Wikipedia

Manipur

(Redirected from Manipur, India)
This article is about the modern day state of India. For the eponymous kingdom mentioned in the epic Mahabharata, see Manipura (Mahabharata). For other uses, see Manipur (disambiguation).
"Jewel of India" redirects here. For the highest civilian award of the Republic of India, see Bharat Ratna.

Manipur (/ˌmʌnɪˈpʊər/,[12] US also /ˌmænɪˈpʊər/;[13] Meitei: Kangleipak[a][14][15][16]) is a state in northeast India, with the city of Imphal as its capital.[17] It is bounded by the Indian states of Nagaland to the north, Mizoram to the south and Assam to the west. It also borders two regions of Myanmar, Sagaing Region to the east and Chin State to the south. The state covers an area of 22,327 km2 (8,621 sq mi). The official and most widely spoken language is the Meitei language (officially known as Manipuri). Native to the Meitei people, it is also used as a lingua franca by smaller communities, who speak a variety of other Tibeto-Burman languages.[18] Manipur has been at the crossroads of Asian economic and cultural exchange for more than 2,500 years.[19] This exchange connects the Indian subcontinent and Central Asia to Southeast Asia, East Asia, Siberia, regions in the Arctic, Micronesia and Polynesia enabling migration of people, cultures and religions.[20][21]

Manipur
State
Clockwise from top: the Sanamahi Kiyong in the Nongmaiching Ching mountain, the Ima Keithel (Ima Market), the dual statues of the Kanglā shā dragons, the Loktak lake, the Temple of Pakhangba inside the Kangla Fort, the Manipuri classical dance, the Marjing Polo Statue
Official emblem of Manipur
Emblem of Manipur
Anthem: Sanā leibāk Manipur
(Meitei for 'Manipur, Land of Gold')[1]
The map of India showing Manipur
Location of Manipur in India
Coordinates: 24°49′N 93°56′E / 24.81°N 93.94°E / 24.81; 93.94
Country India
RegionNortheast India
Before wasManipur State[2][3][4][5]
Admission to union15 October 1949[6]
As union territory1 November 1956
As state21 January 1972
Capital
and largest city		Imphal
Districts16
Government
 • BodyGovernment of Manipur
 • GovernorLakshaman Acharya
 • Chief ministerN. Biren Singh[7] (BJP)
State LegislatureUnicameral
 • AssemblyManipur Legislative Assembly (60 seats)
National ParliamentParliament of India
 • Rajya Sabha1 seat
 • Lok Sabha2 seats
High CourtManipur High Court
Area
 • Total
22,327 km2 (8,621 sq mi)
 • Rank23rd
Population
 (2011)[8][9]
 • Total
2,855,794
 • Rank23rd
 • Density130/km2 (300/sq mi)
 • Urban
30.21%
 • Rural
69.79%
Language
 • OfficialManipuri
 • Official scriptMeitei script
GDP
 • Total (2024–25)₹0.527 lakh crore (US$6.3 billion)
 • Rank28th
 • Per capita₹91,559 (US$1,100) (27th)
Time zoneUTC+05:30 (IST)
ISO 3166 codeIN-MN
Vehicle registrationMN
HDI (2018)0.696[10] (15th)
Literacy (2011)76.94% (18th)
Sex ratio (2011)985♀/1000 ♂
Websitemanipur.gov.in
Symbols of Manipur
Emblem of Manipur
SongSanā leibāk Manipur
(Meitei for 'Manipur, Land of Gold')[1]
Bird
Nongin
(Meitei for 'Syrmaticus humiae')
Fish
Pengba
(Meitei for 'Osteobrama belangeri')[11]
Flower
Shirui lily (Lilium mackliniae)
Mammal
Sangai
(Meitei for 'Cervus eldi eldi')
Tree
Uningthou
(Meitei for 'Phoebe hainesiana')
List of Indian state symbols
Meetei Mayek
This article contains the Meitei alphabet. Without proper rendering support, you may see errors in display.

During the days of the British Raj, Manipur was one of the princely states.[22] On 11 August 1947, Maharaja Bodhachandra Singh signed an Instrument of Accession, argued by many that the king was in no legal position to sign the instrument of accession at the time,[23][24][25] under the agreement Bodhachandra Singh accede to the Indian Union.[26][27] Later, on 21 September 1949, he signed a Merger Agreement, disputed as having been done without consultation of the popular ministry under Manipur State Constitution Act 1947 and denial of the king's request to return to Manipur to discuss the same with his people.[28][29][30][31] Under 'duress' and 'coercion' Bodhachandra Singh signed the merger agreement merging the kingdom into India, which led to its becoming a Part C State.[32][33][34] Followed by contestation of the merger by groups in Manipur, resulting in a 50-year insurgency in the state for independence from India.[35] From 2009 through 2018, the conflict was responsible for the violent deaths of over 1000 people.[36]

The Meitei people[37] represent around 53% of the population of Manipur state, followed by various Naga tribes at 20% and Kuki-Zo tribes at 16%.[38] Manipur's ethnic groups practice a variety of religions.[39] According to 2011 census, Hinduism and Christianity are the major religions of the state.[39][40] Between the 1961 and 2011 censuses of India, the share of Hindus in the state declined from 62% to 41%, while the share of Christians rose from 19% to 41%.[41]

Manipur has primarily an agrarian economy, with significant hydroelectric power generation potential. It is connected to other areas by daily flights through Imphal Airport, the second largest in northeastern India.[42] Manipur is home to many sports and the origin of Manipuri dance,[43] and is credited with introducing polo to Europeans.[44]

Name

The name Manipur (Sanskrit: मणिपुर, romanized: maṇipura, lit. ''city of jewels'') was chosen by Gharib Nawaz, a convert to Hinduism, in the eighteenth century. It is named after a kingdom of the same name mentioned in the Hindu epic Mahabharata. Previously, it had been known as Kangleipak (Meitei: ꯀꯪꯂꯩꯄꯛ, romanized: Kangleipak)[14][45] or Meitei: ꯃꯩꯇꯩꯂꯩꯕꯥꯛ, Meiteileipak, transl: land of the Meiteis,[46] Later, the work Dharani Samhita (1825–34) popularised the Sanskrit legends of the origin of Manipur's name.[47]

Other names include Sanaleibak (Meitei: ꯁꯅꯥꯂꯩꯕꯥꯛ, transl: the land of gold, golden land), not given because Manipur has a lot of the gold mines, but because of its happiness and prosperity.[48] This name was mentioned in the 11th-12th century constitution, the Loiyumba Shinyen.10 and is still heard in the official song of Manipur, "Sana Leibak Manipur".

History

Main articles: History of Manipur and Manipur (princely state)

Antiquity

Main article: Kangleipak
 
A match of Sagol Kangjei (Meitei for 'Polo') depicted in a stamp of the Republic of India

The history of Manipur Meiteis is chronicled in Puyas or Puwaris (stories about the forefathers), namely, the Ninghthou Kangbalon, Cheitharol Kumbaba, Ningthourol Lambuba, Poireiton Khunthokpa, Panthoibi Khongkul, and so forth in the Meitei script, which is comparable to the Thai script. The historical accounts presented here were recordings from the eyes and the judgment of Meitei kings and Maichou [simple] (Meitei scholars).

The Kingdom of Mongkawng and Mongmao

According to the Tai chronicles, Manipur (Kahse) is one of the territories conquered by Samlongpha (1150–1201), the first Chao Pha of Mongkawng.[49] A 14th-century inscription from Pagan, Myanmar, mentions Kasan (Manipur) as one of the 21 states under the Mong Mao ruler Thonganbwa (1413–1445/6); he later was captured by the Governor of Taungdwingyi.[50]

Medieval

Vassal State of the Toungoo empire

Bayinnaung, the ruler of Toungoo dynasty ordered the invasion of Manipur in 1559. He had recalled Binnya Dala from Chiang Mai to lead the invasion. The three armies mostly made up of army from Kale, Mohnyin, Mogaung, Momeik and Sanda led the invasion, the King of Manipur surrendered without any resistance and Manipur became a vassal state of the Toungoo empire.[51]

 
Toungoo empire in 1580

Vassal state of Konbaung dynasty

In the 18th century, Bodawpaya, the king of Burma acquired the Manipur (1814) along with the western kingdoms of Arakan (1784), Assam (1817).

 
Manipur under the Konbaung dynasty in 1824

By the medieval period, marriage alliances between the royal families of Manipur, Ahom kingdom and Burma had become common.[52] Medieval era manuscripts discovered in the 20th century, particularly the Puya, provide evidence that Hindus from the Indian subcontinent had married Manipur royalty by at least the 14th century. In centuries thereafter, royal spouses came also from what is now Assam, Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh and from other South Indian kingdoms as well.[53] Another manuscript suggests that Muslims arrived in Manipur in the 17th century, from what is now Bangladesh, during the reign of Meidingu Khagemba.[53] The socio-political turmoil and wars, particularly the persistent and devastating Anglo-Burmese wars, affected the cultural and religious demography of Manipur.[54]

British colonial period

Main article: Manipur (princely state)

In 1824, the ruler of Manipur entered into a subsidiary alliance with the British Empire in the Indian subcontinent, which became responsible for Manipur's external defence. The British recognised that the state remained internally self-governing, as a princely state.[55] During World War II, Manipur was the scene of many fierce battles between Japanese invaders and British Indian forces. The Japanese were beaten back before they could enter Imphal, which was one of the turning points of the overall war in South Asia.[56] The Battle of Imphal, known to the Manipuris as Japan Laan, are among the lesser-known battles of the Second World War. Yet the Allied Victory in this battle was a turning point against the Japanese in East Asia.[57][58][59]

Post-colonial history

After the war, the Maharaja took the advice of the British Cabinet Mission and the Chamber of Princes to introduce democratic reforms in the state.[65] The Manipur State Constitution Act of 1947 was promulgated in July 1947 to give the state an elected legislative assembly and an appointed prime minister.[66][67] Elections to the assembly were held only in the following year.[68]

Meanwhile, British India was partitioned into the independent dominions of India and Pakistan, and all the princely states were advised to "accede" to one of the dominions to take over the management of their external affairs and defence. The Maharaja acceded to India on 11 August 1947 and signed a standstill agreement to continue the existing arrangements.[69][70][71][72]

Over the next two years, the multitude of princely states of India were extensively reorganised as India moved towards becoming a constitutional republic. Proposals for reorganisation were also made for Manipur but discarded as being unsuitable.[73][74] Eventually Manipur was turned into a centrally administered province (called a 'Part C' state, later renamed union territory) by asking the Maharaja to sign a merger agreement.[75][76] He is believed to have signed it under duress.[77] The legislative assembly was dissolved and a centrally appointed Chief Commissioner handled the state's administration, as per the Constitution of India. An advisory council with nominated members was provided to advise the Chief Commissioner.[78] In 1956, the advisory council was replaced by a territorial council with mostly elected members.[78][79] In 1963, Manipur was provided a legislative assembly, with a council of ministers headed by a chief minister.[78][80] It was made a fully-fledged state in 1972 by the North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act, 1971.[78][81]

 
Kangla Gate, the west entrance to the Kangla Fort

Manipur has a long record of insurgency and inter-ethnic violence.[82][83] Its first armed opposition group, the United National Liberation Front (UNLF), was founded in 1964 aiming to achieve independence from India and establish Manipur as a new country. Over time, many more groups formed, each with different goals, and deriving support from diverse ethnic groups in Manipur. The People's Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak (PREPAK) was formed in 1977, and the People's Liberation Army (PLA) in 1978, suspected by Human Rights Watch of receiving arms and training from China.[84] In 1980, the Kangleipak Communist Party (KCP) was formed. These groups began a spree of bank robberies and attacks on police officers and government buildings.[84] The state government appealed to the central government in New Delhi for support in combating this violence.[35]

"Disturbed area" designation

From 1980 to 2004, the Indian government referred to Manipur as a disturbed area. This term (designated by the Ministry of Home Affairs or a state governor) refers to a territory where extraordinary laws under the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act can be used. The laws allow the military to treat private and public spaces in the same manner, detain individuals for up to 24 hours with unlimited renewals, perform warrantless searches, and to shoot and kill individuals who break laws, carry weapons, or gather in groups larger than four. Legal immunity applies to the military.[85] Since 1980, the application of AFSPA has been at the heart of concerns about human rights violations in the region, such as arbitrary killings, torture, cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment, and forced disappearances. Its continued application has led to numerous protests, notably the longstanding hunger strike by Irom Sharmila Chanu.[86][87]

In 2004, the government lifted the disturbed status after a violent attack on a local woman. The rape of a Manipuri woman, Thangjam Manorama Devi, by members of the Assam Rifles paramilitary had led to wide protests including a nude protest by the Meira Paibi women's association.[88]

2023 ethnic violence

Main article: 2023 Manipur violence

In May 2023, an ethnic clash between Meitei people and Kuki people led to extensive violence and arson, resulting in 60,000 people displaced from their homes and hundreds more dead and hospitalized.[89] According to data released by Manipur Police, as on September 15, 2023; 175 people have been killed; 1,118 people were injured, and 33 people were missing. 96 bodies remained unclaimed. 5,172 cases of arson including destruction of 4,786 houses and 386 religious places, out of which there were 254 churches and 132 temples, were reported since May. Out of 5,668 arms lost; 1,329 arms, 15,050 ammunition and 400 bombs were recovered.[90][91][92] Indian army troops were deployed to control the situation.[93] International outrage resulted from a report that two Kuki women had been paraded naked and allegedly gang-raped by a mob of Meitei men.[94][95][96]

Geography

 
Loktak Lake, the largest fresh water lake in the state.

The state lies at a latitude of 23°83'N – 25°68'N and a longitude of 93°03'E – 94°78'E. The total area covered by the state is 22,327 km2 (8,621 sq mi). The capital lies in an oval-shaped valley of approximately 700 sq mi (2,000 km2), surrounded by blue mountains, at an elevation of 790 m (2,590 ft) above sea level.[97] The slope of the valley is from north to south. The mountain ranges create a moderate climate, preventing the cold winds from the north from reaching the valley and barring cyclonic storms.[98]

The state is bordered by the Indian states of Nagaland to its north, Mizoram to its south, Assam to its west, and shares an international border with Myanmar to its east.[99]

 
A tree amid Manipur hills.

The state has four major river basins: the Barak River Basin (Barak Valley) to the west, the Manipur River Basin in central Manipur, the Yu River Basin in the east, and a portion of the Lanye River Basin in the north.[100] The water resources of Barak and Manipur river basins are about 1.8487 Mham (million hectare metres). The overall water balance of the state amounts to 0.7236 Mham in the annual water budget.[101] (By comparison, India receives 400 Mham of rain annually.[102])

The Barak River, the largest of Manipur, originates in the Manipur Hills and is joined by tributaries, such as the Irang, Maku, and Tuivai. After its junction with the Tuivai, the Barak River turns north, forms the border with Assam State, and then enters the Cachar Assam just above Lakhipur. The Manipur river basin has eight major rivers: the Manipur, Imphal, Iril, Nambul, Sekmai, Chakpi, Thoubal and Khuga. All these rivers originate from the surrounding hills.[103]

 
Landscape view for dawn at Senapati, Manipur

Almost all the rivers in the valley area are in the mature stage and therefore deposit their sediment load in the Loktak Lake.[97] The rivers draining the Manipur Hills are comparatively young, due to the hilly terrain through which they flow. These rivers are corrosive and become turbulent in the rainy season. Important rivers draining the western area include the Maku, Barak, Jiri, Irang, and Leimatak. Rivers draining the eastern part of the state, the Yu River Basin, include the Chamu, Khunou and other short streams.[103]

Manipur may be characterised as two distinct physical regions: an outlying area of rugged hills and narrow valleys, and the inner area of flat plain, with all associated landforms. These two areas are distinct in physical features and are conspicuous in flora and fauna. The valley region has hills and mounds rising above the flat surface. The Loktak Lake is an important feature of the central plain. The total area occupied by all the lakes is about 600 km2. The altitude ranges from 40 m at Jiribam to 2,994 m at Mount Tempü peak along the border with Nagaland.

The soil cover can be divided into two broad types, viz. the red ferruginous soil in the hill area and the alluvium in the valley. The valley soils generally contain loam, small rock fragments, sand, and sandy clay, and are varied. On the plains, especially flood plains and deltas, the soil is quite thick. The topsoil on the steep slopes is very thin. Soil on the steep hill slopes is subject to high erosion, resulting in gullies and barren rock slopes. The normal pH value ranges from 5.4 to 6.8.[104]

Flora

 
Flowers carpeting the foothills

Natural vegetation occupies an area of about 17,418 km2 (6,725 sq mi),[105] or 77.2% of the total geographical area of the state, and consists of short and tall grasses, reeds and bamboos, and trees. About a third of Manipur's forests are protected: 8.42% of the forested land is categorized under Reserved Forests, and 23.95% under Protected Forests.[106]

There are six major types of forests in Manipur, and 10 subtypes. The six major forest types, according to the state's Forest Department, include Tropical Wet Evergreen Forest, Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests, Sub-Tropical Pine Forest, Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest, Montane Wet Temperate Forest and Sub-alpine Forest.[106]

There are forests of teak, pine, oak, uningthou, leihao, bamboo, and cane. Rubber, tea, coffee, orange, and cardamom are grown in hill areas. Rice is a staple food for Manipuris.[99]

Climate

 
The Dzüko Valley which exists between the boundaries of Manipur and Nagaland has a temperate climate.

Manipur's climate is largely influenced by the topography of the region. Lying 790 metres above sea level, Manipur is wedged among hills on all sides. This northeastern corner of India enjoys a generally amiable climate, though the winters can be chilly. The maximum temperature in the summer months is 32 °C (90 °F). The coldest month is January, and the warmest July.[citation needed]

The state receives an average annual rainfall of 1,467.5 mm (57.78 in) between April and mid-October. Precipitation ranges from light drizzle to heavy downpour. The capital city Imphal receives an annual average of 933 mm (36.7 in). Rainfall in this region is caused by The South Westerly Monsoon picking up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and heading towards the Eastern Himalaya ranges. This normal rainfall pattern of Manipur enriches the soil and much of the agrarian activities are dependent on it as well.

Manipur is already experiencing climate change, especially changes in weather, with both increased variability in rain as well as increasingly severe changes in temperature.[107]

Demographics

Population

Historical population
YearPop.±%
1901284,465—    
1911346,222+21.7%
1921384,016+10.9%
1931445,606+16.0%
1941512,069+14.9%
1951577,635+12.8%
1961780,037+35.0%
19711,072,753+37.5%
19811,420,953+32.5%
19911,837,149+29.3%
20012,293,896+24.9%
20112,855,794+24.5%
Source: Census of India[108]

Manipur had a population of 2,855,794 at the 2011 census.[109] Of this total, 57.2% lived in the valley districts and the remaining 42.8% in the hill districts. The valley (plain) is mainly inhabited by the Meitei speaking population (native Manipuri speakers). The hills are inhabited mainly by several ethno-linguistically diverse tribes belonging to the Nagas, the Kukis and smaller tribal groupings. Naga and Kuki settlements are also found in the valley region, though less in numbers. There are also sizable population of Nepalis, Bengalis, Tamils and Marwaris living in Manipur.[citation needed][verification needed]

The distribution of area, population and density, and literacy rate as per the 2001 Census provisional figures are as below:[citation needed]

Demographics of Manipur (2011)
Total Population 2,855,794
Male Population 1,438,586
Female Population 1,417,208
Rural Population 1,736,236
Urban Population 834,154
Child Sex Ratio 936 female to 1000 male
Density (per km2) 115
Literacy 1,768,181 (85.4%)
Towns 33

People

Main article: Manipuri people

The Meiteis[37] (synonymous to the Manipuris) constitute the majority of the state's population. They inhabit the Imphal Valley. Nagas and Kuki-Zo are the major tribe conglomerates of tribes inhabiting the surrounding hills. The Kuki-Zos consist of several tribes including Gangte, Hmar, Paite, Simte, Sukte, Thadou, Vaiphei, Zou, and some smaller tribes. They speak Kuki-Chin languages and predominate the southern hill districts of Manipur. The prominent Naga tribes are Angami, Kabui, Kacha Naga, Mao, Maram, Poumai, Sema and Tangkhul, each speaking its own language. They predominate the northern hill districts of Manipur. In addition, several smaller tribes that were classified as "Old Kuki" by the British administrators populate Chandel and neighbouring districts. Some of them now classify themselves as Nagas while others retain the Kuki classification.[b][111][112][113]

All Scheduled Tribes Population[114] Percentage

of Total Pop.

Kuki-Zo tribes 448,197 15.7%
Naga tribes 597,017 20.9%
Old Kuki/Naga 101,402 3.6%
Total 1,167,422 40.9%

Languages

Main articles: Languages of India and Meitei language

Languages in Manipur (2011)[115]

  Meitei (53.30%)
  Thadou (9.16%)
  Tangkhul (6.41%)
  Poula (4.74%)
  Kabui (3.83%)
  Mao (3.12%)
  Nepali (2.23%)
  Paite (1.92%)
  Hmar (1.72%)
  Liangmai (1.59%)
  Vaiphei (1.39%)
  Kuki (1.32%)
  Maram (1.12%)
  Bengali (1.07%)
  Anal (0.93%)
  Zou (0.91%)
  Maring (0.90%)
  Other (4.34%)

The official language of the state is Meitei (also known as Manipuri). It is a scheduled language in the Republic of India,[116] and serves as the lingua franca in Manipur.[117]

Other than Meitei language, in Manipur, there is a huge amount of linguistic diversity, as is the case in most of the Northeast India. Almost all of the languages are Sino-Tibetan, with many different subgroups represented. There are multiple Kuki-Chin languages, the largest being Thadou and is spoken in all the hill districts. Another major language family is the Naga languages, like Tangkhul, Poula, Rongmei and Mao. Less than 5% speak Indo-European languages, mostly Nepali and Sylheti (also considered as a dialect of Bengali), which is the major language of Jiribam district.[118]

The Directorate of Language Planning and Implementation (AKA Department of Language Planning and Implementation) of the Government of Manipur works for the development and the promotion of Meitei language and other local vernaculars of Manipur.[119]

Linguistic events

Administrative divisions

Districts

District Population (2011)[120] Area (km2) Density (/km2)
Bishnupur 240,363 496 415
Thoubal 420,517 324 713
Imphal East 452,661 497 555
Imphal West 514,683 519 847
Senapati 354,772 1,573 116
Ukhrul 183,115 2,206 31
Chandel 144,028 2,100 37
Churachandpur 271,274 2,392 50
Tamenglong 140,143 3,315 25
Jiribam 43,818 182 190
Kangpokpi 1,698
Kakching 135,481 190
Tengnoupal 1,213
Kamjong 45,616 2,338 23
Noney 1,076
Pherzawl 47,250 2,128 21

Subdivisions

Districts Subdivisions
Bishnupur Nambol, Moirang, Bishnupur
Thoubal Thoubal, Lilong
Imphal East Porompat, Keirao Bitra, Sawombung
Imphal West Lamshang, Patsoi, Lamphelpat, Wangoi
Senapati Tadubi, Paomata, Purul, Willong, Chilivai Phaibung, Songsong, Lairouching
Ukhrul Ukhrul, Lungchong Maiphai, Chingai, Jessami
Chandel Chandel, Chakpikarong, Khengjoy
Churachandpur churchandpur, Tuiboung, Sangaikot, Mualnuam, Singngat, Henglep, Suangdoh, Kangvai, Samulamlan, Saikot
Tamenglong Tamenglong, Tamei, Tousem
Jiribam Jiribam, Borobekra
Kangpokpi (Sadar Hills) Kangpokpi, Champhai, Saitu Gamphazol, Kangchup Geljang, Tuijang Waichong, Saikul, Lhungtin Island, Bungte Chiru
Kakching Kakching, Waikhong
Tengnoupal Machi, Moreh, Tengnoupal
Kamjong Kamjong, Kasom Khullen, Sahamphung, Phungyar
Noney Nungba, Khoupum, Longmai, Haochong
Pherzawl Pherzawl, Parbung Tipaimukh, Vangai Range, Thanlon

Religion

Religion in Manipur (2011)[121]

  Hinduism (41.39%)
  Christianity (41.29%)
  Islam (8.40%)
  Buddhism (0.25%)
  Jainism (0.06%)
  Sikhism (0.05%)
  Other religion (8.19%)
  No religion (0.38%)

Hinduism and Christianity are the major religions practiced in Manipur. Between the 1961 and 2011 censuses of India, the share of Hindus in the state declined from 62% to 41%, while the share of Christians rose from 19% to 41%.[122] The religious groups of the Meitei-speaking people include Hindus, Sanamahists, Meitei Christians and Meitei Pangals. Besides these, the non Meitei-speaking communities (tribals) are mostly Christians.

Hinduism

Further information: Hinduism in Manipur and Meitei Hindus
 
Ningthoukhong Gopinath Temple

The Meitei ethnicity (aka Manipuri people) is the majority group following Hinduism in Manipur, beside other minor immigrants following the same faith in the state. Among the indigenous communities of Manipur, Meiteis are the only Hindus as no other indigenous ethnic groups follow this faith. According to the 2011 Census of India, about 41.39% of the Manipuri people practice Hinduism. The Hindu population is heavily concentrated in the Meitei dominant areas of the Manipur Valley (Imphal Valley), among the Meitei people. The districts of Bishnupur, Thoubal, Imphal East, and Imphal West all have Hindu majorities, averaging 67.62% (range 62.27–74.81%) according to the 2011 census data.[121]

Vaishnavite Hinduism was the state religion of the Kingdom of Manipur. In 1704, Meitei King Charairongba accepted Vaishnavism and changed his traditional Meitei name into Hindu name, Pitambar Singh.[123] However, the first Hindu temples were constructed much earlier. A copper plate excavated from Phayeng dating back to 763 CE (believed to be of the reign of Meitei King Khongtekcha) was found to contain inscriptions about the Hindu deities in Sanskrit words.[124] During the 13th century, Meitei King Khumomba constructed a Lord Hanuman temple.[125] The Vishnu temple at Lamangdong was constructed during 1474 CE (during the reign of Meitei King Kiyamba), by Brahmins immigrating from the neighborhood Shan State. As per the legends, the temple was constructed to house the Vishnu emblem given to King Kiyamba by King Khekhomba of Shan. Phurailatpam Shubhi Narayan was the first Brahmin priest of this temple.[126]

Christianity

Main articles: Christianity in Manipur and Meitei Christians
 
St. Joseph's Cathedral at Imphal

Christianity is the religion of 41% of the people in the state, but is the majority in rural areas with 53%, and is predominant in the hills. It was brought by Protestant missionaries to Manipur in the 19th century. In the 20th century, a few Christian schools were established, which introduced Western-type education. Christianity is the predominant religion among tribals of Manipur and tribal Christians make up the vast majority (over 96%) of the Christian population in Manipur.[127]

Islam

Main article: Meitei Pangals

The Meitei Pangals (Meitei: ꯃꯩꯇꯩ ꯄꯥꯡꯒꯜ), also known as Meitei Muslims or Manipuri Muslims, are the third largest religious majority group in the state, comprising about 8.3% of the state population. They belong to the Sunni group of the Hanafi school of Islamic thought and they include Arabs, Bangladeshis, Turanis, Bengalis and Chaghtai Turks.[128]

Sanamahism

Main article: Sanamahism
 
The symbol of Sanamahism religion, the indigenous ethnic religion of the Meitei people.
 
A reconstructed ancient temple dedicated to Meitei God Pakhangba of Sanamahism inside the Kangla Fort, Imphal

Sanamahism is the indigenous, polytheistic and animistic ethnic religion of the Meitei people.[129] Sanamahist worship concentrates on the household deity Lainingthou Sanamahi. The ancient Meiteis worshiped a Supreme deity, Salailen, and followed their ancestors. Their ancestor worship and animism was based on Umang Lai – ethnic governing deities worshiped in the sacred groves. Some of the traditional Meitei deities, or Lais are Atiya Sidaba, Pakhangba, Sanamahi, and Panthoibi. Out of the 233,767 people who opted for the "Other religion" option, 222,315 were Sanamahists.[citation needed]

Other religions

The various other religions were mostly followers of tribal folk religions, 6,444 were Heraka, 2,032 were Jewish and 1,180 were from other tribal religions such as Tingkao Ragwang Chapriak.[citation needed]

Government

Main articles: Government of Manipur and Manipur Legislative Assembly
 
The emblem of the Government of Manipur depicts Kangla Sha (Kangla Sa), an ancient Meitei deity, and a Meitei language text written in Meitei script

The government of Manipur is a collective assembly of 60 elected members, of which 19 are reserved for Scheduled Tribes and 1 for Scheduled Castes.[130] The state sends two representatives to the Lok Sabha of the Parliament of India. The state sends one representative to the Rajya Sabha. The legislature of the state is Unicameral.[131] Representatives are elected for a five-year term to the state assembly and the Indian parliament through voting, a process overseen by the offices of the Election Commission of India.[132]

The state has one autonomous council.

Civil unrest

Social movements

There were many public movements in Manipur against the government:

Security and insurgency

Further information: Insurgency in Manipur, Human rights abuses in Manipur, and Thangjam Manorama § Protests against the AFSPA
 
Irom Chanu Sharmila, the world's longest hunger striker, who hunger striked for more than 500 weeks, demanding the repealing of the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958 in Manipur[133]

The violence in Manipur extends beyond the conflict between Indian security forces and insurgent armed groups. There is violence between the Meitei ethnicity, various Naga tribes, various Kuki tribes, and other tribal groups.[35]

Splinter groups have arisen within some of the armed groups, and disagreement between them is rife. Other than the UNLF, PLA, and PREPAK, Manipuri insurgent groups include the Revolutionary Peoples Front (RPF), Manipur Liberation Front Army (MLFA), Kanglei Yawol Kanba Lup (KYKL), Revolutionary Joint Committee (RJC), Kangleipak Communist Party (KCP), Peoples United Liberation Front (PULF), Manipur Naga People Front (MNPF), National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN-K), National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN-I/M), United Kuki Liberation Front (UKLF), Kuki National Front (KNF), Kuki National Army (KNA), Kuki Defence Force (KDF), Kuki Democratic Movement (KDM), Kuki National Organisation (KNO), Kuki Security Force (KSF), Chin Kuki Revolutionary Front (CKRF), Kom Rem Peoples Convention (KRPC), Zomi Revolutionary Volunteers (ZRV), Zomi Revolutionary Army (ZRA), Zomi Reunification Organisation (ZRO), and Hmar Peoples Convention (HPC).[134][35]

The Meitei insurgent groups seek independence from India. The Kuki insurgent groups want a separate state for the Kukis to be carved out from the present state of Manipur. The Kuki insurgent groups are under two umbrella organisations: the Kuki National Organisation (KNO) and United Peoples Forum.[135] The Nagas wish to annex part of Manipur and merge with a greater Nagaland or Nagalim, which is in conflict with Meitei insurgent demands for the integrity of their vision of an independent state. There have been many tensions between the tribes and numerous clashes between Naga and Kukis, Meiteis and Muslims.[35]

According to SATP in 2014, there had been a dramatic decline in fatalities in Manipur since 2009. In 2009, 77 civilians died (about 3 per 100,000 people).[36] From 2010 onward, about 25 civilians have died in militant-related violence (about 1 per 100,000 people), dropping further to 21 civilian deaths in 2013 (or 0.8 per 100,000 people). However, there were 76 explosions in 2013 compared to 107 in 2012. Different groups have claimed responsibility for the explosions, some claiming they were targeting competing militant groups, others claiming their targets were state and central government officials.[136] As a point of comparison, the average annual global rate of violent death between 2004 and 2009 was 7.9 per 100,000 people.[137]

Economy

 
Bamboo is common in Manipur, and an important contributor to its economy as well as cuisine. Above is soibum yendem eromba, a bamboo shoot dish of Manipur.

The 2012–2013 gross state domestic product of Manipur at market prices was about ₹10,188 crore (US$1.2 billion).[138] Its economy is primarily agriculture, forestry, cottage and trade driven.[139] Manipur acts as India's "Gateway to the East" through Moreh and Tamu towns, the land route for trade between India and Burma and other countries in Southeast Asia, East Asia, Siberia, the Arctic, Micronesia and Polynesia. Manipur has the highest number of handicraft units and the highest number of craftspersons in the northeastern region of India.[140]

Electricity

Manipur produced about 0.1 GWh (0.36 TJ) of electricity in 2010 with its infrastructure.[141] The state has hydroelectric power generation potential, estimated to be over 2 GWh (7.2 TJ). As of 2010, if half of this potential is realised, it is estimated that this would supply 24/7 electricity to all residents, with a surplus for sale, as well as supplying the Burma power grid.[142]

Agriculture

Manipur's climate and soil conditions make it ideally suited for horticultural crops. Growing there are rare and exotic medicinal and aromatic plants.[140] Some cash crops suited for Manipur include Lychee, Cashew, Walnut, Orange, Lemon, Pineapple, Papaya, Passion Fruit, Peach, Pear and Plum.[139] The state is covered with over 3,000 km2 (1,200 sq mi) of bamboo forests, making it one of India's largest contributor to its bamboo industry.[140]

Agriculture in Manipur includes a number of smallholding farms, many of whom are owned by women.[143] Climate change, especially changes in temperature and weather are hurting small farmers in the state.[144] Like rural women in other parts of the world, women in agriculture in Manipur are harmed more by the changes in weather, because of less access to support from local governments.[143]

Transportation infrastructure

 
Imphal airport is the second largest airport in India's northeast.

Tulihal Airport, Changangei, Imphal, the only airport of Manipur, connects directly with Delhi, Kolkata, Guwahati, and Agartala. It has been upgraded to an international airport. As India's second largest airport in the northeast, it serves as a key logistical centre for northeastern states. The Tulihal Airport has been renamed Bir Tikendrajit Airport.[42] National Highway NH-39 links Manipur with the rest of the country through the railway stations at Dimapur in Nagaland at a distance of 215 km (134 mi) from Imphal.[citation needed][verification needed]

National Highway 53 (India) connects Manipur with another railway station at Silchar in Assam, which is 269 km (167 mi) away from Imphal. The road network of Manipur, with a length of 7,170 km (4,460 mi) connects all the important towns and distant villages. However, the road condition throughout the state is often deplorable.[145][146] In 2010, Indian government announced that it is considering an Asian infrastructure network from Manipur to Vietnam.[147] The proposed Trans-Asian Railway (TAR), if constructed, will pass through Manipur, connecting India to Burma, Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore.

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in North East India

The tourist season is from October to February when it is often sunny without being hot and humid.[citation needed] The culture features martial arts, dance, theatre and sculpture. Greenery accompanies a moderate climate. The seasonal Shirui Lily plant at Ukhrul (district), Dzüko Valley at Senapati, Sangai (Brow antlered deer) and the floating islands at Loktak Lake are among the rarities of the area. Polo, which can be called a royal game, originated in Manipur.

UNESCO list

The Keibul Lamjao National Park (KLNP), which is the world's only floating national park, located in the Loktak lake,[148][149] is under the tentative lists of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites, under the title "Keibul Lamjao Conservation Area (KLCA)", additionally covering the buffer of Loktak Lake (140 sq km) and Pumlen Pat (43 sq. km), besides the 40 sq km of the KLNP.[150][151]

The Kangla (officially called the Kangla Fort), which was the historic seat of administration of the Meitei rulers of Manipur Kingdom, is also moved in the Indian Parliament, to be included in the UNESCO World Heritage Site list.[152][153]

Imphal (capital)

 
A view of Imphal City

The city is inhabited by the Meitei people and other communities. The city contains the Tulihal Airport. The district is divided into East and West. The Khuman Lampak Sports Complex was built for the 1997 National Games. The stadium is used for a sports venue. It also contains a cyclists' velodrome. Most of the imported goods are sold at Paona Bazaar, Gambhir Singh Shopping Complex and Leima Plaza. Kangla Fort, Marjing Polo Statue, Sanamahi Kiyong, Ima Market, Samban-Lei Sekpil, Shree Govindajee Temple, Andro village, and Manipur State Museum are in the city.

Lakes and islands

 
 
 
Rare birds and flowers include: Nongin[154] is the state bird (top) and Siroi Lily[155] is its state flower (middle). Leimaram falls, bottom, is a local attraction.

48 km (30 mi) from Imphal, lies the largest fresh water lake in northeast India, the Loktak Lake, a miniature inland sea. There is a tourist bungalow atop Sendra Island. Life on the lake includes small islands that are floating weed on which live the lake people, the blue waters of the lake, and colourful water plants. There is a Sendra tourist home with an attached cafeteria in the middle of the lake. Floating islands are made out of the tangle of watery weeds and other plants. The wetland is swampy and is favourable for a number of species. It is in the district of Bishnupur. The etymology of Loktak is "lok = stream / tak = the end" (End of the Streams).[97] Sendra park and resort is opening on the top of Sendra hills and attracting the tourist.

Hills and valleys

Kaina is a hillock about 921 m (3,022 ft) above sea level. It is a sacred place for Manipuri Hindus. The legend is that, Shri Govindajee appeared in the dream of his devotee, Shri Jai Singh Maharaja, and asked the saintly king to install in a temple, an image of Shri Govindajee. It was to be carved out of a jack fruit tree, which was then growing at Kaina. It is 29 km (18 mi) from Imphal. The Dzüko Valley is in Senapati district bordering with Kohima. There are seasonal flowers and number of flora and fauna. It is at an altitude of 2,438 m (7,999 ft) above sea level, behind Mount Japfü in Nagaland. The rare Dzüko lily is found only in this valley.[citation needed]

Eco tourism

 
Sangai, the state animal, at Keibul Lamjao National Park. In the wild, it has a habit of waiting and looking back at viewers.[156]

Keibul Lamjao National Park, 48 km (30 mi) away from Imphal is an abode of the rare and endangered species of brow antlered deer. This ecosystem contains 17 rare species of mammals.[97] It is the only floating national park of the world.[157][citation needed] Six km (3.7 mi) to the west of Imphal, at the foot of the pine growing hillocks at Iroisemba on the Imphal-Kangchup Road are the Zoological Gardens. Some brow antlered deer (Sangai) are housed there.

Waterfalls

Sadu Chiru waterfall is near Ichum Keirap village[158] 27 km (17 mi) from Imphal, in the Sadar hill area, Senapati district. This consists of three falls with the first fall about 30 m (98 ft) high. Agape Park is in the vicinity.

Natural caves

Thalon Cave (around 910 m (2,990 ft) above sea level) is one of the historical sites of Manipur under Tamenglong district. It is around 185 km (115 mi) from the state capital and around 30 km (19 mi) from Tamenglong district headquarters in north side. From Thalon village, this cave is 4–5 km (2.5–3.1 mi).[159] Khangkhui Cave is a natural limestone cave in Ukhrul district. The big hall in the cave is the darbar hall of the Devil King living deep inside while the northern hall is the royal bedroom, according to local folklore. During World War II, villagers sought shelter here. This cave is an hour's trek from Khangkui village.[160]

Education

See also: List of institutions of higher education in Manipur
 
The Sanamahi Kiyong shrine is the central body of the University of Sanamahi Culture in the Nongmaiching Ching mountain.

Manipur schools are run by the state and central government or by private organisation. Instruction is mainly in English. Under the 10+2+3 plan, students may enroll in general or professional degree programs after passing the Higher Secondary Examination (the grade 12 examination). The main universities are Manipur University, Central Agricultural University, National Institute of Technology, Manipur, Indian Institute of Information Technology, Manipur, Jawaharlal Nehru Institute of Medical Sciences, Regional Institute of Medical Sciences and Indira Gandhi National Tribal University.

Manipur is home to India's first floating elementary school: Loktak Elementary Floating School in Loktak Lake.

Transportation

Further information: India–Myanmar–Thailand Trilateral Highway
 
Manipur serves as the passing point of the India–Myanmar–Thailand Trilateral Highway, having Imphal-Mandalay-Bangkok route with a distance of 1,813 km (1,127 miles) to improve the ASEAN–India Free Trade Area.
 
National Highway 150 in Imphal

Air

Bir Tikendrajit International Airport is situated in the capital Imphal which connects direct flights from Imphal to Kolkata, Guwahati, New Delhi, Bangalore and Agartala.

Roadways

Manipur is connected to all its neighbouring states with National Highways.

Rail

Manipur has one operational railway station, Jiribam. Imphal railway station, is an under-construction railway station in Imphal, the capital of Manipur.

Art and culture

Main articles: Art and culture of Manipur and Art forms of Manipur
Further information: Meitei architecture, Meitei culture, Meitei dances, Meitei mythology, Meitei festivals, Meitei folklore, Meitei folktales, Meitei religion, and Meitei literature

Secular theatre is mostly confined to themes that are not religious; it is performed in the secular or profane spheres. In these are Shumang lila and Phampak lila (stage drama). Shumang lila is very popular. Etymologically Shumang lila is the combination of "Shumang" (courtyard) and "Lila" (play or performance). It is performed in an area of 13×13 ft in the centre of any open space, in a very simple style without a raised stage, set design, or heavy props such as curtains, background scenery, and visual effects. It uses one table and two chairs, kept on one side of the performance space. Its claim as the "theatre of the masses" is underlined by the way it is performed in the middle of an audience that surrounds it, leaving one passage as entrance and exit.[citation needed]

The world of Phampak lila (stage drama) performed in the proscenium theatre is similar, in form, to the Western theatrical model and Indian Natyasastra model though its contents are indigenous. The so-called modern theatre descended on Manipur theatre culture with the performance of Pravas Milan (1902) under the enthusiastic patronage of Sir Churchand Maharaj (1891–1941). The pace of theatrical movement was geared up with the institution of groups such as Manipur Dramatic Union (MDU) (1930), Arian Theatre (1935), Chitrangada Natya Mandir (1936), Society Theatre (1937), Rupmahal (1942), Cosmopolitan Dramatic Union (1968), and the Chorus Repertory Theatre of Ratan Thiyam (1976).[citation needed] These groups started experimenting with types of plays apart from historical and Puranic ones. Today Manipur theatre is well respected because of excellent productions shown in India and abroad. Manipur plays, both Shumang lila and stage lila, have been a regular feature in the annual festival of the National School of Drama, New Delhi.[citation needed]

Iskcon led by Bhaktisvarupa Damodara Swami started a network of schools in Northeastern India, where more than 4,000 students receive education centred on Vaishnava spiritual values. In 1989 he founded "Ranganiketan Manipuri Cultural Arts Troupe", which has approximately 600 performances at over 300 venues in over 15 countries. Ranganiketan (literally "House of Colorful Arts") is a group of more than 20 dancers, musicians, singers, martial artists, choreographers, and craft artisans.[citation needed] Some of them have received international acclaim.

Manipur dance (Ras Lila)

Main article: Manipuri dance
 
The Shrine – the main theatre

Manipuri dance also known as Jagoi,[161] is one of the major Indian classical dance forms,[162] named after the state of Manipur.[163][164] It is particularly known for its Hindu Vaishnavism themes, and exquisite performances of love-inspired dance drama of Radha-Krishna called Raslila.[163][161][165] However, the dance is also performed to themes related to Shaivism, Shaktism and regional deities such as Umang Lai during Lai Haraoba.[166][167] The roots of Manipur dance, as with all classical Indian dances, is the ancient Hindu Sanskrit text Natya Shastra, but with influences from the culture fusion between India and Southeast Asia, East Asia, Siberia, Micronesia and Polynesia.[168]

Chorus Repertory Theatre

The auditorium of the theatre is on the outskirts of Imphal and the campus stretches for about 2 acres (8,100 m2). It has housing and working quarters to accommodate self-sufficiency of life. The theatre association has churned out internationally acclaimed plays like Chakravyuha and Uttarpriyadashi. Its 25 years of existence in theatre had disciplined its performers to a world of excellence. Chakravyuha taken from the Mahabharat epic had won Fringe Firsts Award, 1987 at the Edinburgh International Theater Festival. Chakravyuha deals with the story of Abhimanyu (son of Arjun) of his last battle and approaching death, whereas Uttarpriyadashi is an 80-minute exposition of Emperor Ashoka's redemption.[citation needed]

Sports

Main articles: Sports in Manipur, Khong kangjei, Mukna, and Polo
 
Marjing Polo Statue, the world's tallest polo player statue, standing inside the Marjing Polo Complex, dedicated to God Marjing, the Meitei deity of polo, in the Heingang Ching

Mukna is a popular form of wrestling.[169] Mukna Kangjei, or Khong Kangjei, is a game which combines the arts of mukna (wrestling hockey) and Kangjei (Cane Stick) to play the ball made of seasoned bamboo roots.[170][171]

Yubi lakpi is a traditional full contact game played in Manipur, India, using a coconut, which has some notable similarities to rugby.[171] Yubi lakpi literally means "coconut snatching". The coconut is greased to make it slippery. There are rules of the game, as with all Manipur sports.[172] The coconut serves the purpose of a ball and is offered to the king, the chief guest or the judges before the game begins. The aim is to run while carrying the greased coconut and physically cross over the goal line, while the other team tackles and blocks any such attempt as well as tries to grab the coconut and score on its own. In Manipur's long history, Yubi lakpi was the annual official game, attended by the king, over the Hindu festival of Shree Govindajee.[173] It is like the game of rugby,[174] or American football.[175]

Oolaobi (Woo-Laobi) is an outdoor game mainly played by females. Meitei mythology believes that UmangLai Heloi-Taret (seven deities–seven fairies) played this game on the Courtyard of the temple of Umang Lai Lairembi. The number of participants is not fixed but are divided into two groups (size as per agreement). Players are divided as into Raiders (Attackers) or Defenders (Avoiders).[171] Hiyang Tannaba, also called Hi Yangba Tanaba, is a traditional boat rowing race and festivity of the Panas.[171]

Polo

 
 
The rules-based Polo game in 19th century Manipur (above), and modern Polo in the 21st century.

The origin of modern polo can be traced to Manipur where the world's oldest polo ground lies, Imphal Polo Ground.[176][177] Captain Robert Stewart and Lieutenant Joseph Sherer[178] of the British colonial era first watched locals play a rules-based pulu or sagolkangjei (literally, horse and stick) game in 1859. They adopted its rules, calling the game polo, and playing it on their horses. The game spread among the British in Calcutta and then to England.[44][179]

Apart from these games, some outdoor children's games are fading in popularity. Some games such as Khutlokpi, Phibul Thomba, and Chaphu Thugaibi remain very popular elsewhere, such as in Cambodia. They are played especially during the Khmer New Year.[180]

First of its kind in India, National Sports University will be constructed in Manipur.[181]

Festivals

 
The Lai Haraoba, a dance festival showcases the folk dances of Manipur.

The festivals of Manipur are Lui-ngai-ni Ningol Chakouba, Shirui Lily festival, Yaoshang, Gan-ngai, Chumpha, Cheiraoba, Kang and Heikru Hidongba, as well as the broader religious festivals Eid-Ul-Fitr, Eid-Ul-Adha and Christmas. Most of these festivals are celebrated on the basis of the lunar calendar. Almost every festival celebrated in other states of India is observed.

On 21 November 2017, the Sangai Festival 2017 was inaugurated by President Ram Nath Kovind in Manipur. Held for 10 days, the festival is named after Manipur's state animal, the brow-antlered Sangai deer. The Sangai Festival showcases the tourism potential of Manipur in the field of arts and culture, handloom, handicrafts, indigenous sports, cuisine, music and adventure sports.

Sangai festival

This section is an excerpt from Sangai Festival.[edit]
 
Sangai Deer Replica at Sangai Festival Manipur
 
Ram Nath Kovind at the inaugural event of ‘Manipur Sangai Festival 2017’
 
Narendra Modi giving an address at the closing function of the Sangai Festival, 2014
Sangai Festival (Meitei: Sangai Kumhei) is an annual cultural festival organised by Manipur Tourism Department every year from 21 to 30 November.[182] Even though many editions of this Festival has been celebrated over the past few years with the name of Tourism Festival, since 2010 this has been renamed as the Sangai Festival to stage the uniqueness of the shy and gentle brow-antlered deer popularly known as the Sangai, a regional name given to this rare species of deer. It is the state animal of Manipur. As this festival is being celebrated to promote Manipur as a world class tourism destination, it showcases the states contributions to art and culture, handloom, handicrafts, fine arts, indigenous sports, cuisine, music and adventure sports, as well as the natural environment.[183] it is celebrated in different parts mainly in the valley areas of imphal. Many tourists come from all over the world and represent their craft making. Many people have also started to talk about the way Sangai festival is celebrated. They say that it should be celebrated only in one place with a proper arrangement and with big budget so that this festival grows more bigger and unique and spread all over the world.

Ningol Chakouba

Held on 9 November,[184] this is a social festival of the Meitei people of Manipur where married women (Ningol) are invited (Chakouba, literally calling to a meal; for dinner or lunch) to a feast at their parental house accompanied by their children. Besides the feast, gifts are given to the women/invitees and to their children. It is the festival that binds and revives the family relations between the women married away and the parental family. Nowadays, other communities have started celebrating this kind of a family-bonding festival.

Kut

Held after the Harvest festival in November,[185][186] this festival predominantly celebrated by Kuki-Chin-Mizo tribes in Manipur has become one of the leading festivals of the state. Kut is not restricted to a community or tribe — the whole state populace participates in merriment. On 1 November of every year, the state declared holiday for Kut celebration.

Yaosang

Main article: Yaosang

Held in February or March,[187] Yaosang is considered to be one of the biggest festivals of Manipur. It is the Holi festival (festival of colour) but Yaosang is the regional name given by the people of Manipur.

Khuado Pawi

Khuado Pawi is the harvest festival of the Tedim people who were recognised as Sukte and Zomi in India and Myanmar respectively. The word Pawi means festival in Tedim Zomi language. It is celebrated every year in the month of September–October after harvesting.[188]

 
Cheiraoba is a celebration of the new year during the spring season. People feast (top), then climb up a hill together later in the day to signify overcoming hurdles and reaching new heights in the new year.[175]

Cheiraoba

Main article: Sajibu Nongma Panba

Also known as Sajibugi Nongma Panba and held in March or April, Cheiraoba is the new year of Manipur.[175] It is observed on the first lunar day of the lunar month Sajibu (March/April) and so it is also popularly known as Sajibu Cheiraoba. People of Manipur immaculate and decorate their houses and make a sumptuous variety of dishes to feast upon after offering food to the deity on this day. After the feast, as a part of the ritual, people climb hilltops; in the belief that it would excel them to greater heights in their worldly life.[175]

Notable people

See also: List of Meitei people, List of Naga people, List of Naga politicians, and List of Meitei people

Geographical indication

Chak-Hao (Black rice)

Chak-Hao was awarded the Geographical Indication (GI) status tag from the Geographical Indications Registry, under the Union Government of India, on 20 April 2020 and is valid until 25 December 2027.[143][189]

Consortium of Producers of Chak-Hao (Black Rice) from Imphal, proposed the GI registration of Chak-Hao. After filing the application in December 2017, the rice was granted the GI tag in 2020 by the Geographical Indication Registry in Chennai, making the name "Chak-Hao" exclusive to the rice grown in the region. It thus became the first rice variety from Manipur and Nagaland. It also is the 5th type of goods from Manipur and 4th from Nagaland to earn the GI tag respectively.[190]

The GI tag protects the rice from illegal selling and marketing, and gives it legal protection and a unique identity.

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ Kangleipak is a popular historical as well as present day endonym of Manipur. In the 18th century, the Meitei language term Kangleipak was replaced by the Sanskrit term Manipur, but the name Kangleipak is still a popular endonym of the land in Meitei (officially known as Manipuri), the sole official language of Manipur.
  2. ^ The Old Kuki tribes retaining the Kuki classification include: Aimol, Chiru, Kom, Koireng, Kharam, and Ralte. The tribes under the Naga umbrella include: Anal, Chothe, Koirao, Lamkang, Maring, Moyon, Monsang, Purum and Tarao.[110]

References

  1. ^ "'Sana Leibak Manipur' adopted as State Song by Cabinet". 12 August 2021.
  2. ^ Banerjee, S. K. (1958). "Manipur State Constitution Act, 1947". The Indian Journal of Political Science. 19 (1): 35–38. ISSN 0019-5510. JSTOR 42748891. Manipur became independent with the lapse of paramountcy. Later, Manipur merged with India in 1949
  3. ^ Devi, Dr S. Jayalaxmi; Singh, Dr W. Dhiren; Devi, Dr Th Mina (23 December 2019). "Bir Tikendrajit Singh: The Unsung Hero Of Northeast India". Think India Journal. 22 (14): 9683–9690. ISSN 0971-1260. Manipur had enjoyed sovereign status until it was occupied by the British in 1891
  4. ^ Hanjabam, Shukhdeba Sharma (1 April 2008). "The Meitei upsurge in Manipur". Asia Europe Journal. 6 (1): 157–169. doi:10.1007/s10308-007-0167-6. ISSN 1612-1031.
  5. ^ Subramanian, K. S. (5 October 2015). State, Policy and Conflicts in Northeast India. Routledge & CRC Press. pp. 31–32. ISBN 978-1-317-39651-2. With the lapse of British paramountcy in 1947, the state reverted to its pre-1891 autonomy...
  6. ^ SINHA, L. P. (1987). "The Politics and Government of Manipur". The Indian Journal of Political Science. 48 (4): 487–493. ISSN 0019-5510. JSTOR 41855332.
  7. ^ BJP leader Biren Singh sworn in as Manipur Chief Minister Archived 15 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, India Today (15 March 2017)
  8. ^ "Primary Census Abstract Data Tables (India & States/UTs - District Level)". Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India. Archived from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 8 April 2022.
  9. ^ "Manipur Population Sex Ratio in Manipur Literacy rate data". census2011.co.in. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
  10. ^ "Sub-national HDI - Subnational HDI - Global Data Lab". globaldatalab.org. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
  11. ^ "State Fishes of India" (PDF). National Fisheries Development Board, Government of India. Retrieved 25 December 2020.
  12. ^ "Manipur". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 16 May 2021.
  13. ^ "Manipur". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster.
  14. ^ a b Sanajaoba, Naorem (1988). Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization. Mittal Publications. p. 89. ISBN 978-81-7099-853-2.
  15. ^ Yamahata, Chosein (2022). Social Transformations in India, Myanmar, and Thailand: Identity and Grassroots for Democratic Progress. Springer Nature. p. 242. ISBN 978-981-16-7110-4.
  16. ^ Sahoo, Ajaya K. (30 March 2021). Routledge Handbook of Asian Diaspora and Development. Routledge. p. 121. ISBN 978-1-000-36686-0.
  17. ^ Manipur: Treatise & Documents, Volume 1, ISBN 978-8170993995, Introduction
  18. ^ "Manipuri language". Britannica. Retrieved 9 July 2022.
  19. ^ Naorem Sanajaoba (editor), Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization, Volume 4, Chapter 1: NK Singh, ISBN 978-8170998532
  20. ^ Naorem Sanajaoba (editor), Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization, Volume 4, Chapter 4: K Murari, ISBN 978-8170998532
  21. ^ "Trade connection of Manipur with Southeast Asia in Pre British period Part 2 by Budha Kamei".
  22. ^ Naorem Sanajaoba (Editor), Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization, Volume 4, Chapter 2: NT Singh, ISBN 978-8170998532
  23. ^ Sanatomba, Interrogation into the political status of Manipur (2015), pp. 172–193: "Furthermore, Section 9(b) of the Manipur State Constitution Act, 1947, would certainly dispel any doubt about the titular status of the Maharaja, which was expressedly stated thus: ‘The Maharaja means His Highness, the Maharaja of Manipur, the constitutional head of the state.’ The Maharaja in his capacity as the constitutional ruler could not execute the Instrument without proper authorisation and constitutional endorsement. This was simply on account of the fact that he was not a sovereign ruler and that Manipur was not a sovereign state then. Therefore, the act of signing the Instrument of Accession on 11 August 1947 by the Maharaja could not be considered an Act of the State. Hence, the Instrument was deemed null and void right from the moment it was executed... For example, the Indian Dominion had never existed on or before 11 August 1947. Being so, it can be aptly said that the Maharaja acceded to a political non-entity. Therefore, it can be claimed that the Instrument was never executed in actuality. It was simply pre-judicial to execute the Instrument between two political entities which were yet to be born."
  24. ^ Banerjee, S. K. (1958). "Manipur State Constitution Act, 1947". The Indian Journal of Political Science. 19 (1): 35–38. ISSN 0019-5510. JSTOR 42748891.
  25. ^ Khomdom, Lisam (5 July 2018). "Manipur State Constitution Act-1947 A Cure for all myriads of ailments in Manipur ?". E- Pao.
  26. ^ Why Pre-Merger Political Status for Manipur: Under the Framework of the Instrument of Accession, 1947, Research and Media Cell, CIRCA, 2018, p. 26, GGKEY:8XLWSW77KUZ
  27. ^ Sudhirkumar Singh, Socio-religious and Political Movements 2011, Chapter 6, p. 139
  28. ^ Sanatomba, Interrogating into the Political Status (2015), p. 210: "The Maharaja refused to sign the Merger Agreement without consulting his Council of Ministers and conveyed his desire to return to Manipur to obtain the approval of the people. Rejecting such a reasonable proposal, Nari Rustomji, Advisor to the Governor of Assam, suggested that the Maharaja might as well finalise the merger issue during that current visit only.. (Singh 1988: 106)"
  29. ^ Akoijam, A. Bimol (2001). "How History Repeats Itself". Economic and Political Weekly. 36 (30): 2807–2812. ISSN 0012-9976. JSTOR 4410908. When maharaja Bodhchandra resisted the move to merge Manipur with the Indian union saying that he was only a constitutional monarch and he needed to consult his elected members of the state assembly, the representatives of the union government informed him that the GoI did not recognise the assembly
  30. ^ Phanjoubam, Pradip (14 December 2015). The Northeast Question: Conflicts and frontiers. Routledge. pp. 204–207. ISBN 978-1-317-34004-1. after six days of 'per-suasion', made to sign the Merger Agreement, thereby formally merging Manipur with the Union of India. Repeated pleas by the king that it was his desire to ultimately sign the agreement, but he be first allowed to go home and consult his assembly was turned down...
  31. ^ Adrija, Roychowdhury (26 August 2023). "How Manipur merged with India: From a constitutional monarchy to Part C state". The Indian Express.
  32. ^ U. B. Singh, India Fiscal Federalism in Indian Union (2003), p. 135
  33. ^ K.R. Dikshit; Jutta K Dikshit (2013). North-East India: Land, People and Economy. Springer Science. p. 56. ISBN 978-94-007-7055-3.
  34. ^ Kalpana Kannabiran; Ranbir Singh (2008). Challenging The Rules(s) of Law. SAGE Publications. p. 264. ISBN 978-81-321-0027-0.
  35. ^ a b c d e "Background: Conflict in Manipur" Archived 24 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine Human Rights Watch (2008)
  36. ^ a b State wise Indian fatalities, 1994-2013 Archived 15 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine Militancy and Terrorism Database, SATP, New Delhi
  37. ^ a b Khomdan Singh Lisam, Encyclopaedia Of Manipur, ISBN 978-8178358642, pp. 322–347
  38. ^ "Census of India Website: Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India".
  39. ^ a b "Population by religion community - 2011". Census of India, 2011. The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Archived from the original on 25 August 2015.
  40. ^ "Hueiyen Lanpao | Official Website Manipur Daily". Retrieved 29 May 2016.
  41. ^ "Christian population on the rise in Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur". Hindustan Times. 8 March 2017.
  42. ^ a b "Transportation of Manipur". investinmanipur.nic.in. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
  43. ^ Reginald Massey 2004, pp. 177–184.
  44. ^ a b Lieutenant (later Major General) Joseph Ford Sherer, Assistant to the Superintendent of Cachar, with his bearers, Manipur, 1861 Archived 3 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine National Army Museum, United Kingdom; Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, Volume 82, Issues 337–340, page 238
  45. ^ Noni, Arambam; Sanatomba, Kangujam (16 October 2015). Colonialism and Resistance: Society and State in Manipur. Routledge. p. 234. ISBN 978-1-317-27066-9.
  46. ^ Naorem Sanajaoba (1988). Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization. Mittal Publications. pp. 31–32. ISBN 978-81-7099-853-2.
  47. ^ Gangmumei Kabui, History of Manipur, National Publishing House, Delhi, 1991.
  48. ^ "Sana Leibak Manipur By Free Thinker". Retrieved 9 October 2023.
  49. ^ (Gogoi 1956:133)
  50. ^ (Luce & Htway 1976:214)
  51. ^ Lieberman 2003: 154–155
  52. ^ A Brief History (Puwari) of the Meiteis of Manipur. Retrieved 15 November 2009.
  53. ^ a b Naorem Sanajaoba (1988). Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization. Mittal Publications. pp. 12–14. ISBN 978-81-7099-853-2.
  54. ^ Naorem Sanajaoba (1988). Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization. Mittal Publications. pp. 15–18. ISBN 978-81-7099-853-2.
  55. ^ N. Lokendra (1998). The Unquiet Valley: Society, Economy, and Politics of Manipur (1891-1950). Mittal Publications. pp. 36–38. ISBN 978-81-7099-696-5.
  56. ^ Katoch, Hemant Singh (2 March 2016). The Battlefields of Imphal: The Second World War and North East India. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-27402-5.
  57. ^ "10 Photos of the Battles of Imphal and Kohima". Imperial War Museums. Retrieved 11 August 2023.
  58. ^ Strahorn, Eric A. (2021), "South Asia in World War II", The Routledge History of the Second World War, Routledge, pp. 428–444, doi:10.4324/9780429455353-34, ISBN 978-0-429-45535-3, S2CID 239167171
  59. ^ Thompson, Bruce G. (1989). The Role of intelligence at the Battle of Imphal-Kohima, March - July 1944. Thesis (M.A.)--University of Calgary. hdl:1880/21888. ISBN 978-0-315-61764-3.
  60. ^ Sudhirkumar Singh, Socio-religious and Political Movements (2011), pp. 116, 118.
  61. ^ Ibochou Singh, Khwairakpam (1985). British administration in Manipur 1891–1947 (Thesis). Guwahati University/Shodhganga. pp. 224–225. hdl:10603/66697.
  62. ^ Thoiba Singh, Wakambam (1984). Meetei Polity – A study of the socio-economic and political changes among the Meeteis from 1750 to 1950 (Thesis). Guwahati University/Shodhganga. p. 233 (Chapter 5). hdl:10603/69732. The Governor of Assam having conveyed the message of the Cabinet Mission to the Maharaja of Manipur, the latter announced the appointment of a constitution making committee to draft the future constitution of Manipur.
  63. ^ Manimohan Singh, Karam (1991), "Constitutional Reforms in Manipur and Its Impact on the Christians", History of Christian Missions in Manipur, Mittal PUblications, pp. 415–416 – via archive.org
  64. ^ Indrakumar, Konthoujam (2015), "Colonialism and Movement for Democracy in Manipur", in Arambam Noni; Kangujam Sanatomba (eds.), Colonialism and Resistance: Society and State in Manipur, Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 61–69, doi:10.4324/9781315638317, ISBN 978-1-003-04589-2[page needed]
  65. ^ [60][61][62][63][64]
  66. ^ Sudhirkumar Singh, Socio-religious and Political Movements (2011), pp. 130–131.
  67. ^ Tarapot, Bleeding Manipur (2003), p. 172.
  68. ^ Choudhury, Sanghamitra (2016), Women and Conflict in India, Routledge, pp. 35–36, ISBN 978-1-317-55362-5, The elections were held and the new government was formed in Manipur, but it was not responsible to the legislature; Instead, it was only responsive to the legislature, which was a technicality devised by the constitutional experts of Maharaja.
  69. ^ Furber, The Unification of India (1951), p. 357: "... in July and August 1947 all of the princely states within the geographical orbit of India as distinct from that of Pakistan (except Hyderabad, Kashmir and Junagadh) "acceded" to India in accordance with the procedure laid down in the [Government of] India Act of 1935 as adapted and amended by the Government of the new Dominion of India. The important states "acceded" only with respect to defence, external affairs and communications as defined in List I of Schedule VII of the [Government of] India Act of 1935."
  70. ^ Why Pre-Merger Political Status for Manipur: Under the Framework of the Instrument of Accession, 1947, Research and Media Cell, CIRCA, 2018, p. 26, GGKEY:8XLWSW77KUZ, Before the controversial merger, both Manipur and India were bound by the Instrument of Accession (IOA) which the King of Manipur signed on 11 August 1947. The IOA was accepted by the Governor General of India Lord Mountbatten on 16 August 1947 vide Home Department, Government of India file no A-1/1/1947. Subsequently, the Manipur State Council approved the IOA in its meeting held on 22 August 1947 Vide Memo No. 383 PTI Reference Council Minutes Part I of 11-8-1947. The execution of the Instrument of Accession was published in the Manipur State Gazette on 27 August 1947.
  71. ^ Sudhirkumar Singh, Socio-religious and Political Movements (2011), chapter 6, p. 139: "The Dominion of India once again successfully convinced the Maharaja of Manipur to sign the Instrument of Accession along with the Governor General of India on 11 August 1947 on the promise of protecting the internal authority, autonomy and welfare of the state."
  72. ^ Sanatomba, Interrogation into the political status of Manipur (2015), p. 169.
  73. ^ Tarapot, Bleeding Manipur (2003), p. 173.
  74. ^ Parratt, Wounded Land (2005), pp. 103–104.
  75. ^ Furber, The Unification of India (1951), pp. 366–367: 'Finally we must note the process whereby certain other princely states have become "centrally administered areas" with a constitutional status analogous to that of the former "Chief Commissioners' Provinces". This was done by having the rulers execute merger agreements in almost precisely the same terms as those executed by rulers whose states were merged in provinces... The princely states which have thus become "centrally administered areas" at the dates below specified are: ... (6) Manipur, September 1949;... Himachal Pradesh, Kutch, Tripura, and Manipur are all on the international borders of India. For Tripura and Manipur, direct administration from New Delhi was desirable for strategic reasons;...'
  76. ^ Rustomji, Nari (1971), Enchanted Frontiers, Oxford University Press, p. 109 – via archive.org
  77. ^ Pradip Phanjoubam. "Why it matters how Manipur became a state". www.telegraphindia.com.
  78. ^ a b c d Sinha, L. P. (1987), "The Politics and Government of Manipur", The Indian Journal of Political Science, 48 (4): 488, JSTOR 41855332
  79. ^ Kumar, Union Territories (1991), pp. 44–45.
  80. ^ Kumar, Union Territories (1991), pp. 49–53.
  81. ^ "Indiacode - Acts" (PDF). Retrieved 26 March 2014.
  82. ^ "The mayhem in Manipur" Archived 14 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine The Economist (1 March 2007)
  83. ^ "Manipur, India - A safe house for dangerous men" Archived 14 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine The Economist (9 March 2007)
  84. ^ a b ""These Fellows Must Be Eliminated": Relentless Violence and Impunity in Manipur: II. Background: Conflict in Manipur". www.hrw.org. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
  85. ^ McDuie-Ra, Duncan. 2016. Borderland city in new India: Frontier to gateway (pp. 15, 17–19). Amsterdam University Press.
  86. ^ "Irom Sharmila: World's longest hunger strike ends". BBC News. 9 August 2016.
  87. ^ "Indian hunger striker Irom Chanu Sharmila to end 16-year fast". TheGuardian.com. 9 August 2016.
  88. ^ McDuie-Ra, Duncan. 2016. Borderland City in New India: Frontier to Gateway, Amsterdam University Press, p. 18
  89. ^ Mukhim, Patricia (22 July 2023). "Can Manipur ever trust India again?". Al Jazeera.
  90. ^ "Manipur violence: 175 deaths so far, 4,786 houses burnt, say police". The Indian Express. 15 September 2023.
  91. ^ "175 Killed, 4,786 Homes Set Ablaze: Manipur Police Data Sheds Light On Scale Of Conflict". TimesNow. 15 September 2023.
  92. ^ "Police Updates Statistics on Manipur Violence: 175 Officially Dead, 96 Bodies Yet Unclaimed". The Wire. Retrieved 2 October 2023.
  93. ^ Farooqui, Sania; Sehgal, Kunal. "Over 50 dead, hundreds hospitalized and 23,000 displaced by ethnic violence in India's Manipur". CNN.
  94. ^ Mollan, Cherylann (20 July 2023). "Manipur: India outrage after women paraded naked in violence-hit state". BBC News.
  95. ^ Ellis-Petersen, Hannah; Hassan, Aakash (22 July 2023). "Video of women attacked in Manipur breaks silence on systematic gang rapes in India". The Observer. ISSN 0029-7712.
  96. ^ "Police Updates Statistics on Manipur Violence: 175 Officially Dead, 96 Bodies Yet Unclaimed". The Wire.
  97. ^ a b c d "fate of loktak lake". e-pao.net. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
  98. ^ "South Asia - A Climatological Study Volume II: Continental South Asia" (PDF). 2002. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
  99. ^ a b "Manipur | History, Government, Map, Capital, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 6 January 2024. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
  100. ^ Haokip, Shri Ngamthang (2007) "Basine Delineation Map of Manipur" Archived 26 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Profile on State of Environment Report of Manipur, 2006–07, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Manipur, p. 4
  101. ^ Government of Manipur. "Irrigation And Water Management" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 June 2011. Retrieved 31 October 2010.
  102. ^ Centre for Science and Environment (India). "The Arithmetic of Water in India". Retrieved 31 October 2010.
  103. ^ a b Kshetrimayum, K. S.; Laishram, Premananda (1 October 2020). "Assessment of surface water and groundwater interaction using hydrogeology, hydrochemical and isotopic constituents in the Imphal river basin, Northeast India". Groundwater for Sustainable Development. 11: 100391. Bibcode:2020GSusD..1100391K. doi:10.1016/j.gsd.2020.100391. ISSN 2352-801X.
  104. ^ Director of Commerce and Industries, Manipur. "Soil and Climate of Manipur". Retrieved 31 October 2010.
  105. ^ "State Profile of Manipur" (PDF). 2015. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
  106. ^ a b "FOREST DEPARTMENT, GOVERNMENT OF MANIPUR". Retrieved 6 January 2024.
  107. ^ SAMOM, SOBHAPATI (31 May 2019). "Manipur affected by changing climate, say scientists". NorthEast Now.
  108. ^ "A-02: Decadal variation in population 1901-2011, Manipur" (PDF). censusindia.gov.in. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  109. ^ "Manipur Population Census data 2011". Census 2011. Retrieved 2 September 2017.
  110. ^ Kom, Ch. Sekholal (June 2015). "Ethno-nationalism: Competing Micro-nationalist Dissents in Manipur". Social Change. 45 (2): 289–307. doi:10.1177/0049085715574192. ISSN 0049-0857. S2CID 147919896.
  111. ^ Meetei, Nameirakpam Bijen (2014). "Ethnicity, Colonial Legacies, and Postindependence Issues of Identity Politics in North-East India". Nationalism and Ethnic Politics. 20: 99–115. doi:10.1080/13537113.2014.879768. S2CID 144397292.
  112. ^ Laishram, Ratankumar singh (2009). "United Naga Council (UNC)" (PDF). A Historical study of the role and politics of civil society in Manipur (Thesis). Manipur University. hdl:10603/103655.
  113. ^ S. R. Tohring (2010). Violence and identity in North-east India: Naga-Kuki conflict. Mittal Publications. pp. xv–xvii. ISBN 978-81-8324-344-5.
  114. ^ A-11 Appendix: District wise scheduled tribe population (Appendix), Manipur - 2011, Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, Government of India, 2011, retrieved 22 September 2023
  115. ^ "Table C-16 Population by mother tongue: Manipur". Census of India. Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India. 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2023.
  116. ^ "Report of the Commissioner for linguistic minorities: 47th report (July 2008 to June 2010)" (PDF). Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India. p. 78. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 May 2012. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
  117. ^ "Manipuri language". Britannica. Retrieved 22 February 2023.
  118. ^ "Census of India Website: Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India". censusindia.gov.in. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
  119. ^ "Department of language planning and implementation trying to resolve all language issues in the state". Pothashang News. 14 March 2018.
  120. ^ "Ranking of Districts by Population Size, 2001 and 2011" (XLS). The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India, New Delhi-110011. 2010–2011. Retrieved 18 September 2011.
  121. ^ a b "Table C-01 Population by religious community: Manipur". Census of India. Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India. 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2023.
  122. ^ "Christian population on the rise in Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur". Hindustan Times. 8 March 2017.
  123. ^ S. Bebita Devi (2013). "4" (PDF). Advent of a caste - the emergence and role of Brahmans in Manipuri society (Thesis).
  124. ^ Devi Rajkumari Geetanjali (2018). The origin and development of Manipuri rasa dance Its nature philosophy and social relevance (Thesis). hdl:10603/249207.
  125. ^ Sanajaoba, Naorem (1988). Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization. Mittal Publications. ISBN 9788170998532.
  126. ^ "The Vaishnava Temples of Manipur: An Historical Study". Retrieved 2 February 2020.
  127. ^ "Census of India: C-1 Population By Religious Community". censusindia.gov.in. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
  128. ^ "Evolution of clan system Manipuri Muslim 1". e-pao.net. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
  129. ^ Bertil Lintner (2015). Great Game East: India, China, and the Struggle for Asia's Most Volatile Frontier. Yale University Press. p. 113. ISBN 978-0-300-19567-5.
  130. ^ "State/UT wise Seats in the Assembly and their Reservation Status". Election Commission of India. Retrieved 23 May 2018.
  131. ^ Manipur Government Archived 22 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Govt of India
  132. ^ ECI Manipur Archived 19 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Govt of India
  133. ^ "A decade of starvation for Irom Sharmila". The Independent. 4 November 2010.
  134. ^ Singh, Vijaita. "Centre inks peace accord with Naga insurgent outfit". The Hindu.
  135. ^ "仏壇修理・洗浄なら石川県羽咋市の宮本仏檀店". kukination.net. Archived from the original on 24 April 2015. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
  136. ^ Manipur Assessment - Year 2014 Archived 4 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine SATP, New Delhi
  137. ^ Global Burden of Armed Violence Archived 24 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine Chapter 2, Geneva Declaration, Switzerland (2011)
  138. ^ State wise : Population, GSDP, Per Capita Income and Growth Rate Archived 11 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine Planning Commission, Govt of India; See third table 2011-2012 fiscal year, 16th row
  139. ^ a b G. Hiamguanglung Gonmei, "Hills Economy of Manipur: A Structural Change", Journal of North East India Studies, Vol. 3, No. 1, January–June 2013, pp. 61–73
  140. ^ a b c "Manipur Economy - Snapshot" Archived 2 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine IBEF
  141. ^ Manipur Energy Archived 23 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine Govt of Manipur
  142. ^ Manipur power Archived 19 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine Government of India
  143. ^ a b c "In rural Manipur, women feel the heat of climate change". The Third Pole. 14 March 2018. Retrieved 7 October 2021. Cite error: The named reference ":0" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  144. ^ Shirin, Babie (27 January 2021). "Climate Change: Farmers in Manipur hit hard by unusual weather temperature". Imphal Free Press.
  145. ^ "Manipur's villagers take charge, fix 19km stretch of roads: ANI – The Indian Express". The Indian Express.
  146. ^ Prafullokumar Singh, A. (2009). The Ninth Assembly Elections in Manipur: A. Prafullokumar Singh – Election Politics in Manipur. Mittal Publications. p. 521. ISBN 9788183242790.
  147. ^ "Rail link from Manipur to Vietnam on cards: Tharoor". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 17 May 2013.
  148. ^ "The Floating Islands of India". earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 7 May 2018. Retrieved 13 March 2023. The largest island is home to the Keibul Lamjao, the world's only floating national park. It serves as a habitat for the endangered brow-antlered sangai, or "dancing deer," whose hooves have adapted to the island's spongy ground. The park, covering 15 square miles (40 km2), was specifically created to preserve the deer, which were once thought to be extinct.
  149. ^ McKechnie, Ben. "The world's only floating national park". www.bbc.com.
  150. ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Keibul Lamjao Conservation Area". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 13 March 2023.
  151. ^ "Keibul Lamjao Conservation Area | For UNESCO World Heritage Travellers". www.worldheritagesite.org. Retrieved 13 March 2023.
  152. ^ "Manipur titular king moves Parliament to declare Kangla Fort as World Heritage Site". The Times of India. 5 February 2021. ISSN 0971-8257.
  153. ^ "Kangla as a World Heritage Site". Imphal Free Press. Retrieved 13 March 2023.
  154. ^ State bird Nongin Archived 27 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine Government of Manipur
  155. ^ State flower SHIRUI LILY Archived 3 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine Government of Manipur
  156. ^ State animal Sangai Archived 1 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine Government of Manipur
  157. ^ "The world's only floating national park".
  158. ^ "Ichum Keirap". yolasite.com. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
  159. ^ "Thalon Cave, Tamenglong: December 2009 ~ Pictures from Manipur". e-pao.net. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
  160. ^ "Ukhrul District". ukhrul.nic.in. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
  161. ^ a b Reginald Massey 2004, p. 177.
  162. ^ Williams 2004, pp. 83–84, the other major classical Indian dances are: Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Odissi, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Cchau, Satriya, Yaksagana and Bhagavata Mela.
  163. ^ a b James G. Lochtefeld (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M. The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 420–421. ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8.
  164. ^ Reginald Massey 2004, pp. 177–187.
  165. ^ Ragini Devi 1990, pp. 175–180.
  166. ^ Reginald Massey 2004, pp. 177–180.
  167. ^ Saroj Nalini Parratt (1997). The pleasing of the gods: Meitei Lai Haraoba. Vikas Publishers. pp. 14–20, 42–46. ISBN 9788125904168.
  168. ^ Saryu Doshi 1989, pp. xv–xviii.
  169. ^ Ved Prakash, Encyclopaedia of North-East India, Volume 4, ISBN 978-8126907069, pp 1558-1561
  170. ^ Gurmeet Kanwal, Defenders of the Dawn, ISBN 978-8170622796, pp 48
  171. ^ a b c d Khomdan Singh Lisam, Encyclopaedia Of Manipur, ISBN 978-8178358642, pp 824-830
  172. ^ Indigenous games of Manipur Archived 12 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine Govt of Manipur
  173. ^ Khomdan Singh Lisam, Encyclopaedia Of Manipur, ISBN 978-8178358642, pp 825
  174. ^ Mills, J. H. (2006), Manipur Rules Here - Gender, Politics, and Sport in an Asian Border Zone, Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 30(1), 62-78
  175. ^ a b c d Khomdan Singh Lisam, Encyclopaedia Of Manipur, ISBN 978-8178358642, pp 825-830
  176. ^ "History of Polo | Polo Museum". www.polomuseum.org. Retrieved 13 August 2023.
  177. ^ "Polo Origins". Andalucia.com. 14 August 2017. Retrieved 13 August 2023.
  178. ^ Joseph Ford Sherer is called the Father of English Polo; see Horace A. Laffaye (2009), The Evolution of Polo, ISBN 978-0786438143, Chapter 2; National Army Museum Silver salver presented to Captain Joseph Ford Sherer Archived 28 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine United Kingdom
  179. ^ Chris Aston "Manipur, Cradle of the Modern Game" Archived 27 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Polo Consult
  180. ^ "Singh, Atom Sunil; indigenous Games between Cambodia and Manipur: A Borderless Connectivity, The Sangai Express, 4 June 2008". Retrieved 30 April 2017.
  181. ^ "Lok Sabha passes Bill to set-up sports varsity in Manipur". The Hindu. 3 August 2018 – via www.thehindu.com.
  182. ^ "Manipur Sangai Festival Concludes". Northeast Today. Archived from the original on 18 February 2013. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
  183. ^ "Why Manipur Sangai Festival". Sangai festival - Department of Tourism. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
  184. ^ Khomdan Singh Lisam, Encyclopaedia Of Manipur, ISBN 978-8178358642, pp. 607–617
  185. ^ Khomdan Singh Lisam, Encyclopaedia Of Manipur, ISBN 978-8178358642, pp. 950–961
  186. ^ G. K. Ghosh, Shukla Ghosh, Women of Manipur, ISBN 978-8170248972
  187. ^ Khomdan Singh Lisam, Encyclopaedia Of Manipur, ISBN 978-8178358642, pp. 629–632
  188. ^ "Zomi Ngeina Khuado Pawi". Retrieved 9 February 2016.
  189. ^ "Organic Manipur black rice exported to Europe for the first time". Hindustan Times. 12 August 2021. Retrieved 12 December 2024.
  190. ^ Business and Economy Current Affairs Yearly Review 2021 E-book: Check this Business and Economy Current Affairs Yearly Review 2021 E-book. Know all annual news here. Testbook.com. 24 January 2022. Retrieved 12 December 2024.

Bibliography

 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Manipur.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Manipur.
 
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Manipur.
 
Look up Manipur in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Government

General information

Retrieved from "https://en.wiki.x.io/w/index.php?title=Manipur&oldid=1264864394"