Wikipedia

Relative age effect

"Birthdate effect" redirects here. Not to be confused with Birthday effect.

The term relative age effect (RAE), also known as birthdate effect or birth date effect, is used to describe a bias, evident in the upper echelons of youth sport[1] and academia,[2] where participation is higher amongst those born earlier in the relevant selection period (and lower for those born later in the selection period) than would be expected from the distribution of births. The selection period is usually the calendar year, the academic year or the sporting season.[3]

The distribution of births according to month in the general population

The difference in maturity often contributes to the effect,[4] with age category, skill level and sport context also impacting the risk of the relative age effect. Mid to late adolescent, regional to nation, popular sports seeing the highest risk, and under 11, recreational, unpopular sports seeing the lowest risk.[5]

The terms month of birth bias and season of birth bias are used to describe similar effect but are fundamentally different. Season of birth examines the influence of different prenatal and perinatal seasonal environmental factors like sunlight, temperature, or viral exposure during gestation, that relate to health outcomes.[6] Conversely, the relative age effect shifts with selection dates[7] moving the advantage with the selection period.[8] With influence from social agents,[9] children born soon after the cut-off date are typically included, and a child born soon before the cut-off date excluded.

The distribution, according to month of birth, of players involved in UEFA organised international youth football tournaments in 2010/11

In sport

edit

Youth sport participation is often organized into annual age-groups. The IOC,[10] FIFA[11] and the six international football confederations (AFC, CAF, CONCACAF, CONMEBOL, OFC and UEFA[12]) all use 1 January as their administrative cut-off which is most commonly used but, 1 September is used in the UK,[5] like many other locations around the world.[13] This grouping can be seen in the first graph showing the distribution of births, by month, for the European Union over the ten years from 2000 to 2009. The birth rate correlates closely with the number of days in a month with a slight increase in the summer months. The second graph, by the month, shows the birth distribution of over 4,000 players involved in the qualifying squads for U17, U19 and U21 tournaments organised by UEFA in 2010–11.

This declining distribution from the beginning of the year for professional athlete participation has been seen in sports like: association football,[14] baseball,[15] cricket,[16] gymnastics,[17] handball,[18] ice hockey,[19] rugby league,[20] running,[21] skiing,[22] swimming,[17] tennis,[23] and the Youth Olympic Games,[24] as well as non-physical sports like shooting.[25]

Malcolm Gladwell's book Outliers: The Story of Success and the book SuperFreakonomics by Steven Levitt and Stephen Dubner, popularised the issue in respect of Canadian ice-hockey players, European football players, and US Major League baseball players.[citation needed]

Contributing factors

edit
 
Theoretical model of the social agents which influence relative age effect.

Relative age effects are caused by birthdate eligibility rules but can be affected by parents, coaches and athletes through other mechanisms.[26] The Pygmalion effect, Galatea effect, and Matthew effect are examples of effects which impact player motivation.[27]

In addition to these social factors contextual differences change the distribution with decreased effects in female sports,[28][29] unpopular sports,[30] at different ages,[31] individual sports,[32] or sports with a lower reliance on body size,[33] with an expected increased effect in male sports, popular sports, or competitive sports.[31] The sports popularity in a geographical or cultural area will affect the relative age distribution relative, with examples seen in volleyball[34] and American football.[35]

The early maturation levels giving physical advantages to first quarter individuals can create the bias,[31] seen in players' height in basketball,[36] dominant hand in tennis,[37] or size in a cricket position,[38] but physical size isn't always the cause.[39] Older individuals also gain more competence[40] and self-efficacy,[41] increasing the performance gap. These advantages lead to increased dropout rates for Q1 births.[42][43] However, the bias for sports where height and mass impedes flexibility, rotational speed and the strength to mass ratio, maturational delay may be preferred as seen in gymnastics.[44]

With an adult group the relative age has the opposite meaning,[45] as performance declines in age,[46] and is more significant with more physically demanding sports,[47] depending on what age the average peak performance level is, in that sport.[48] The "underdog effect" has shown that those late birth individuals may see better chances[49] if they are selected to play,[29] with the advantage decreasing after selection.[50]

Playing position, federation membership, and individual and team performance also contribute to the effect,[18] with older players having a higher risk of injury.[51]

Reducing the relative age effect

edit

Various methods have been suggested and tested to reduce the relative age effect like moving the cut off dates,[34] expanding the age group range,[52] birthdate quotas for the players,[53] the average team age (ATA) method for eligibility,[54][55] or grouping by height and weight.[34] Some methods have struggled to find success due to the effect moving with selection dates.[7] Making the relative age known to the individuals in the environment have shown less bias in talent identification reducing the relative age effect.[56]

Birthday banding,[57] and re-calculating scores based on relative age,[58] are other methods used to reduce the effects,[59] with bio-banding seeing the most research, showing benefit to early and late maturing players,[60] both in academy football[61] and in recreational football.[62] Bio-banding can help promote appropriate training loads and reduce injury risk,[63] while increasing technical demands from players,[64] however, sports already categorized by maturation metrics like Judo,[65] may not see those effects. More longitudinal studies are needed,[66] alongside more reliable ways to band individuals,[67] as biological, psychological and social development doesn't progress in synchrony,[68] creating different imbalances in the groups.[citation needed]

In education

edit
 
Oxford University RAE profile in aggregate 2004/5 to 2013/14

The Academic year is decided by education authorities with August or September being common cut-off dates in the Northern Hemisphere and February or March cut-off dates in the Southern Hemisphere.

The third graph illustrates the relative age effect in graduations from the University of Oxford over a 10-year period, which has also been seen in UK Nobel laureates.[69]

The relative age effect and reversal effect are evident in education,[70] with older students on average scoring higher marks, getting into more gifted and talented programs,[71] and being more likely to attend higher education[72] in academic schools over vocational schools,[73] not necessarily due to higher intelligence.[74] The Matthew effect again plays a role, as the skills learned early in education compound over time, increasing the advantage,[75] with older students becoming more likely to take up leadership roles.[76] However, like in sport, the effect diminishes over time after middle school,[77] and those born later in the year perform better in university education.[78]

In leadership positions

edit

A relative age effect has also been observed in the context of leadership. An over-representation starts in high-school leadership activities such as sports team captain or club president.[76] Then in adult life, this over-representation has been observed in top managerial positions (CEOs of S&P 500 companies),[79] and in top political positions, both in the USA (senators and representatives),[80] and in Finland (MPs).[81]

Seasonal birth effect

edit

Seasonal birth in humans varies, and alongside the relative age effect the epidemiology of seasonal births show over-representations in health conditions like ADHD[82] and schizophrenia,[83][84] with one study finding "that higher school starting age lowers the propensity to commit crime at young ages."[85] However, other studies failed to replicate relative age effects on temperament, mood, or physical development.[70]

Obesity has been linked to season of birth with increased chances,[86] potentially due to surrounding temperature at birth,[87] with winter and spring having the highest correlation, but physical inactivity is still a larger risk factor.[88]

Summer babies have increased chances of specific learning difficulties,[6][89] and winter and spring babies related to schizophrenia and mania/bipolar disorder. Schizoaffective disorder can be related to December–March births, major depression to March–May births, and autism to March births.[90]

Increased rates in seasonal affective disorder relate to the influence of seasonal birth in humans.[91]

References

edit
  1. ^ "Birthdate Effects: A Review of the Literature from 1990-on" (PDF). Cambridgeassessment.org.uk. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  2. ^ Claire Crawford; Lorraine Dearden; Costas Meghir. "When You Are Born Matters: The Impact of Date of Birth on Child Cognitive Outcomes in England" (PDF). Cee.lse.ac.uk. ISSN 2045-6557. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 January 2012. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  3. ^ Kelly, Adam L.; Côté, Jean; Jeffreys, Mark; Turnnidge, Jennifer, eds. (2021-06-04). Birth Advantages and Relative Age Effects in Sport: Exploring Organizational Structures and Creating Appropriate Settings. New York: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003163572. ISBN 978-1-003-16357-2. S2CID 241069004.
  4. ^ "Long-term relative age effect: Evidence from Italian football". VoxEU.org. 23 April 2016. Retrieved 23 April 2016.
  5. ^ a b Cobley, Stephen; Baker, Joseph; Wattie, Nick; McKenna, Jim (2009). "Annual age-grouping and athlete development: a meta-analytical review of relative age effects in sport". Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.). 39 (3): 235–256. doi:10.2165/00007256-200939030-00005. ISSN 0112-1642. PMID 19290678. S2CID 32633686.
  6. ^ a b Barry, H.; Bary, H. (1961). "Season of birth. An epidemiological study in psychiatry". Archives of General Psychiatry. 5: 292–300. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1961.01710150074012. ISSN 0003-990X. PMID 13687345.
  7. ^ a b Helsen, Werner F.; Starkes, Janet L.; Van Winckel, Jan (2000-11-01). "Effect of a change in selection year on success in male soccer players". American Journal of Human Biology. 12 (6): 729–735. doi:10.1002/1520-6300(200011/12)12:6<729::AID-AJHB2>3.0.CO;2-7. ISSN 1520-6300. PMID 11534065. S2CID 24013421.
  8. ^ Musch, Jochen; Hay, Roy (1999-03-01). "The Relative Age Effect in Soccer: Cross-Cultural Evidence for a Systematic Discrimination against Children Born Late in the Competition Year". Sociology of Sport Journal. 16 (1): 54–64. doi:10.1123/ssj.16.1.54. ISSN 0741-1235.
  9. ^ Hancock, David J.; Adler, Ashley L.; Côté, Jean (2013). "A proposed theoretical model to explain relative age effects in sport". European Journal of Sport Science. 13 (6): 630–637. doi:10.1080/17461391.2013.775352. hdl:1974/14350. ISSN 1536-7290. PMID 24251740. S2CID 32336640.
  10. ^ "Olympic Documents - Athletes, Olympic Games, IOC and More" (PDF). 29 July 2021.
  11. ^ "FIFA.com" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-03-30. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  12. ^ Uefa.com https://web.archive.org/web/20180621143622/https://www.uefa.com/MultimediaFiles/Download/Regulations/competitions/Regulations/01/65/31/62/1653162_DOWNLOAD.pdf. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 June 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2021. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  13. ^ Wattie, Nick; Cobley, Stephen; Baker, Joseph (2008). "Towards a unified understanding of relative age effects". Journal of Sports Sciences. 26 (13): 1403–1409. doi:10.1080/02640410802233034. ISSN 0264-0414. PMID 18825541. S2CID 11241958.
  14. ^ Ashworth, John; Heyndels, Bruno (1 August 2007). "Selection Bias and Peer Effects in Team Sports: The Effect of Age Grouping on Earnings of German Soccer Players". Journal of Sports Economics. 8 (4): 355–377. doi:10.1177/1527002506287695. ISSN 1527-0025. S2CID 154330153.
  15. ^ Herring, Chad H.; Beyer, Kyle S.; Fukuda, David H. (2021). "Relative Age Effects as Evidence of Selection Bias in Major League Baseball Draftees (2013–2018)". The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 35 (3): 644–651. doi:10.1519/JSC.0000000000003951. ISSN 1064-8011. PMID 33470599. S2CID 231651477.
  16. ^ Edwards, S. (1994-07-21). "Born too late to win?". Nature. 370 (6486): 186. Bibcode:1994Natur.370..186E. doi:10.1038/370186a0. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 8028664. S2CID 5420946.
  17. ^ a b Baxter-Jones, A. D. (1995). "Growth and development of young athletes. Should competition levels be age related?". Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.). 20 (2): 59–64. doi:10.2165/00007256-199520020-00001. ISSN 0112-1642. PMID 7481282. S2CID 45304762.
  18. ^ a b Rubia, Alfonso de la; Bjørndal, Christian Thue; Sánchez-Molina, Joaquín; Yagüe, José María; Calvo, Jorge Lorenzo; Maroto-Izquierdo, Sergio (2020). "The relationship between the relative age effect and performance among athletes in World Handball Championships". PLOS ONE. 15 (3): e0230133. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1530133R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0230133. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 7098603. PMID 32214322.
  19. ^ Addona, Vittorio; Yates, Philip A. (15 October 2010). "A Closer Look at the Relative Age Effect in the National Hockey League". Journal of Quantitative Analysis in Sports. 6 (4). doi:10.2202/1559-0410.1227. ISSN 1559-0410. S2CID 120240341.
  20. ^ Till, K.; Cobley, S.; Wattie, N.; O'Hara, J.; Cooke, C.; Chapman, C. (2010). "The prevalence, influential factors and mechanisms of relative age effects in UK Rugby League". Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. 20 (2): 320–329. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.00884.x. ISSN 1600-0838. PMID 19486487. S2CID 33840698.
  21. ^ Romann, Michael; Cobley, Stephen (6 April 2015). "Relative Age Effects in Athletic Sprinting and Corrective Adjustments as a Solution for Their Removal". PLOS ONE. 10 (4): e0122988. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1022988R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0122988. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4386815. PMID 25844642.
  22. ^ Romann, Michael; Fuchslocher, Jörg (1 April 2014). "Survival and Success of the Relatively Oldest in Swiss Youth Skiing Competition". International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching. 9 (2): 347–356. doi:10.1260/1747-9541.9.2.347. ISSN 1747-9541. S2CID 144244440.
  23. ^ Ulbricht, Alexander; Fernandez-Fernandez, Jaime; Mendez-Villanueva, Alberto; Ferrauti, Alexander (2015). "The Relative Age Effect and Physical Fitness Characteristics in German Male Tennis Players". Journal of Sports Science & Medicine. 14 (3): 634–642. ISSN 1303-2968. PMC 4541129. PMID 26336351.
  24. ^ Raschner, Christian; Müller, Lisa; Hildebrandt, Carolin (1 December 2012). "The role of a relative age effect in the first winter Youth Olympic Games in 2012". British Journal of Sports Medicine. 46 (15): 1038–1043. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2012-091535. ISSN 0306-3674. PMID 22976907. S2CID 37476293.
  25. ^ Delorme, Nicolas; Raspaud, Michel (1 August 2009). "Is there an influence of relative age on participation in non-physical sports activities? The example of shooting sports". Journal of Sports Sciences. 27 (10): 1035–1042. doi:10.1080/02640410902926438. ISSN 0264-0414. PMID 19847687. S2CID 1624812.
  26. ^ Thompson, Angus H.; Barnsley, Roger H.; Stebelsky, George (1991-06-01). ""Born to Play Ball" The Relative Age Effect and Major League Baseball". Sociology of Sport Journal. 8 (2): 146–151. doi:10.1123/ssj.8.2.146. ISSN 0741-1235.
  27. ^ Harter, Susan (1978). "Effectance Motivation Reconsidered. Toward a Developmental Model". Human Development. 21 (1): 34–64. doi:10.1159/000271574. ISSN 0018-716X.
  28. ^ Abel, Ernest L.; Kruger, Michael M.; Pandya, Kalyani (August 2011). "A relative age effect in men's but not women's professional baseball: 1943-1954". Psychological Reports. 109 (1): 285–288. doi:10.2466/05.PR0.109.4.285-288. ISSN 0033-2941. PMID 22049668. S2CID 23937679.
  29. ^ a b Romann, Michael; Fuchslocher, Jörg (2014-06-01). "The Need to Consider Relative Age Effects in Women's Talent Development Process". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 118 (3): 651–662. doi:10.2466/30.10.PMS.118k24w8. ISSN 0031-5125. PMID 25068738. S2CID 207391641.
  30. ^ Wattie, Nick. "A historical examination of relative age effects in Canadian hockey players". International Journal of Sport Psychology.
  31. ^ a b c Delorme, N.; Chalabaev, A.; Raspaud, M. (2011). "Relative age is associated with sport dropout: evidence from youth categories of French basketball: Relative age effect and dropout". Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. 21 (1): 120–128. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.01060.x. PMID 20136758. S2CID 20611526.
  32. ^ Baker, Joseph; Janning, Christina; Wong, Harmonie; Cobley, Stephen; Schorer, Jörg (2014). "Variations in relative age effects in individual sports: skiing, figure skating and gymnastics". European Journal of Sport Science. 14 (Suppl 1): S183–190. doi:10.1080/17461391.2012.671369. ISSN 1536-7290. PMID 24444205. S2CID 205918608.
  33. ^ Gil, Susana M.; Bidaurrazaga-Letona, Iraia; Larruskain, Jon; Esain, Izaro; Irazusta, Jon (2021). "The relative age effect in young athletes: A countywide analysis of 9-14-year-old participants in all competitive sports". PLOS ONE. 16 (7): e0254687. Bibcode:2021PLoSO..1654687G. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0254687. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 8284647. PMID 34270609.
  34. ^ a b c Musch, Jochen; Grondin, Simon (2001). "Unequal Competition as an Impediment to Personal Development: A Review of the Relative Age Effect in Sport". Developmental Review. 21 (2): 147–167. doi:10.1006/drev.2000.0516. ISSN 0273-2297.
  35. ^ Stanaway, Kimberly B.; Hines, Terence M. (1995-12-01). "Lack of a Season of Birth Effect among American Athletes". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 81 (3): 952–954. doi:10.2466/pms.1995.81.3.952. ISSN 0031-5125. S2CID 144431104.
  36. ^ Delorme, N.; Raspaud, M. (2009). "The relative age effect in young French basketball players: a study on the whole population". Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. 19 (2): 235–242. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2008.00781.x. ISSN 1600-0838. PMID 18298612. S2CID 126598.
  37. ^ Loffing, Florian; Schorer, Jörg; Cobley, Steve P. (2010-06-01). "Relative Age Effects are a developmental problem in tennis: but not necessarily when you're left-handed!". High Ability Studies. 21 (1): 19–25. doi:10.1080/13598139.2010.488084. ISSN 1359-8139. S2CID 145150287.
  38. ^ Côté, Jean; Macdonald, Dany J.; Baker, Joseph; Abernethy, Bruce (2006). "When "where" is more important than "when": birthplace and birthdate effects on the achievement of sporting expertise". Journal of Sports Sciences. 24 (10): 1065–1073. doi:10.1080/02640410500432490. hdl:1974/14413. ISSN 0264-0414. PMID 17115521. S2CID 12638438.
  39. ^ Sherar, Lauren B.; Baxter-Jones, Adam D. G.; Faulkner, Robert A.; Russell, Keith W. (2007). "Do physical maturity and birth date predict talent in male youth ice hockey players?". Journal of Sports Sciences. 25 (8): 879–886. doi:10.1080/02640410600908001. ISSN 0264-0414. PMID 17474041. S2CID 24530414.
  40. ^ Harter, Susan (1993), Baumeister, Roy F. (ed.), "Causes and Consequences of Low Self-Esteem in Children and Adolescents", Self-Esteem: The Puzzle of Low Self-Regard, The Plenum Series in Social / Clinical Psychology, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 87–116, doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-8956-9_5, ISBN 978-1-4684-8956-9, retrieved 2021-11-12
  41. ^ Heffernan, Colleen J. (1988). "Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory, Albert Bandura Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1986, xiii + 617 pp. Hardback. US$39.50". Behaviour Change. 5 (1): 37–38. doi:10.1017/S0813483900008238. ISSN 0813-4839.
  42. ^ García, Miguel Saavedra; Aguilar, Óscar Gutiérrez; Romero, Juan J Fernández; Lastra, David Fernández; Oliveira, Gabriel Eiras (2014-10-01). "Relative age effect in lower categories of international basketball". International Review for the Sociology of Sport. 49 (5): 526–535. doi:10.1177/1012690212462832. ISSN 1012-6902. S2CID 145132099.
  43. ^ Delorme, Nicolas; Boiché, Julie; Raspaud, Michel (1 May 2010). "Relative age and dropout in French male soccer". Journal of Sports Sciences. 28 (7): 717–722. doi:10.1080/02640411003663276. ISSN 0264-0414. PMID 20480428. S2CID 6176116.
  44. ^ Baxter-Jones, Adam D.G. (1995). "Growth and Development of Young Athletes: Should Competition Levels be Age Related?". Sports Medicine. 20 (2): 59–64. doi:10.2165/00007256-199520020-00001. ISSN 0112-1642. PMID 7481282. S2CID 45304762.
  45. ^ Medic, Nikola; Starkes, Janet L.; Young, Bradley W. (2007). "Examining relative age effects on performance achievement and participation rates in Masters athletes". Journal of Sports Sciences. 25 (12): 1377–1384. doi:10.1080/02640410601110128. ISSN 0264-0414. PMID 17786690. S2CID 6530220.
  46. ^ Baker, Joseph; Deakin, Janice; Horton, Sean; Pearce, G. William (2007). "Maintenance of skilled performance with age: a descriptive examination of professional golfers". Journal of Aging and Physical Activity. 15 (3): 300–317. doi:10.1123/japa.15.3.300. ISSN 1063-8652. PMID 17724396.
  47. ^ Bortz, W. M. (1996). "How fast do we age? Exercise performance over time as a biomarker". The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences. 51 (5): M223–225. doi:10.1093/gerona/51a.5.m223. ISSN 1079-5006. PMID 8808993.
  48. ^ Starkes, Janet. "Aging and the retention of sport expertise". International Journal of Sport Psychology.
  49. ^ Schorer, J.; Cobley, S.; Büsch, D.; Bräutigam, H.; Baker, J. (2009). "Influences of competition level, gender, player nationality, career stage and playing position on relative age effects". Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. 19 (5): 720–730. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2008.00838.x. ISSN 1600-0838. PMID 18627551. S2CID 1084598.
  50. ^ Vaeyens, Roel; Philippaerts, Renaat M.; Malina, Robert M. (2005). "The relative age effect in soccer: a match-related perspective". Journal of Sports Sciences. 23 (7): 747–756. doi:10.1080/02640410400022052. ISSN 0264-0414. PMID 16195025. S2CID 19513513.
  51. ^ Wattie, Nick; Cobley, Stephen; Macpherson, Alison; Howard, Andrew; Montelpare, William J.; Baker, Joseph (2007). "Injuries in Canadian youth ice hockey: the influence of relative age". Pediatrics. 120 (1): 142–148. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-2672. ISSN 1098-4275. PMID 17606571. S2CID 24189760.
  52. ^ Boucher, J. "The novem system: A practical solution to age grouping". Cahper Journal.
  53. ^ Barnsley, Roger H.; Thompson, A. H. (1988). "APA PsycNet". Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science. 20 (2): 167–176. doi:10.1037/h0079927. Retrieved 2021-11-12.
  54. ^ Verbeek, J.; Lawrence, S.; van der Breggen, J.; Kelly, A.; Jonker, L. (2021). "The average team age method and its potential to reduce relative age effects.". Birth Advantages and Relative Age Effects in Sport. Routledge. pp. 107–124. doi:10.4324/9781003163572-10. ISBN 9781003163572. S2CID 234878601.
  55. ^ Helsen, Werner F.; Starkes, Janet L.; Van Winckel, Jan (1998). "The influence of relative age on success and dropout in male soccer players". American Journal of Human Biology. 10 (6): 791–798. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6300(1998)10:6<791::AID-AJHB10>3.0.CO;2-1. ISSN 1520-6300. PMID 28561412. S2CID 32958835.
  56. ^ Mann, David (2017). "Age-ordered shirt numbering reduces the selection bias associated with the relative age effect". Journal of Sports Sciences. 35 (8): 784–790. doi:10.1080/02640414.2016.1189588. hdl:1871.1/8699ca89-7bc5-4be7-b61a-bf8841dc3106. PMID 27238077. S2CID 30301449.
  57. ^ Kelly, Adam L.; Jackson, Daniel T.; Taylor, Josh J.; Jeffreys, Mark A.; Turnnidge, Jennifer (2020). ""Birthday-Banding" as a Strategy to Moderate the Relative Age Effect: A Case Study Into the England Squash Talent Pathway". Frontiers in Sports and Active Living. 2: 573890. doi:10.3389/fspor.2020.573890. ISSN 2624-9367. PMC 7739587. PMID 33345136.
  58. ^ Romann, M; Cobley, S (2015). "Relative Age Effects in Athletic Sprinting and Corrective Adjustments as a Solution for Their Removal". PLOS ONE. 10 (4): e0122988. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1022988R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0122988. PMC 4386815. PMID 25844642.
  59. ^ Reeves, M; Enright, K; Dowling, J; Roberts, S (2018). "Stakeholders' understanding and perceptions of bio-banding in junior-elite football training" (PDF). Soccer & Society. 19: 1166–1182. doi:10.1080/14660970.2018.1432384. S2CID 148894870.
  60. ^ Hill, Megan; Spencer, Amy; McGee, Darragh; Scott, Sam; Frame, Malcolm; Cumming, Sean P. (2020-05-18). "The psychology of bio-banding: a Vygotskian perspective". Annals of Human Biology. 47 (4): 328–335. doi:10.1080/03014460.2020.1797163. ISSN 0301-4460. PMID 32674664. S2CID 220607644.
  61. ^ Bradley, Ben; Johnson, David; Hill, Megan; McGee, Darragh; Kana-Ah, Adam; Sharpin, Callum; Sharp, Peter; Kelly, Adam; Cumming, Sean P.; Malina, Robert M. (2019). "Bio-banding in academy football: player's perceptions of a maturity matched tournament". Annals of Human Biology. 46 (5): 400–408. doi:10.1080/03014460.2019.1640284. ISSN 1464-5033. PMID 31288575. S2CID 195871072.
  62. ^ Romann, Michael; Lüdin, Dennis; Born, Dennis-Peter (2020-05-12). "Bio-banding in junior soccer players: a pilot study". BMC Research Notes. 13 (1): 240. doi:10.1186/s13104-020-05083-5. ISSN 1756-0500. PMC 7216411. PMID 32398110.
  63. ^ Malina, Robert M.; Cumming, Sean P.; Rogol, Alan D.; Coelho-E-Silva, Manuel J.; Figueiredo, Antonio J.; Konarski, Jan M.; Kozieł, Sławomir M. (2019). "Bio-Banding in Youth Sports: Background, Concept, and Application". Sports Medicine. 49 (11): 1671–1685. doi:10.1007/s40279-019-01166-x. ISSN 1179-2035. PMID 31429034. S2CID 201058305.
  64. ^ Abbott, Will; Williams, Stuart; Brickley, Gary; Smeeton, Nicholas J. (2019-08-14). "Effects of Bio-Banding upon Physical and Technical Performance during Soccer Competition: A Preliminary Analysis". Sports. 7 (8): E193. doi:10.3390/sports7080193. ISSN 2075-4663. PMC 6722793. PMID 31416230.
  65. ^ Giudicelli, Bruno B.; Luz, Leonardo G. O.; Sogut, Mustafa; Massart, Alain G.; Júnior, Arnaldo C.; Figueiredo, António J. (2020-01-05). "Bio-Banding in Judo: The Mediation Role of Anthropometric Variables on the Maturation Effect". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 17 (1): E361. doi:10.3390/ijerph17010361. ISSN 1660-4601. PMC 6981667. PMID 31948074.
  66. ^ Stănilă, Alexandra Mihaela; Lupşa, Marius Matichescu; Stănilă, Cătălin (2020-09-01). "BIO-BANDING from concept to practice in sports". Timisoara Physical Education and Rehabilitation Journal. 13 (24): 19–24. doi:10.2478/tperj-2020-0003. S2CID 220772237.
  67. ^ Reeves, Matthew J.; Enright, Kevin J.; Dowling, Jack; Roberts, Simon J. (2018-11-17). "Stakeholders' understanding and perceptions of bio-banding in junior-elite football training". Soccer & Society. 19 (8): 1166–1182. doi:10.1080/14660970.2018.1432384. ISSN 1466-0970. S2CID 148894870.
  68. ^ Cumming, Sean P.; Lloyd, Rhodri S.; Oliver, Jon L.; Eisenmann, Joey C.; Malina, Robert M. (2017). "Bio-banding in Sport: Applications to Competition, Talent Identification, and Strength and Conditioning of Youth Athletes". Strength & Conditioning Journal. 39 (2): 34–47. doi:10.1519/SSC.0000000000000281. hdl:10369/8460. ISSN 1524-1602.
  69. ^ Fukunaga, Hisanori; Taguri, Masataka; Morita, Satoshi (2013-10-01). "Relative age effect on Nobel laureates in the UK". JRSM Short Reports. 4 (10): 2042533313492514. doi:10.1177/2042533313492514. ISSN 2042-5333. PMC 3831864. PMID 24319580.
  70. ^ a b Jeronimus, Bertus F; Stavrakakis, Nikolaos; Veenstra, René; Oldehinkel, Albertine J (2015). "Relative Age Effects in Dutch Adolescents: Concurrent and Prospective Analyses". PLOS ONE. 10 (6): e0128856. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1028856J. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0128856. PMC 4468064. PMID 26076384.
  71. ^ Cobley, Stephen; McKenna, Jim; Baker, Joeseph; Wattie, Nick (May 2009). "APA PsycNet". Journal of Educational Psychology. 101 (2): 520–528. doi:10.1037/a0013845. Retrieved 2021-11-15.
  72. ^ Bedard, K; Dhuey, E (2006). "The Persistence of Early Childhood Maturity: International Evidence of Long-Run Age Effects". The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 121 (4): 1437–72. doi:10.1093/qje/121.4.1437. JSTOR 25098831.
  73. ^ Ponzo, Michela; Scoppa, Vincenzo (2014). "The long-lasting effects of school entry age: Evidence from Italian students". Journal of Policy Modeling. 36 (3): 578–99. doi:10.1016/j.jpolmod.2014.04.001.
  74. ^ Shearer, E. (1967-12-01). "The Effect of Date of Birth on Teachers' Assessments of Children". Educational Research. 10 (1): 51–56. doi:10.1080/0013188670100104. ISSN 0013-1881.
  75. ^ Cunha, Flavio; Heckman, James J.; Lochner, Lance; Masterov, Dimitriy V. (2006-01-01), Hanushek, E.; Welch, F. (eds.), Chapter 12 Interpreting the Evidence on Life Cycle Skill Formation, Handbook of the Economics of Education, vol. 1, Elsevier, pp. 697–812, doi:10.1016/S1574-0692(06)01012-9, ISBN 9780444513991, retrieved 2021-11-13
  76. ^ a b Dhuey, Elizabeth; Lipscomb, Stephen (2008). "What makes a leader? Relative age and high school leadership". Economics of Education Review. 27 (2): 173–83. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.394.8881. doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2006.08.005.
  77. ^ Hauck, Anne Logan; Finch, A. J. (1993). "The effect of relative age on achievement in middle school". Psychology in the Schools. 30 (1): 74–79. doi:10.1002/1520-6807(199301)30:1<74::AID-PITS2310300112>3.0.CO;2-E. ISSN 1520-6807.
  78. ^ Russell, R. J. H.; Startup, M. J. (1986-01-01). "Month of birth and academic achievement". Personality and Individual Differences. 7 (6): 839–846. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(86)90082-6. ISSN 0191-8869.
  79. ^ Du, Qianqian; Gao, Huasheng; Levi, Maurice D (2012). "The relative-age effect and career success: Evidence from corporate CEOs". Economics Letters. 117 (3): 660–2. doi:10.1016/j.econlet.2012.08.017.
  80. ^ Muller, Daniel; Page, Lionel (2016). "Born leaders: Political selection and the relative age effect in the US Congress". Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A (Statistics in Society). 179 (3): 809–29. doi:10.1111/rssa.12154. S2CID 124379974.
  81. ^ "Gender Specific Relative Age Effects in Politics and Football" (PDF). Doria.fi. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  82. ^ Morrow, R. L; Garland, E. J; Wright, J. M; MacLure, M; Taylor, S; Dormuth, C. R (2012). "Influence of relative age on diagnosis and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children". Canadian Medical Association Journal. 184 (7): 755–62. doi:10.1503/cmaj.111619. PMC 3328520. PMID 22392937.
  83. ^ Davies, G; Welham, J; Chant, D; Torrey, E. F; McGrath, J (2003). "A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Northern Hemisphere Season of Birth Studies in Schizophrenia". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 29 (3): 587–93. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a007030. PMID 14609251.
  84. ^ "Season of Birth of Students Receiving Special Education Services Under a Diagnosis of Emotional and Behavioral Disorder" (PDF). Eduratio.be. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  85. ^ Landersø, Rasmus; Nielsen, Helena Skyt; Simonsen, Marianne (2017). "School Starting Age and the Crime-age Profile" (PDF). The Economic Journal. 127 (602): 1096–118. doi:10.1111/ecoj.12325. S2CID 155576753. SSRN 2984362.
  86. ^ Hillman, R. W.; Conway, H. C. (1972). "Season of birth and relative body weight". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 25 (3): 279–281. doi:10.1093/ajcn/25.3.279. ISSN 0002-9165. PMID 5011910.
  87. ^ Phillips, D. I.; Young, J. B. (2000). "Birth weight, climate at birth and the risk of obesity in adult life". International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders. 24 (3): 281–287. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0801125. PMID 10757620. S2CID 24898098.
  88. ^ Wattie, Nick; Ardern, Chris I.; Baker, Joseph (2008). "Season of birth and prevalence of overweight and obesity in Canada". Early Human Development. 84 (8): 539–547. doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2007.12.010. ISSN 0378-3782. PMID 18280062.
  89. ^ Diamond, Grace H. (1983-03-01). "The Birthdate Effect: A Maturational Effect?". Journal of Learning Disabilities. 16 (3): 161–164. doi:10.1177/002221948301600306. ISSN 0022-2194. PMID 6864105. S2CID 28321784.
  90. ^ Torrey, E. F.; Miller, J.; Rawlings, R.; Yolken, R. H. (1997-11-07). "Seasonality of births in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: a review of the literature". Schizophrenia Research. 28 (1): 1–38. doi:10.1016/s0920-9964(97)00092-3. ISSN 0920-9964. PMID 9428062. S2CID 54259124.
  91. ^ Levitan, Robert D.; Masellis, Mario; Lam, Raymond W.; Kaplan, Allan S.; Davis, Caroline; Tharmalingam, Subi; Mackenzie, Bronwyn; Basile, Vincenzo S.; Kennedy, James L. (2006). "A birth-season/DRD4 gene interaction predicts weight gain and obesity in women with seasonal affective disorder: A seasonal thrifty phenotype hypothesis". Neuropsychopharmacology. 31 (11): 2498–2503. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301121. ISSN 0893-133X. PMID 16760922. S2CID 35504875.
Retrieved from "https://en.wiki.x.io/w/index.php?title=Relative_age_effect&oldid=1261449241"