Wikipedia

List of substances used in rituals

This page lists substances used in ritual context.

Psychoactive substances may be illegal to obtain, while non-psychoactive substances are legal, generally.

Psychoactive use

edit
See also: List of psychoactive plants; List of psychoactive plants, fungi, and animals; and religion and drugs

This sections lists entheogens; drugs that are consumed for their intoxicating effect in combination with spiritual practice.

Hallucinogens used in rituals

edit

This is a list of species and genera that are used as entheogens or are used in an entheogenic concoction (such as ayahuasca). For ritualistic use they may be classified as hallucinogens. The active principles and historical significance of each are also listed to illustrate the requirements necessary to be categorized as an entheogen. The psychoactive substances are usually classified as soft drugs in terms of drug harmfulness.

Animal

edit
Vernacular name Species Phytochemical(s) Substance effect class Regions/Cultures of use
Bullet ant venom Paraponera clavata Secretion: Poneratoxin Deliriant The Satere-Mawe people use bullet ants to get extremely painful stings in their initiation rites twenty times.[1]
Colorado River toad bufotoxins Incilius alvarius Secretion: 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenin (et al.) Psychedelic Bufo alvarious secretion has gained popularity in spiritual retreats.[2] Controversial interpretation of Mesoamerican art.

Mushroom

edit
Vernacular name Species Phytochemical(s) Substance effect class Regions/Cultures of use
Dictyonema huaorani Dictyonema huaorani 5-MeO-DMT, DMT, psilocybin Psychedelic Confirmed used by shamans.[3]
Fly agaric Amanita muscaria Muscimol, ibotenic acid Depressant, and dissociative Siberian shamans.[4] Scandinavia. Lithuania.
Panther cap Amanita pantherina Muscimol, ibotenic acid Depressant, and dissociative [citation needed]
Psilocybin mushroom Psilocybe spp. (etc.) Psilocybin and psilocin;
baeocystin, norbaeocystin and aeruginascin (in trace amounts or in select species) 		Psychedelic Mazatec[5]

Plant

edit
Vernacular name Species Phytochemical(s) Substance effect class Regions/Cultures of use
Angel's trumpet Brugmansia spp. Seed, flower, leaf: Tropane alkaloids Deliriant South America,[6] sometimes used as part of ayahuasca.
Ayahuasca Banisteriopsis caapi Bark: Harmine 0.31-0.84%,[7] tetrahydroharmine, telepathine, dihydroshihunine,[8] 5-MeO-DMT[9] Psychedelic South America; people of the Amazon Rainforest. UDV of Brazil and United States.
Bolivian torch cactus Echinopsis lageniformis Stem: Mescaline Psychedelic South America
Brosimum acutifolium Latex: Bufotenin Psychedelic Bufotenin has been identified as a component in the latex of the takini (Brosimum acutifolium) tree, which is used as a psychedelic by South American shamans.[10]
Cannabis (and cannabis concentrates) Cannabis spp. Flower: Cannabinoids (THC, and CBD) Psychedelic Hindu religion in India, Rastafari movements, Cannabis-based religions like First Church of Cannabis or International Church of Cannabis and other various groups (see entheogenic use of cannabis)
Chacruna Psychotria viridis Leaf: DMT Psychedelic UDV of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and the Brazilian church. Santo Daime have used it as part of ayahuasca.
Chaliponga Diplopterys cabrerana Leaf: 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenin, DMT Psychedelic Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru as part of ayahuasca.
Changa A DMT/MAOI-infused smoking blend DMT/MAOI Psychedelic Changa has gained popularity in spiritual retreats.[citation needed]
Christmasvine Turbina corymbosa Seed: LSA, lysergol, and turbicoryn; up to 0.03% lysergic acid alkaloids[11] Psychedelic Mazatec[12]
Harmal (espand, Syrian rue) Peganum harmala Seed: Harmaline and other harmala alkaloids Psychedelic Iran and the Middle East.
Hawaiian baby woodrose Argyreia nervosa Seed: 0.325% ergoline derivatives of dry weight.[13] Psychedelic Huna shamans used them according to various oral histories.[14]
Henbane Hyoscyamus niger Seed, flower, leaf: Tropane alkaloids Deliriant Ancient Greece and witches of the Middle Ages.
Iboga Tabernanthe iboga Root bark: Ibogaine[15] Psychedelic Bwiti religion of West Central Africa. Used by Western nations to treat opioid addiction.
Jimsonweed Datura stramonium Seed, flower, leaf:[16]
Deliriant Algonquin, Navajo, Cherokee, Luiseño and the indigenous peoples of Marie-Galante used this plant in sacred ceremonies for its hallucinogenic properties.[17][18][19] It has also been used by Sadhus of India, and the Táltos of the Magyar (Hungary).
Jurema Mimosa tenuiflora syn. Mimosa hostilis Root bark: 1-1.7% DMT and yuremamine Psychedelic Used by the Jurema Cult (O Culto da Jurema) in the Northeastern Brazil.[20][21]
Labrador tea Rhododendron spp. Leaf: Ledol, some grayanotoxins Deliriant Caucasian peasants used Rhododendron plants for these effects in shamanistic rituals.[22]
Mad honey Rhododendron ponticum Nectar: Grayanotoxins Deliriant In Nepal, this type of honey is used by the Gurung people both for its supposed medicinal and hallucinogenic properties.[23][24]
Mexican morning glory Ipomoea tricolor Seed: Ergoline derivatives[25][failed verification]

(LSA disputed)

Psychedelic Zapotecs[26]
Beach moonflower Ipomoea violacea Seed: Ergoline derivatives[27][failed verification] (LSA disputed) Psychedelic Mazatec[12]
Nyakwána Virola elongata Bark, roots, leaves and flowers: DMT, and 5-MeO-DMT Psychedelic The Yanomami people use the powdered resin as an entheogen known as nyakwána which is inhaled or "snuffed" into the nasal cavity, it contains a high concentration of 5-MeO-DMT and DMT.[28]
Peruvian torch cactus Echinopsis peruviana Stem: Mescaline Psychedelic Pre-Incan Chavín rituals in Peru.
Peyote Lophophora williamsii Stem: Mescaline Psychedelic Native American Church is known as peyotism.[29][30] Also used in the Oshara tradition.
Red ucuuba Virola sebifera Bark: DMT, and 5-MeO-DMT Psychedelic The smoke of the inner bark of the tree is used by shamans of the indigenous people of Venezuela in cases of fever conditions, or cooked for driving out evil ghosts.[31]
Salvia Salvia divinorum Leaf: Salvinorin A and other salvinorins Psychedelic Mazatec[32]
San Pedro cactus Trichocereus macrogonus var. pachanoi (syn. Echinopsis pachanoi) Stem: Mescaline Psychedelic South America
Vilca Anadenanthera colubrina Beans: 5-MeO-DMT. Up to 12.4% bufotenin.[33] DMT Psychedelic There have been reports of active use of vilca by Wichi shamans, under the name hatáj.[34]
Yopo Anadenanthera peregrina Beans: 5-MeO-DMT. Up to 7.4% bufotenin.[33] DMT Psychedelic Archaeological evidence of insufflation use within the period 500-1000 AD, in northern Chile, has been reported.[35]

Chemicals

edit

Many man-made chemicals with little human history have been recognized to catalyze intense spiritual experiences, and many synthetic entheogens are simply slight modifications of their naturally occurring counterparts. Some synthetic substances like 4-AcO-DMT are thought to be prodrugs that metabolize into psychoactive substances that have been used as entheogens. While synthetic DMT and mescaline are reported to have identical entheogenic qualities as extracted or plant-based sources, the experience may wildly vary due to the lack of numerous psychoactive alkaloids that constitute the material. This is similar to how isolated THC produces very different effects than an extract that retains the many cannabinoids of the plant such as cannabidiol and cannabinol. A pharmaceutical version of the entheogenic brew ayahuasca is called Pharmahuasca.

Substance IUPAC name Substance effect class Notes
2C-B 4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenylethanamine Psychedelic There are claims that 2C-B is used as entheogen by the Sangoma, Nyanga, and Amagqirha people over their traditional plants. It is referred to as Ubulawu Nomathotholo, which roughly translates to "Medicine of the Singing Ancestors".[36][37][38]
5-MeO-DMT 2-(5-Methoxy-1H-indol-3-yl)-N,N-dimethylethan-2-amine Psychedelic See species
Bufotenin 3-[2-(Dimethylamino)ethyl]-1H-indol-5-ol Psychedelic See species
DMT 2-(1H-Indol-3-yl)-N,N-dimethylethanamine Psychedelic See species
DPT N-[2-(1H-indol-3-yl)]ethyl-N-propylpropan-1-amine Psychedelic DPT is used as a religious sacrament by the Temple of the True Inner Light who believes that DPT and other entheogens are physical manifestations of God.[39]
Harmaline 7-methoxy-1-methyl-4,9-dihydro-3H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole Psychedelic See Peganum harmala
Ibogaine 12-Methoxyibogamine Psychedelic See Tabernanthe iboga
Ketamine Dissociative Ketamine psychedelic therapy (KPT) have been used for preparation for death (thanatological, death-rebirth psychotherapy)[40]
LSA (8β)-9,10-didehydro-6-methyl-ergoline-8-carboxamide Psychedelic See species
LSD (6aR,9R)-N,N-diethyl-7-methyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo[4,3-fg]quinoline-9-carboxamide Psychedelic Used by League for Spiritual Discovery (LSD), and the Neo-American Church.
MDMA (RS)-1-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-N-methylpropan-2-amine Entactogen Small doses of MDMA are used as an entheogen to enhance prayer or meditation by some religious practitioners.[41]
Muscimol 5-(Aminomethyl)-isoxazol-3-ol Deliriant See Amanita spp.
Psilocybin [3-(2-Dimethylaminoethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl] dihydrogen phosphate Psychedelic (See also Psilocybe spp) Prodrug for Psilocin. The Mazatec curandera María Sabina was celebrating a mushroom velada with pills of synthetic psilocybin named Indocybin synthesized by Albert Hofmann.[42]
Salvinorin A methyl (2S,4aR,6aR,7R,9S,10aS,10bR)-9-(acetyloxy)-2-(furan-3-yl)-6a,10b-dimethyl-4,10-dioxo-dodecahydro-1H-naphtho[2,1-c]pyran-7-carboxylate Psychedelic See Salvia divinorum

Prodrugs

edit
Substance IUPAC name Substance effect class Notes
1A-LSD (6aR,9R)-4-acetyl-N,N-diethyl-7-methyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo[4,3-fg]quinoline-9-carboxamide Psychedelic Prodrug (suspected) for LSD
1P-LSD (6aR,9R)-N,N-Diethyl-7-methyl-4-propanoyl-6,6a,8,9-tetrahydroindolo[4,3-fg]quinoline-9-carboxamide Psychedelic Prodrug (suspected) for LSD. In tests on mice 1cP-LSD was found to be an active psychedelic with similar potency to 1P-LSD.[43]
4-AcO-DMT 3-[2-(Dimethylamino)ethyl]-1H-indol-4-yl acetate Psychedelic Prodrug for psilocin (found in psilocybin mushroom, see also psilocybin)

This page lists non-psychedelic psychoactive substances which are consumed in ritual contexts for their consciousness-altering effects. Non-psychoactive consumption like symbolic ingestion of psychoactive substances is not mentioned here.

Non-hallucinogenic substances used in rituals

edit

This is a list of psychoactive substances which are consumed in ritual contexts for their consciousness-altering effects. Some of these drugs are classified as hard drugs in terms of drug harmfulness.

Plant

edit

The plant parts are listed to prevent accidents. For example, kava roots should always be used because the leaves of the plant are known to cause hepatoxicity and death.[44]

Vernacular name Species Phytochemical(s) Substance effect class Regions/Cultures of use
African dream herb Entada rheedii Seed Oneirogen The species is employed in African traditional medicine to induce vivid dreams, enabling communication with the spirit world. The inner meat of the seed would be either consumed directly, or the meat would be chopped, dried, mixed with other herbs like tobacco and smoked just before sleep to induce the desired dreams.[45]
African dream root Silene undulata Root: Possibly triterpenoid saponins Oneirogen Xhosa people of South Africa.[46]
Aztec tobacco Nicotiana rustica Leaf: up to 9% nicotine.[47] MAOI beta-carbolines. Stimulant Mapacho (South America)[48] and thuoc lao (thuốc lào) (Vietnam). Nicotiana rustica is used by Amazonian tobacco shamans known as tobaqueros.[49] Nicotiana tabacum juice is sometimes a vernacular added ingredient.[50]
Bitter-grass Calea ternifolia Leaf: Caleicines and caleochromenes Oneirogen The Chontal people of Oaxaca reportedly use the plant, known locally as thle-pela-kano, during divination.[51]
Blue water lily Nymphaea caerulea Flower: Aporphine, and nuciferine Depressant Mayans and the Ancient Egyptians.[52]
Chili pepper Capsicum spp. Fruit: Capsaicin Deliriant "While the Inca may have recognized chili's potent spiritual medicine, they weren't the only culture to do so. Chilies were mixed with tobacco and other plants by shamans and medicine people in pre-Columbian Central America to aid in journeys to the upper and lower worlds on behalf of mankind."[53]
Coca, coca tea Erythroxylaceae spp. Leaf: 0.3-1.5% cocaine[54] Stimulant Coca has been a vital part of the religious cosmology of the Andean peoples of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, northern Argentina, and Chile from the pre-Inca period through the present. [citation needed] In addition, coca use in shamanic rituals is well documented wherever local native populations have cultivated the plant. For example, the Tairona people of Colombia's Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta use to chew the plant before engaging in extended meditation and prayer.[55]
Cocoa Theobroma cacao Bean: Theobromine, small amount of MAOIs Stimulant Ritualistic practices originated among the Olmec, Maya and Mexica (Aztec).[56]
Coffee Coffea spp. Seed:[57] caffeine 0.06-3.2% Stimulant The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the 15th century, in Yemen's Sufi monasteries.[58] The Sufi monks drank coffee as an aid to concentration and even spiritual intoxication when they chanted the name of God.[59]
Ilex guayusa Ilex guayusa Leaves: 1.73–3.48 % caffeine.[60] Theanine Stimulant A ritual use by the Quechua people involves drinking guayusa infusion to have foretelling dreams for successful hunting expeditions.[61] Ilex guayusa is used in ayahuasca admixtures for its healing powers.[62]
Kava Piper methysticum Root:[63] 3-20% kavalactones Depressant Kava cultures are the religious and cultural traditions of western Oceania which consume kava.
Khat Catha edulis Leaf:[64] cathine up to 14%[65][66] Stimulant For centuries, religious leaders have consumed the leaves to stay awake during long nights of prayer.[67]
Kratom Mitragyna speciosa Leaves: Opioids (1–6% mitragynine, 0.01–0.04% 7-hydroxymitragynine[68]) Depressant In Thailand, kratom was "used as a snack to receive guests and was part of the ritual worship of ancestors and gods." (Saingam et al.)[69]
Opium, Opium poppy Papaver somniferum Latex exudate:[70] morphine 0.3–25% and codeine 0.5–4% Depressant From the earliest finds, opium appears to have had ritual significance, and anthropologists have speculated ancient priests may have used the drug as a proof of healing power.[71] In Egypt, the use of opium was generally restricted to priests, magicians, and warriors, its invention is credited to Thoth, and it was said to have been given by Isis to Ra as treatment for a headache.[72] A figure of the Minoan "goddess of the narcotics", wearing a crown of three opium poppies, BCE, was recovered from the Sanctuary of Gazi, Crete, together with a simple smoking apparatus.[73][74] The Greek gods Hypnos (Sleep), Nyx (Night), and Thanatos (Death) were depicted wreathed in poppies or holding them. Poppies also frequently adorned statues of Apollo, Asklepios, Pluto, Demeter, Aphrodite, Kybele and Isis, symbolizing nocturnal oblivion.[72] The opium poppy was a magical ritual plant among the Germanic tribes.[75][better source needed]
Pituri Duboisia hopwoodii, Duboisia myoporoides, Nicotiana spp. Nicotine, tropane alkaloids Stimulant Pituri, also known as mingkulpa,[76] is a mixture of leaves and wood ash traditionally chewed as a stimulant (or, after extended use, a depressant) by Aboriginal Australians widely across the continent.
Tea Camellia sinensis Leaf:[77]
Stimulant See tea culture. For example, East Asian tea ceremony is a ritualized practice of making and serving tea (茶 cha) in East Asia practiced in the Sinosphere. Tea has been drunk by Buddhist monks since the Sui Dynasty (589–618 BC) to maintain a state of "mindful alertness" during long periods of meditation. Tea ceremonies have been ritualized for centuries.[citation needed]
Alcohol
edit
See also: History of alcoholic drinks § Pre-Columbian America, and Religion and alcohol § Historical religions
Vernacular name Species Phytochemical(s) Substance effect class Regions/Cultures of use
Alcoholic beverages Yeast byproduct: Alcohol fermented species Alcohol Depressant Christian views on alcohol encompass a range of perspectives regarding the consumption of alcoholic beverages, with significant emphasis on moderation rather than total abstinence. The moderationist position is held by Roman Catholics[78] and Eastern Orthodox,[79] and within Protestantism, it is accepted by Anglicans,[80] Lutherans[81][82] and many Reformed churches.[83][84][85][86] Moderationism is also accepted by Jehovah's Witnesses.[87]

In the Vodou faith of Haiti, alcoholic drinks such as rum are consumed to be able to allow spirits called "lwa" to enter one's body and help them find the motivation for or strength to survive everyday struggles or life.[88]

In Vajrayana Buddhism, particularly in Tibetan Buddhist practices, alcohol may be used during specific rituals, such as the Ganachakra feast. This ritual involves the consumption of alcohol in a controlled manner, symbolizing the transformation of negative emotions and attachments into wisdom and compassion.[89][90][91]

In Taoist rituals and practices, alcohol also plays a role as an offering and a means of connecting with the divine. An alcoholic beverage is often used in religious ceremonies and as an offering to the ancestors. The use of alcohol in Taoist rituals can symbolize purification, blessings, and the establishment of a sacred space. In these instances, the consumption of alcohol is done in a controlled and mindful manner, reflecting the Taoist emphasis on balance and harmony.

Some Hindu denominations, like the Aghori, incorporate alcohol into their rituals and practices.[92][93]

The Maya ritually administered alcohol enemas as an entheogen, sometimes adding other psychoactive substances, seeking to reach a state of ecstasy. Syringes of gourd and clay were used to inject the fluid.[94]

Alcohol replaced peyote as Native Americans' psychoactive agent of choice in rituals when peyote was outlawed.[95]

Balché Alcohol Depressant The Maya also consumed an alcoholic beverage called balché, which is an infusion of the bark of Lonchocarpus longistylus (see page Lonchocarpus violaceus) mixed with honey from bees fed on a type of morning glory with a high ergine content.[96]
Beer Yeast byproduct: Barley ( Liquid Gold spp.) (fermented) Alcohol Depressant The earliest archaeological evidence of fermentation consists of 13,000-year-old residues of a beer with the consistency of gruel, used by the semi-nomadic Natufians for ritual feasting, at the Raqefet Cave in the Carmel Mountains near Haifa in Israel.[97][98]
Chicha Yeast byproduct: Corn (Zea mays), fermented Alcohol Depressant The corn beer Chicha de jora was once a sacred drink of the Incas, often reserved for the most cherished of ceremonies.[99]
Kosher wine Yeast byproduct: Alcohol fermented species Alcohol Depressant During the Jewish holiday of Purim, Jews are obligated to drink until their judgmental abilities become impaired.[100][101] However, Purim has more of a national than a religious character.
Mead Alcohol Depressant In the Norse religion the drinking of ales and meads was important in several seasonal religious festivals such as Yule and Midsummer as well as more common festivities like wakes, christenings and ritual sacrifices called Blóts.[102]
Pulque Alcohol Depressant Before the Spanish colonization of the Americas, pulque was used for religious ceremonies in Mesoamerica, but after the Spanish conquest, pulque consumption lost its ritual meanings.[103][104]
Rakia Collective term for fruit spirits (or fruit brandy) popular in the Balkans. Alcohol Depressant Although wine is the essential part of the Eucharist rite in the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches in the region, rakia has found uses in certain religious and related rituals across the Balkans.[citation needed]

It is also used as a sacramental element in Bektashi and Alevi Jem ceremonies, where it is not considered alcoholic and is referred to as "dem".[105]

Sake Alcohol Depressant Sake is often consumed as part of Shinto purification rituals.[106] Sakes served to gods as offerings prior to drinking are called Omiki (お神酒).[107] People drink Omiki with gods to communicate with them and to solicit rich harvests the following year.
Tesgüino Alcohol Depressant Tesguino is a corn beer made by the Tarahumara people of the Sierra Madre Occidental in Mexico. It is brewed for local celebrations related to Holy Week. For the Tarahumara, the beer is an elixir for healing, a barter item and is considered a sacred beverage.[108]

The Tarahumara people gather every year during Easter week (semana santa) and drink large amounts of Tesgüino together while following rituals. According to the anthropologist Bill Merrill of the Smithsonian Institution, the sacred drink chases large souls from the persons who drink it, "and so when people get drunk that's why they act like children [...] because the souls that are controlling their actions are the little souls, like little children".[109]

Wine Yeast byproduct: Grape (Vitis spp.) (fermented) Alcohol Depressant Wine was used in rituals and worshipped by the Egyptians[110] and the Greeks, specifically in worship of Dionysus.

The Thelema ceremony calls for five officers: a Priest, a Priestess, a Deacon, and two adult acolytes, called "the Children". The end of the ritual culminates in the consummation of the eucharist, consisting of a goblet of wine and a Cake of Light, after which the congregant proclaims "There is no part of me that is not of the gods!"[111]

Chemicals

edit
Substance IUPAC name Substance effect class Notes
Alcohol Ethanol Depressant See Vitis spp.
Caffeine 1,3,7-Trimethylpurine-2,6-dione Stimulant See Coffea
Cathine (1S,2S)-2-amino-1-phenylpropan-1-ol Stimulant See Catha edulis
Cocaine Methyl (1R,2R,3S,5S)-3-(benzoyloxy)-8-methyl-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane-2-carboxylate Stimulant Coca addicts ingest between 60 and 80 milligrams of cocaine each time they chew the leaves according to United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC).[112] However, other sources claim that the coca leaf, when consumed in its natural form or as coca tea, does not induce a physiological or psychological dependence, nor does abstinence after long-term use produce symptoms typical for substance addiction withdrawal syndromes.[113][114][115][116] See also Erythroxylum coca, and Erythroxylum novogranatense spp.
Codeine (5α,6α)-7,8-didehydro-4,5-epoxy-3-methoxy-17-methylmorphinan-6-ol Depressant Prodrug for morphine
Kavalactones Depressant See Piper methysticum
Morphine (4R,4aR,7S,7aR,12bS)-3-Methyl-2,3,4,4a,7,7a-hexahydro-1H-4,12-methanobenzofuro[3,2-e]isoquinoline-7,9-diol Depressant See Papaver somniferum

Poly drug use

edit
Vernacular name Species Phytochemical(s) Substance effect class Regions/Cultures of use
Alcohol + vilca Anadenanthera colubrina Beans: 5-MeO-DMT. Up to 12.4% bufotenin.[33] DMT Psychedelic + depressant Between 2013 and 2017, archaeological excavations at the Quilcapampa site in southern Peru, found that the Wari used seeds from the vilca tree and combined the hallucinogenic drug with chicha, or beer made from the molle tree.[117]
Psilocybin mushroom + cocoa[dubious – discuss] Theobroma cacao Bean: Theobromine, small amount of MAOIs Stimulant Aztecs combined cacao with psilocybin mushrooms to yield a polysubstance combination[citation needed]

Alternative medicine

edit

Animal

edit
Vernacular name Species Phytochemical(s) Substance effect class Regions/Cultures of use
Kambo (or sapo) Phyllomedusa bicolor Secretion: Opioid peptides (deltorphin, deltorphin I, deltorphin II and dermorphin).[118][119][120] Depressant Increasing popularity in cleansing rituals and depression treatment.[121][122][123]

Complements to psychoactive substances

edit
Vernacular name Species Phytochemical(s) Substance effect class Regions/Cultures of use
Aztec tobacco Nicotiana rustica Incense Nicotiana rustica is used—as incense–in association with Ayahuasca ritual in some parts of the Amazon.[50]

Sober use

edit
See also: Sacred food as offering and List of foods with religious symbolism

Non-psychoactive substances

edit
See also: Religious use of incense and Sacrament § Summary table
Vernacular name Species Use Regions/Cultures of use
Chrism, also called myrrh, and holy anointing oil Element in anointing of the sick, baptism, and priesthood blessing Sacramental olive oil. Use in the Roman Catholic Church: Anointing of the Sick in the Catholic Church, and Oil of Catechumens. Use by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints: Priesthood blessing
Copal Bursera fagaroides Religious use of incense Used by Aztec, and Maya, in ritual ceremonies.[124]
Holy water Element in baptism, exorcism, and Epiphany Exorcism in the Catholic Church, holy water in Eastern Christianity, holy water in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church

Holy water is important to the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and regarded as healing from demonic possession and for treating sick people, particularly in cases of mental illness. It can be consumed or poured over someone supposed to be afflicted by harmful things.[125][126]

Most Mahayana Buddhists typically recite sutras or various mantras (typically that of the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara for example) numerous times over the water, which is then either consumed or is used to bless homes afterwards. In Vajrayana Buddhism, a Bumpa, a ritual object, is one of the Ashtamangala, used for storing sacred water sometimes, symbolizing wisdom and long life.[127][128]

Liquids Libation The drink offering (Hebrew ְנֶסֶך, nesekh) was a form of libation forming one of the sacrifices and offerings of the Law of Moses.
Sacramental bread, sacramental wine Elements of the Eucharist In the Christian ceremony the sacramental bread is either leavened or unleavened, and the wine is non-alcoholic and often red.
White Sage Salvia apiana Ritual purification Different parts of the plant are used in ritual purification by several Native American cultures.[129]

Psychoactive substances

edit

Shown in the table below, Aztec tobacco, morning glories, and Syrian rue (also listed in the § Psychoactive use table), and cacao beans are (mildly) psychoactive when consumed.

Psychedelic substances used in sober rituals

edit
Flora
edit
Vernacular name Species Use Regions/Cultures of use
Morning glory T. corymbosa, and Ipomoea violacea Numerology "indigenous ritual use indicates dose levels for T. corymbosa, and I. violacea which are far lower than that perceived as necessary to effect hallucinosis in members of modern Western cultures. In Mexico, the only place in the world where the ingestion of morning glory seeds has an established tradition of shamanic usage, a hallucinogenic dose is said to be only thirteen seeds, a ritual amount based on religious numerology rather than chemical analysis."[130][page needed]
Syrian rue Peganum harmala Incense "In the Himalayas, shamans use syrian rue seeds as a magical incense, inhaling it to enter a trance state in which they can engage in sexual intercourse with divining goddesses, who are said to give them information and great healing powers"[131][132]

Non-psychedelic substances used in sober rituals

edit
Vernacular name Species Use Regions/Cultures of use
Cacao bean Theobroma cacao Sacrifice [citation needed]
Coca leaves Sacrifice Sometimes coca leaves from the plant were used as offerings in rituals. Due to the nature of politics and religion in the Inca Empire, wealthy inhabitants handed out coca leaves during ritual ceremonies.[133]
Alcohol
edit
Vernacular name Species Use Regions/Cultures of use
Alcohol (liquor), and tobacco Ofrenda An ofrenda (Spanish: "offering") is the offering placed in a home altar during the annual and traditionally Mexican Día de los Muertos celebration. An ofrenda, which may be quite large and elaborate, is usually created by the family members of a person who has died and is intended to welcome the deceased to the altar setting. For deceased adults, the ofrenda might include a bottle or poured shot glasses of tequila or mezcal.[134][better source needed]
Alcohol (liquor), and tobacco Veneration Maximón is venerated in the form of an effigy or cult image. Worship varies greatly by location. In Santiago Atitlán, Maximón's effigy resides in a different household every year. His image is normally only taken out of this house during Holy Week, whereafter it will change households, but is on display year-round due to the popularity of pilgrimages. The effigy has special attendants that stay by the altar year-round, drinking and smoking alongside it. They deliver offerings from the public to the image. Popular offerings include money, tobacco, and moonshine.[135]
Kosher wine Element in Kiddush

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^ Backshall, Steve (6 January 2008). "Bitten by the Amazon". London: The Sunday Times. Archived from the original on February 22, 2014. Retrieved 13 July 2013.
  2. ^ "BUFO ALVARIUS, SONORAN DESERT TOAD (5MeoDMT): The experience of cosmic unity, which gives an enlightening vision of oneself and of existence". Alberto José Varela. 12 September 2016. Archived from the original on 13 February 2020. Retrieved 13 February 2020.
  3. ^ Schmull, Michaela; Dal-Forno, Manuela; Lücking, Robert; Cao, Shugeng; Clardy, Jon; Lawrey, James D. (2014). "Dictyonema huaorani (Agaricales: Hygrophoraceae), a new lichenized basidiomycete from Amazonian Ecuador with presumed hallucinogenic properties". The Bryologist. 117 (4): 386–394. doi:10.1639/0007-2745-117.4.386. S2CID 84084929.
  4. ^ Nyberg, H. (1992). "Religious use of hallucinogenic fungi: A comparison between Siberian and Mesoamerican Cultures". Karstenia. 32 (71–80): 71–80. doi:10.29203/ka.1992.294.
  5. ^ Wasson, R. Gordon (1980). The wondrous mushroom: Mycolatry in Mesoamerica. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 5–10. ISBN 978-0-07-068442-3.
  6. ^ Harner, Michael (1980). The Way of the Shaman. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-250373-2.
  7. ^ Callaway, JC; Brito, GS; Neves, ES (2005). "Phytochemical analyses of Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 37 (2): 145–150. doi:10.1080/02791072.2005.10399795. PMID 16149327. S2CID 30736017.
  8. ^ Glasby, J. S. (1991-07-02). Directory Of Plants Containing Secondary Metabolites. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-203-48987-1. Retrieved 14 January 2015.
  9. ^ "Chemical Information". sun.ars-grin.gov. Archived from the original on 2004-11-21. Retrieved 2008-04-11.
  10. ^ Moretti C, Gaillard Y, Grenand P, Bévalot F, Prévosto JM (June 2006). "Identification of 5-hydroxy-tryptamine (bufotenine) in takini (Brosimumacutifolium Huber subsp. acutifolium C.C. Berg, Moraceae), a shamanic potion used in the Guiana Plateau". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 106 (2): 198–202. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2005.12.022. PMID 16455218.
  11. ^ "Ololiuqui (Rivea corymbosa)". Giftpflanzen Compendium (in German). [Poisonous Plants Compendium]. Retrieved 2008-04-18.
  12. ^ a b "The Leaves of the Shepherdess". Sage Wisdom.
  13. ^ Chao JM, Der Marderosian AH (1973). "Ergoline alkaloidal constituents of Hawaiian baby wood rose, Argyreia nervosa (Burmf) Bojer". J. Pharm. Sci. 62 (4): 588–591. doi:10.1002/jps.2600620409. PMID 4698977.
  14. ^ "Entheology.org - Preserving Ancient Knowledge". www.entheology.org. Archived from the original on 2006-05-02. Retrieved 2020-02-13.
  15. ^ "Erowid Online Books: "TIHKAL" - #25 IBOGAINE". Retrieved 14 January 2015.
  16. ^ Duke, "Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)".
  17. ^ Biaggioni, Italo; et al. (2011). Primer on the Autonomic Nervous System. Academic Press. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-12-386525-0.
  18. ^ Pennachio, Marcello; et al. (2010). Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke: Its Ethnobotany As Hallucinogen, Perfume, Incense, and Medicine. Oxford University Press. pp. 82–83. ISBN 978-0-19-537001-0.
  19. ^ Davis, Wade (1997). The Serpent and the Rainbow: a Harvard scientist's astonishing journey into the secret societies of Haitian voodoo, zombis and magic. Simon & Schuster. p. [page needed]. ISBN 978-0-684-83929-5.
  20. ^ "Jurema Ritual in Northern Brazil". www.maps.org.
  21. ^ Rätsch 2005, p. 1376.
  22. ^ Andrews, Steve; Rindsberg, Katrina (April 2001). Herbs of the Northern Shaman: A Guide to Mind-Altering Plants of the Northern Hemisphere. Loompanics Unlimited. ISBN 978-1-55950-211-5. OCLC 780276732.
  23. ^ Treza, Raphael (2011). "Hallucinogen honey hunters". topdocumentaryfilms.com. Retrieved 20 October 2015.
  24. ^ Jansen, Suze A.; Kleerekooper, Iris; Hofman, Zonne L. M.; Kappen, Isabelle F. P. M.; Stary-Weinzinger, Anna; van der Heyden, Marcel A. G. (September 2012). "Grayanotoxin Poisoning: 'Mad Honey Disease' and Beyond". Cardiovascular Toxicology. 12 (3): 208–215. doi:10.1007/s12012-012-9162-2. PMC 3404272. PMID 22528814.
  25. ^ Duke, "Ipomoea".
  26. ^ Carod-Artal, FJ (2015). "Hallucinogenic drugs in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures". Neurologia. 30 (1): 42–49. doi:10.1016/j.nrl.2011.07.003. PMID 21893367.
  27. ^ Duke, Ipomoea violacea (Convolvulaceae).
  28. ^ Agurell, S; Holmstedt, B; Lindgren, JE; Schultes, RE (1969). "Alkaloids in certain species of Virola and other South American plants of ethnopharmacologic interest". Acta Chemica Scandinavica. 23 (3): 903–16. doi:10.3891/acta.chem.scand.23-0903. PMID 5806312.
  29. ^ Catherine Beyer. "Peyote and the Native American Church". About.com Religion & Spirituality. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  30. ^ Shield, James Mark (2007) [Revised from original 1990 version], Christ and the Cactus: A Study of Peyotism among the Canadian Sioux (PDF), Bucknell University, archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-06-20, retrieved 2020-03-15
  31. ^ Rätsch 2005, p. 1285.
  32. ^ Valdés, Leander J. III; Díaz, JoséLuis; Paul, Ara G. (December 2002). "Ethnopharmacology of ska María Pastora (Salvia divinorum, Epling AND Játiva-M.)". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 83 (3): 287–312. doi:10.1016/0378-8741(83)90004-1. hdl:2027.42/25229. PMID 6876852.
  33. ^ a b c Ott, Jonathan (2001). "Pharmañopo-psychonautics: Human intranasal, sublingual, intrarectal, pulmonary and oral pharmacology of bufotenine". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 33 (3): 273–281. doi:10.1080/02791072.2001.10400574. PMID 11718320. S2CID 5877023. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2020-02-13.
  34. ^ Ott, Jonathan (2001). Shamanic Snuffs or Enthogenic Errhines. EthnoBotanica. p. 90. ISBN 1-888755-02-4.
  35. ^ Ogalde, Juan P.; Bernardo T. Arriaza; Elia C. Soto (2010). "Uso de plantas psicoactivas en el north de Chile: evidencia química del consumo de ayahuasca durante el periodo medio (500-1000 d.C.)". Latin American Antiquity (in Spanish). 21 (4): 441–450. doi:10.7183/1045-6635.21.4.441. S2CID 163915994.
  36. ^ "2CB chosen over traditional entheogen's by South African healers". Tacethno.com. 2008-03-27. Retrieved May 15, 2012.
  37. ^ The Nexus Factor - An Introduction to 2C-B Erowid
  38. ^ Ubulawu Nomathotholo Pack Photo by Erowid. © 2002 Erowid.org
  39. ^ "Temple of the true inner light". psychede.tripod.com. Retrieved 2013-03-31.
  40. ^ "Erowid Ketamine Vault : Ketamine and Quantum Psychiatry, by Karl Jansen".
  41. ^ MDMA and Religion Archived 2013-04-24 at the Wayback Machine. CSP. Retrieved on 11 June 2011.
  42. ^ "Ethnopharmacognosy and Human Pharmacology of Salvia divinorum and Salvinorin A". Sagewisdom.org. Retrieved 2013-01-13.
  43. ^ Brandt, Simon D.; Kavanagh, Pierce V.; Westphal, Folker; Stratford, Alexander; Odland, Anna U.; Klein, Adam K.; Dowling, Geraldine; Dempster, Nicola M.; Wallach, Jason; Passie, Torsten; Halberstadt, Adam L. (2020). "Return of the lysergamides. Part VI: Analytical and behavioural characterization of 1-cyclopropanoyl-d-lysergic acid diethylamide (1CP-LSD)". Drug Testing and Analysis. 12 (6): 812–826. doi:10.1002/dta.2789. ISSN 1942-7611. PMC 9191646. PMID 32180350. S2CID 212738912.
  44. ^ "KavaKava". LiverTox: Clinical and Research Information on Drug-Induced Liver Injury. Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. 2012. PMID 31643176.
  45. ^ "Entada rheedii - African Dream Herb"[permanent dead link‍], www.entheology.org
  46. ^ J. F. Sobiecki (2008). "A review of plants used in divination in southern Africa and their psychoactive effects" (PDF). Southern African Humanities. 20: 333–351. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-11. Retrieved 2020-02-13.
  47. ^ "Nicotiana sp". artsci.wustl.edu. Archived from the original on 2008-09-06. Retrieved 2008-03-17.
  48. ^ "Shamanic Tobaccos". Food of the Gods: The Search for the Original Tree of Knowledge - A Radical History of Plants, Drugs, and Human Evolution. Bantam. 1992. p. 196. ISBN 0-553-37130-4.
  49. ^ "Meeting The Tobacco Spirit - Reality Sandwich". Reality Sandwich. 27 March 2014.
  50. ^ a b Rätsch 2005, pp. 908, 924–926.
  51. ^ Sałaga, Maciej; Fichna, Jakub; Socała, Katarzyna; Nieoczym, Dorota; Pieróg, Mateusz; Zielińska, Marta; Kowalczuk, Anna; Wlaź, Piotr (2016). "Neuropharmacological characterization of the oneirogenic Mexican plant Calea zacatechichi aqueous extract in mice". Metabolic Brain Disease. 31 (3): 631–641. doi:10.1007/s11011-016-9794-1. ISSN 0885-7490. PMC 4863909. PMID 26821073.
  52. ^ Bertol, Elisabetta; Fineschi, Vittorio; Karch, Steven B.; Mari, Francesco; Riezzo, Irene (2004). "Nymphaea cults in ancient Egypt and the New World: a lesson in empirical pharmacology". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 97 (2): 84–85. doi:10.1177/014107680409700214. PMC 1079300. PMID 14749409.
  53. ^ "Magical and Historical Uses for Chili Pepper and Cayenne". The Practical Herbalist. 3 November 2015.
  54. ^ "Illicit Production of Cocaine – [www.rhodium.ws]". Erowid.org. Retrieved 2013-03-26.
  55. ^ Museo del Oro, Banco de la República. "Museo del Oro, Colombia" (in Spanish). Banrep.gov.co. Archived from the original on 11 May 2013. Retrieved 9 November 2012.
  56. ^ Dillinger, T. L.; Barriga, P.; Escárcega, S.; Jimenez, M.; Salazar Lowe, D.; Grivetti, L. E. (2000). "Food of the gods: Cure for humanity? A cultural history of the medicinal and ritual use of chocolate". The Journal of Nutrition. 130 (8S Suppl): 2057S–72S. doi:10.1093/jn/130.8.2057S. PMID 10917925.
  57. ^ Duke, Coffea arabica (Rubiaceae).
  58. ^ Weinberg, Bennett Alan; Bealer, Bonnie K. (2001). The world of caffeine. Routledge. pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-0-415-92723-9.
  59. ^ McHugo, John (18 April 2013). "How a drink downed by Arab mystics went global". BBC News.
  60. ^ Lewis, WH; Kennelly, EJ; Bass, GN; Wedner, HJ; Elvin, L (1991). "Ritualistic use of the holly Ilex guayusa by Amazonian Jivaro Indians". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 33 (1–2): 25–30. doi:10.1016/0378-8741(91)90156-8. PMID 1682531.
  61. ^ Spruce, R. (1996). Notas de un botánico en el Amazonas y los Andes. Quito, Ecuador: Colección Tierra Incógnita.
  62. ^ Rätsch 2005, p. 1656.
  63. ^ Duke, "Piper methysticum (Piperaceae)".
  64. ^ Duke, "Catha edulis (Celastraceae)".
  65. ^ "Compound Summary: Cathinone". PubChem. NIH National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem CID 62258. Retrieved 31 December 2023.
  66. ^ Szendrei, K. (1980). "The chemistry of khat". UNODC Bulletin on Narcotics. 32 (3–002). United Nations, Office on Drugs and Crime: 5–35. PMID 6911031.
  67. ^ "New Features".
  68. ^ Kikura-Hanajiri, Ruri; Kawamura, Maiko; Maruyama, Takuro; Kitajima, Mariko; Takayama, Hiromitsu; Goda, Yukihiro (July 2009). "Simultaneous analysis of mitragynine, 7-hydroxymitragynine, and other alkaloids in the psychotropic plant "kratom" (Mitragyna speciosa) by LC-ESI-MS". Forensic Toxicology. 27 (2): 67–74. doi:10.1007/s11419-009-0070-5. ISSN 1860-8973. S2CID 25610332.
  69. ^ Singh, Darshan; Narayanan, Suresh; Vicknasingam, Balasingam (September 2016). "Traditional and non-traditional uses of Mitragynine (Kratom): A survey of the literature". Brain Research Bulletin. 126 (Pt 1): 41–46. doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.05.004. PMID 27178014. S2CID 3952688.
  70. ^ Duke, "Papaver somniferum (Papaveraceae)".
  71. ^ M J Brownstein (June 15, 1993). "A brief history of opiates, opioid peptides, and opioid receptors". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 90 (12): 5391–5393. Bibcode:1993PNAS...90.5391B. doi:10.1073/pnas.90.12.5391. PMC 46725. PMID 8390660.
  72. ^ a b Paul L. Schiff, Jr. (2002). "Opium and its alkaloids". American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. Archived from the original on October 21, 2007. Retrieved May 8, 2007.
  73. ^ "The Early History of the Poppy and Opium -- OpiumPoppies.org". 27 December 2014. Archived from the original on 2014-12-27.
  74. ^ E. Guerra Doce (January 1, 2006). "Evidencias del consumo de drogas en Europa durante la Prehistoria". Trastornos Adictivos (in Spanish). 8 (1): 53–61. doi:10.1016/S1575-0973(06)75106-6. Archived from the original on May 15, 2008. Retrieved May 10, 2007. (includes image)
  75. ^ "Papaver somniferum - Opium Poppy". Entheology.org - Preserving Ancient Knowledge. n.d.
  76. ^ Ratsch, Angela; Mason, Andrea; Rive, Linda; Bogossian, Fiona; Steadman, Kathryn (2017). "The Pituri Learning Circle: Central Australian Aboriginal women's knowledge and practices around the use of Nicotiana SPP. As a chewing tobacco". Rural and Remote Health. 17 (3): 4044. doi:10.22605/RRH4044. PMID 28780876.
  77. ^ Duke, "Camellia sinensis (Theaceae)".
  78. ^ Madrid, Patrick (March 1992). "Wrath of Grapes". This Rock. 3 (3). Archived from the original on 2007-03-07. Retrieved 2007-03-16. The [Catholic] Church teaches ... that wine, like food, sex, laughter, and dancing, is a good thing when enjoyed in its proper time and context. To abuse any good thing is a sin, but the thing abused does not itself become sinful.
  79. ^ O'Callaghan, Paul (March 1992). "The Spirit of True Christianity". Word Magazine. Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America: 8–9. Retrieved 2007-03-16. So alcohol, sex, the body, money, television, and music are all good things. It is only the abuse of these things that is bad—drunkenness, pornography, compulsive gambling, etc. Even drugs marijuana, cocaine, heroin—all have good uses for medical and other reasons. It's only the abuse of them for pleasure that is wrong.
  80. ^ Ethical Investment Advisory Group (January 2005). "Alcohol: An inappropriate investment for Anglicanism" (PDF). Church of England. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-02-26. Retrieved 2007-02-08. Christians who are committed to total abstinence have sometimes interpreted biblical references to wine as meaning unfermented grape juice, but this is surely inconsistent with the recognition of both good and evil in the biblical attitude to wine. It is self-evident that human choice plays a crucial role in the use or abuse of alcohol.
  81. ^ "Responding to Opportunities for 'Interim Eucharistic Sharing'" (PDF). Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-02-14. Retrieved 2007-02-24. While many Lutheran congregations also provide grape juice or unfermented wine as an alternative, Lutherans have more emphasized the historical and ecumenical continuities which wine provides, as well as the richness and multivalences of its symbolic associations.
  82. ^ "Theology and Practice of The Lord's Supper - Part I" (PDF). Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod. May 1983. Retrieved 2007-02-24.
  83. ^ "Alcohol". Presbyterian 101. Presbyterian Church (USA). Archived from the original on 2003-04-13. Retrieved 2007-02-24.
  84. ^ "Introduction to Worship in the United Church of Christ" (PDF). Book of Worship. United Church of Christ. 1986. pp. Footnote 27. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-06-08. Retrieved 2007-02-24.
  85. ^ "Alcohol". Christian Reformed Church in North America. 1996–2007. Archived from the original on 2012-10-21. Retrieved 2007-02-24.
  86. ^ "Alcohol, Beverage use of". Presbyterian Church in America, 8th General Assembly. 1980. Archived from the original on 2017-09-12. Retrieved 2007-02-24.
  87. ^ "Maintain a Balanced View Of Alcohol". Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. 2004. Retrieved 2012-11-24.
  88. ^ Tann, Mambo Chita (2012-02-08). Haitian Vodou: An Introduction to Haiti's Indigenous Spiritual Tradition. Llewellyn Worldwide. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-7387-3163-6.
  89. ^ Snellgrove 1987, p. 168.
  90. ^ Williams, Tribe & Wynne 2012, p. 212.
  91. ^ Williams, Tribe & Wynne 2012, p. 236.
  92. ^ Sharma, Nitasha; Rickly, Jillian (2019-11-02). "'The smell of death and the smell of life': authenticity, anxiety and perceptions of death at Varanasi's cremation grounds". Journal of Heritage Tourism. 14 (5–6): 466–477. doi:10.1080/1743873X.2019.1610411. S2CID 164957487.
  93. ^ Holden, Lynn (2001). Taboos: Structure and Rebellion. The Institute for Cultural Research. p. 19. ISBN 978-0904674330.
  94. ^ Carod-Artal, F.J. (2015). "Hallucinogenic drugs in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures". Neurología (English Edition). 30 (1): 42–49. doi:10.1016/j.nrleng.2011.07.010. PMID 21893367.
  95. ^ French L (2008). "Psychoactive agents and Native American spirituality: Past and present". Contemporary Justice Review. 11 (2): 155–63. doi:10.1080/10282580802058270. S2CID 143549807.
  96. ^ Evans, Susan Toby (2013). Ancient Mexico & Central America : archaeology and culture history. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-29065-1. OCLC 811320587.
  97. ^ "'World's oldest brewery' found in cave in Israel, say researchers". British Broadcasting Corporation. 15 September 2018. Retrieved 15 September 2018.
  98. ^ "13,000-year-old brewery discovered in Israel, the oldest in the world". The Times of Israel. 12 September 2018. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
  99. ^ "This Ancient Incan Corn Beer Might Bring You Closer to the Gods". Munchies. 25 April 2016.
  100. ^ Borras, Laurence; Khazaal, Yasser; Khan, Riaz; Mohr, Sylvia; Kaufmann, Yves-Alexandre; Zullino, Daniele; Huguelet, Philippe (1 December 2010). "The relationship between addiction and religion and its possible implication for care". Substance Use & Misuse. 45 (14): 2357–2410. doi:10.3109/10826081003747611. PMC 4137975. PMID 21039108.
  101. ^ "Drinking on Purim". aishcom. 28 February 2015.
  102. ^ Fernando Guerrero Rodriguez, Jesus (2007). "Old Norse Drinking Culture" (PDF).
  103. ^ William B. Taylor. Drinking, Homicide, and Rebellion in Colonial Mexican Villages. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
  104. ^ Katzew, Ilona (2004). Casta Painting. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 112.
  105. ^ Soileau, Mark (August 2012). "Spreading the Sofra: Sharing and Partaking in the Bektashi Ritual Meal". History of Religions. 52 (1): 1–30. doi:10.1086/665961. JSTOR 10.1086/665961. Retrieved June 5, 2021.
  106. ^ Thomas P. Kasulis (August 2004). Shinto. University of Hawaii Press. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-8248-6430-9.
  107. ^ Brian Bocking (30 September 2005). A Popular Dictionary of Shinto. Routledge. p. 175. ISBN 978-1-135-79738-6.
  108. ^ "The Sacred Corn Beer of the Tarahumara". NPR.org.
  109. ^ John Burnett, The Sacred Corn Beer of the Tarahumara, Npr.org, 25 March 2005
  110. ^ "The History of Alcohol - Invent.Answers.com". Archived from the original on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 1 April 2014.
  111. ^ "Liber 15 – The Gnostic Mass". sacred-texts.com. Archived from the original on 2023-08-17. Retrieved 2023-08-31.
  112. ^ Zapata Ortiz, Vicente (1952). "The Problem of the Chewing of the Coca Leaf in Peru". UNODC Bulletin on Narcotics (2–008). United Nations, Office on Drugs and Crime: 26–33.
  113. ^ Hanna, Joel; Hornick, Conrad A. (January–March 1977). "Use of coca leaf in southern Peru: Adaptation or addiction". UNODC Bulletin on Narcotics. 29 (1–006). United Nations, Office on Drugs and Crime: 63–74.
  114. ^ "Report of the Commission of Enquiry on the Coca Leaf" (PDF). United Nations Economic and Social Council: 31. May 1950. Retrieved August 4, 2014.
  115. ^ Jenkins, Amanda J.; Llosa, Teobaldo; Montoya, Ivan; Cone, Edward J. (9 February 1996). "Identification and quantitation of alkaloids in coca tea". Forensic Science International. 77 (3): 179–189. doi:10.1016/0379-0738(95)01860-3. ISSN 0379-0738. PMC 2705900. PMID 8819993.
  116. ^ Biondich, Amy Sue; Joslin, Jeremy David (2016). "Coca: The History and Medical Significance of an Ancient Andean Tradition". Emergency Medicine International. 2016: 4048764. doi:10.1155/2016/4048764. ISSN 2090-2840. PMC 4838786. PMID 27144028.
  117. ^ Biwer, Matthew E.; Álvarez, Willy Yépez; Bautista, Stefanie L.; Jennings, Justin (February 2022). "Hallucinogens, alcohol and shifting leadership strategies in the ancient Peruvian Andes". Antiquity. 96 (385): 142–158. doi:10.15184/aqy.2021.177. S2CID 246999684.
  118. ^ Erspamer V, Melchiorri P, Falconieri-Erspamer G, et al. (July 1989). "Deltorphins: a family of naturally occurring peptides with high affinity and selectivity for delta opioid binding sites". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 86 (13): 5188–92. Bibcode:1989PNAS...86.5188E. doi:10.1073/pnas.86.13.5188. PMC 297583. PMID 2544892.
  119. ^ Melchiorri P, Negri L (1996). "The dermorphin peptide family". General Pharmacology: The Vascular System. 27 (7): 1099–1107. doi:10.1016/0306-3623(95)02149-3. PMID 8981054.
  120. ^ Amiche, M.; Delfour, A.; Nicolas, P. (1998). "Opioid peptides from frog skin". In Pierre Jolles (ed.). d-Amino Acids in Sequences of Secreted Peptides of Multicellular Organisms. Experientia Supplementum (EXS). Vol. 85. Basel, Switzerland: Birkhäuser Basel. pp. 57–71. doi:10.1007/978-3-0348-8837-0_4 (inactive 2024-11-02). ISBN 978-3-0348-9794-5. ISSN 1664-431X. PMID 9949868.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link) Link to Springer (publisher) page for Experientia Supplementum (EXS) series
  121. ^ Leban, V; Kozelk, G; Brvar, M (2016). "The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion after giant leaf frog (Phyllomedusa bicolor) venom exposure". Toxicon. 120: 107–109. Bibcode:2016Txcn..120..107L. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.07.007. PMID 27421671.
  122. ^ Daly, M (May 10, 2016). "How Amazonian Tree Frog Poison Became the Latest Treatment for Addiction". Vice.
  123. ^ "About Kambo". International Association of Kambo Practitioners. Archived from the original on 2016-11-21. Retrieved 2020-02-13.
  124. ^ Gigliarelli, G; Becerra, JX; Curini, M; Marcotullio, MC (12 December 2015). "Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Fragrant Mexican Copal (Bursera spp.)". Molecules (Basel, Switzerland). 20 (12): 22383–94. doi:10.3390/molecules201219849. PMC 6332072. PMID 26703535.
  125. ^ "Church endorses 'holy water' and ARVs as people flock to miracle mountain". The New Humanitarian. 2007-05-25. Archived from the original on 2022-07-14. Retrieved 2022-07-14.
  126. ^ "HIV Prevention and Counseling at Holy Water Sites in Ethiopia". globalhealth.washington.edu. 2015-09-28. Archived from the original on 2022-07-14. Retrieved 2022-07-14.
  127. ^ Smithsonian Institution. "Buddhist ritual sprinkler (kundika) <Internet>". Archived from the original on 21 June 2007. Retrieved 16 July 2007.
  128. ^ The British Museum. "Stoneware kundika (water sprinkler) <Internet>". Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 16 July 2007.
  129. ^ "USDA Plants Database" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-11-22.
  130. ^ DeKorne, Jim (2011). Psychedelic shamanism: the cultivation, preparation, and shamanic use of psychotropic plants (Rev. ed.). Berkeley, Calif.: North Atlantic Books. ISBN 978-1-55643-999-5.
  131. ^ Cleversley, Keith (January 2002). "Peganum harmala - Syrian Rue". Entheology.com.
  132. ^ Rätsch 2005, "Peganum harmala Linnaeus: Syrian Rue, Harmel", pp. 1022–1928.
  133. ^ Quilter, Jeffrey (2022). The Ancient Central Andes (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge World Archaeology. pp. 38–39, 279. ISBN 978-0-367-48151-3.
  134. ^ Gutiérrez, Isabel. "Día de los Muertos: Learning about death through observing and pitching in". ResearchGate. p. 234.
  135. ^ Meet Maximón: The Liquor-Drinking, Chain-Smoking Saint, National Geographic, Bethany Jones, January 24th, 2018

Works cited

edit

Databases

edit
  • "Search the databases", Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases, U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
    • USDA online database compiled from: Duke, James A. (1992). Handbook of phytochemical constituents of GRAS herbs and other economic plants (First ed.). Boca Raton, United States: CRC Press. ISBN 9780849336720. OCLC 25874249.

Further reading

edit
  • Duke, James A. (2001). Handbook of phytochemical constituents of GRAS herbs and other economic plants (Second ed.). Boca Raton, FL, United States: CRC Press. ISBN 9780849338656.
  • Ott, Jonathan (1996). Pharmacotheon: Entheogenic drugs, their plant sources and history. Kennewick, US: Natural Products Co. ISBN 978-0-9614234-8-3.
  • Wasson, R. Gordon (1980). The wondrous mushroom: Mycolatry in Mesoamerica. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 97–99. ISBN 978-0-07-068442-3.

    Chocolate was drunk cold and mixed with aromatic flower petals of which the overwhelming favorite was cacahua-xochitl. Indeed it seems as though these particular petals were indispensable. Our poets' 'chocolate flowers' had nothing to do botanically with Theobroma cacao, but everything to do with the chocolate beverage as drunk by the aristocrats ... my belief that the flowers of the Nahuatl poets come from their exclusive privilege for indulging in the flower petals of the cacahuaxochitl. Here we are dealing with a tree that grows in Veracruz and Oaxaca, known today to botanists as Quararibea funebris. Whether the petals of these flowers were entheogens such as the mushroom and morning-glory seeds, I do not know, but that the lords of Nahua so regarded them seems virtually certain.

    — Wasson (1980). "A Velada in Huautla". p. 98
  • Wasson, R. Gordon (1968). Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality. Part 2 by Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
  • Wood, Stephanie; Eugene, Ore, eds. (2000–2023). "Nahuatl Dictionary". cacahuaxochitl. With support from the National Science Foundation and the National Endowment for the Humanities. Wired Humanities Projects, College of Education, University of Oregon.
Retrieved from "https://en.wiki.x.io/w/index.php?title=List_of_substances_used_in_rituals&oldid=1264036239"