Phialophora fastigiata is a mitosporic,[1] saprophytic fungus commonly found in soil,[2] and on wood,[3] and wood-pulp.[4] This species was initially placed in the genus Cadophora but was later transferred to the genus Phialophora based on morphological and growth characteristics.[5] In culture, P. fastigiata produces olive-brown, velvety colonies.[3] The fungus is recognizable microscopically due to the presence of distinctive, funnel-shaped cuffs (collarettes) encircling the tips of phialides that bear slimy conidia.[2] The fungus is often implicated in soft-rot wood decay due to its ability to degrade lignin,[6] cellulose and pectin.[2] It has also been reported to cause blue staining of wood and wood pulp.[4]
| Phialophora fastigiata | |
|---|---|
| |
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | |
| Division: | |
| Subdivision: | |
| Class: | |
| Order: | |
| Family: | |
| Genus: | |
| Species: | P. fastigiata
|
| Binomial name | |
| Phialophora fastigiata (Lagerb. & Melin) Conant (1937)
| |
| Synonyms | |
| |
History and taxonomy
editPhialophora fastigiata was originally described in 1928 as Cadophora fastigiata by Lagerberg and Melin, who erected the genus Cadophora to accommodate C. fastigiata.[5] In 1937, Conant compared eight species of Cadophora with Phialophora verrucosa and determined that they belonged to the same genus. As such, seven species of Cadophora, including C. fastigiata were transferred to the genus Phialophora.[5] Although later examination of the internal transcribed spacers of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) genes in Cadophora melinii and P. fastigiata showed morphological similarity, the colony morphology of the two species is distinctive.[7]
Growth and morphology
edit
Macroscopically, P. fastigiata colonies reach 2.3–2.5 cm (0.91–0.98 in) in diameter after being grown at 20 °C on malt extract agar for 10 days.[2] They exhibit an olive-brown[2] or reddish-brown[3] velvety appearance, and grow with a border of hyaline (glassy) mycelium.[3] Aerial mycelium form a floccose (fluffy) greyish-brown turf 1.0-6.5mm high, and produce rope-like strands towards the centre of the colony.[5] Although isolates usually grow uniformly, slight differences in colour, numbers of conidiophores and numbers of aerial mycelium have been observed.[8]
Phialophora fastigiata are microscopically recognized by the production of light brown, flask-shaped phialides[2] that are produced laterally on hyphae[9] and produce funnel-shaped collarettes.[2] In Petri dish cultures, the fungus tends to develop hyphal strands that are 3-4μm in diameter and show cell-wall thickening with age.[3] Slimy conidia are produced in clumps at the apex of phialides,[5] and are oval shaped (ovoid) to button shaped (ellipsoidal) with a pinched base.[2] The conidia initially exhibit a hyaline (unpigmented) appearance, but turn light brown with age.[2]
Physiology
editIsolates of P. fastigiata are able to grow at temperatures ranging from 3 °C to 35 °C, with an optimum temperature range of 20 °C–25 °C and pH range between 4–9.[8] Extracts of water and acetone from balsam fir, black spruce, white spruce and red spruce have been shown to stimulate the growth of the fungus in culture.[8] The presence of biotin also increases the growth of this fungus[8] and extracts of ammonium tartrate increase mycelium production.[10] This saprophytic fungus[5] is able to gain energy from decaying organic matter, and is able to utilize asparagine and potassium nitrate as sources of nitrogen, as well as L-arabinose as a source of carbon.[10]
Phialophora fastigiata is able to produce a variety of degradation enzymes, including pectinase, amylase, xylanase, cellulase and mannanase,[2] which allow it to cause wood decay[11] and post-harvest rot.[12] Although there has been no investigation into the management of P. fastigiata, the fungus is known to be susceptible to the antimicrobial activity of ethanolic extract from Halacsya sendtneri,[13] a flowering plant in the family Boraginaceae. The fungus is also susceptible to antimycins produced by Streptomyces species.[14] Conversely, P. fastigiata exhibits antimicrobial activity against Gaeumannomyces graminis var tritici, a plant pathogen that causes take-all disease in wheat.[15]
Habitat and ecology
editPhialophora fastigiata is commonly isolated from soil and wood.[2] The earliest reports of the fungus came from countries and regions rich in wood, such as Sweden, Norway and Canada.[3] It was later isolated from a spruce plantation in Norway[16] and has been found to grow on wood pulp in Sweden.[4] It is also the most abundant species found in slime from paper mills in New Brunswick and Newfoundland,[8] and has been isolated from wheat-field soils in Western Australia.[17]
The fungus is psychrotolerant (able to grow at low temperatures), and has been isolated from soil,[18] straw and wood in the Ross Sea region of Antarctica.[19] It has also been isolated from the water-saturated wood of Betula pendula trees,[20] dialysis water, municipal drinking water,[21] groundwater, surface water, and tap water.[22]
Commercial implications
editPhialophora fastigiata is a soft rot fungus that has been found to widen cavities in birch and Scots pine sapwood by increasing growth at the hyphal tip and secreting lignolytic enzymes (involved in the degradation of lignin) from the hyphal surface.[6] The fungus can also cause cavities in wood and plants via an erosion-type attack.[23] The ability of the fungus to degrade the wood of Populus tremuloides (trembling aspen) has been noted to limit the sale of aspen, which represents 54% of commercial timber.[24]
P. fastigiata also commonly causes blue staining of wood. It has been found to grow on wood pulp with a greyish-green tinge, causing the wood pulp to appear blue[4] and is one of the most common species of fungi associated with discolored xylem in the stems of B. pendula.[25] Degradation and discoloration of wood by P. fastigiata affect the production quality of pulp and paper.[24]
References
edit- ^ Carlile, Michael; Watkinson, Sarah; Gooday, Graham (22 December 2000). The fungi (2nd ed.). Academic Press. ISBN 9780127384467.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Domsch, KH; Gams, W; Anderson, TH (1980). Compendium of soil fungi. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0122204012.
- ^ a b c d e f SCHOL-SCHWARZ; Beatriz, M (1970). "Revision of the genus Phialophora (Moniliales)". Persoonia. 6.
- ^ a b c d Melin, E; Nannfeldt, J. A (1934). "Researches into the Blueing of ground wood-pulp". Svenska Skogsvårdsföreningens Tidskrift. 32.
- ^ a b c d e f Cole, Garry T.; Kendrick, Bryce (May 1973). "Taxonomic studies of Phialophora". Mycologia. 65 (3): 661–668. doi:10.2307/3758266. JSTOR 3758266.
- ^ a b Hale, Michael D.; Eaton, Rodney A. (March 1985). "Oscillatory growth of fungal hyphae in wood cell walls". Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 84 (2): 277–288. doi:10.1016/S0007-1536(85)80079-6.
- ^ Harrington, Thomas C.; McNew, Douglas L. (2003). "Phylogenetic analysis places the Phialophora-like anamorph genus Cadophora in the Helotiales". Mycotaxon. 87: 141–151.
- ^ a b c d e Brewer, D. (July 1959). "Studies on Slime Accumulations in Pulp and Paper Mills: III. The Stimulation of Growth by "White Water". Canadian Journal of Botany. 37 (4): 517–521. doi:10.1139/b59-044.
- ^ Watanabe, Tsuneo (21 May 2010). Pictorial atlas of soil and seed fungi : morphologies of cultured fungi and key to species (3rd ed.). CRC Press/Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781439804193.
- ^ a b Lundstrom, Hans (1974). "Studies on the physiology of the three soft rot fungi Allescheria terrestris, Phialophora (Margarinomyces) luteoviridis and Phialophora richardsiae". Studia Forestalia Suecica. 115. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.384.154.
- ^ Arenz, Brett E.; Blanchette, Robert A. (January 2009). "Investigations of fungal diversity in wooden structures and soils at historic sites on the Antarctic Peninsula". Canadian Journal of Microbiology. 55 (1): 46–56. doi:10.1139/W08-120. PMID 19190700.
- ^ Sholberg, P.L.; Haag, P.D. (March 1996). "Incidence of postharvest pathogens of stored apples in British Columbia". Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology. 18 (1): 81–85. doi:10.1080/07060669609500661.
- ^ Mašković, Pavle; Maksimović, Jelena; Maksimović, Vuk; Blagojević, Jelena; Vujošević, Mladen; Manojlović, Nedeljko; Radojković, Marija; Cvijović, Milica; Solujić, Slavica (1 January 2012). "Biological activities of phenolic compounds and ethanolic extract of Halacsya sendtneri (Boiss) Dőrfler". Open Life Sciences. 7 (2): 327–333. doi:10.2478/s11535-012-0021-8.
- ^ Schoenian, Ilka; Spiteller, Michael; Ghaste, Manoj; Wirth, Rainer; Herz, Hubert; Spiteller, Dieter (1 February 2011). "Chemical basis of the synergism and antagonism in microbial communities in the nests of leaf-cutting ants". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 108 (5): 1955–1960. Bibcode:2011PNAS..108.1955S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1008441108. PMC 3033269. PMID 21245311.
- ^ Zriba, Narjess (1997). Characterization of Phialophora spp. isolates from a Montana take-all suppressive soil and their use in suppression of wheat take-all caused by Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici (Ggt) (PDF) (PhD thesis). Montana State University (MSU).
- ^ Allmér, Johan; Vasiliauskas, Rimvis; Ihrmark, Katarina; Stenlid, Jan; Dahlberg, Anders (January 2006). "Wood-inhabiting fungal communities in woody debris of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.), as reflected by sporocarps, mycelial isolations and T-RFLP identification". FEMS Microbiology Ecology. 55 (1): 57–67. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6941.2005.00010.x. PMID 16420615.
- ^ Sivasithamparam, K. (1975). "Phialophora and Phialophora-like fungi occurring in the root region of wheat". Australian Journal of Botany. 23 (1): 193–212. doi:10.1071/bt9750193.
- ^ Blanchette, R. A.; Held, B. W.; Jurgens, J. A.; McNew, D. L.; Harrington, T. C.; Duncan, S. M.; Farrell, R. L. (8 March 2004). "Wood-destroying soft rot fungi in the historic expedition huts of Antarctica". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 70 (3): 1328–1335. doi:10.1128/AEM.70.3.1328-1335.2004. PMC 368374. PMID 15006750.
- ^ Blanchette, Robert A.; Held, Benjamin W.; Arenz, Brett E.; Jurgens, Joel A.; Baltes, Nicolas J.; Duncan, Shona M.; Farrell, Roberta L. (13 April 2010). "An Antarctic hot spot for fungi at Shackleton's historic hut on Cape Royds". Microbial Ecology. 60 (1): 29–38. doi:10.1007/s00248-010-9664-z. PMID 20386896. S2CID 575297.
- ^ Przybył, Krystyna (2014). "Fungi and bacteria associated with the wet and brown wood in trunk of Betula pendula trees". Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae. 70 (2): 113–117. doi:10.5586/asbp.2001.016.
- ^ Figel, Izabel Cristina; Marangoni, Paulo Roberto Dantas; Tralamazza, Sabina Moser; Vicente, Vânia Aparecida; do Rocio Dalzoto, Patrícia; do Nascimento, Mariana Machado Fidelis; de Hoog, G. Sybren; Pimentel, Ida Chapaval (7 March 2013). "Black Yeasts-Like Fungi Isolated from Dialysis Water in Hemodialysis Units". Mycopathologia. 175 (5–6): 413–420. doi:10.1007/s11046-013-9633-4. PMID 23467974. S2CID 14214947.
- ^ Babič, Monika; Gunde-Cimerman, Nina; Vargha, Márta; Tischner, Zsófia; Magyar, Donát; Veríssimo, Cristina; Sabino, Raquel; Viegas, Carla; Meyer, Wieland; Brandão, João (13 June 2017). "Fungal Contaminants in Drinking Water Regulation? A Tale of Ecology, Exposure, Purification and Clinical Relevance". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 14 (6): 636. doi:10.3390/ijerph14060636. PMC 5486322.
- ^ Nilsson, Thomas (1974). "Microscopic studies on the degradation of cellophane and various cellulosic fibres by wood-attacking microfungi". Studia Forestalia Suecica. 117.
- ^ a b Crane, P.E.; Chakravarty, P.; Hutchison, L.J.; Hiratsuka, Y. (1996). "Wood-degrading capabilities of microfungi isolated from Populus tremuloides". Material und Organismen. 30 (1): 33–34.
- ^ Hallaksela, Anna‐Maija; Niemistö, Pentti (15 December 2008). "Stem discoloration of planted silver birch". Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research. 13 (1–4): 169–176. doi:10.1080/02827589809382973.