 180.
  44. ^ a b c Twitchett 2008, p. 459.
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  46. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 181.
  47. ^ Chang 2007, p. 225.
  48. ^ Shin 2014, p. 30.
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  50. ^ a b Twitchett 2008, p. 411.
  51. ^ Chang 2007, p. 226.
  52. ^ a b Chang 2007, p. 227.
  53. ^ Chang 2007, p. 228.
  54. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 200.
  55. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 202.
  56. ^ a b Twitchett 2008, p. 211.
  57. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 204.
  58. ^ a b Twitchett 2008, p. 206.
  59. ^ a b Xiong 2009, p. ccix.
  60. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 212.
  61. ^ a b Twitchett 2008, p. 210.
  62. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 221.
  63. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 215.
  64. ^ Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2005, p. 30.
  65. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 241.
  66. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 219.
  67. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 228.
  68. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 231.
  69. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 232.
  70. ^ a b c Twitchett 2008, p. 238.
  71. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 239.
  72. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 245.
  73. ^ a b Twitchett 2008, p. 246.
  74. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 247.
  75. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 248.
  76. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 249.
  77. ^ a b Twitchett 2008, p. 250.
  78. ^ a b Twitchett 2008, p. 251.
  79. ^ Loewe 2000, p. 525.
  80. ^ a b c d e Twitchett 2008, p. 254.
  81. ^ Crespigny 2017, p. 8.
  82. ^ Needham, Joseph (1986), Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 4: Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering, Taipei: Cambridge University Press, p. 370, ISBN 0-521-05803-1
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  84. ^ a b c d e f g Twitchett 2008, p. 460.
  85. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 279.
  86. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 269.
  87. ^ a b Twitchett 2008, p. 270.
  88. ^ a b Twitchett 2008, p. 272.
  89. ^ a b Twitchett 2008, p. 258.
  90. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 414.
  91. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 413.
  92. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 280.
  93. ^ a b c Twitchett 2008, p. 421.
  94. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 282.
  95. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 415.
  96. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 268.
  97. ^ a b Twitchett 2008, p. 283.
  98. ^ a b Twitchett 2008, p. 285.
  99. ^ Needham, Joseph (1959). Science and Civilization in China, Volume 3: Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 626–635.
  100. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 310.
  101. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 513.
  102. ^ a b c Twitchett 2008, p. 286.
  103. ^ a b c d Twitchett 2008, p. 311.
  104. ^ Twitchett 2008, p. 287.
  105. ^ Crespigny 2017, p. 369.
  106. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai Crespigny 2007, p. xxxi.
  107. ^ a b c d e Xiong 2009, p. lxxxvii.
  108. ^ a b c Xiong 2009, p. lxxxviii.

Bibliography

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