The emperors of the Ming dynasty, who were all members of the House of Zhu, ruled over China proper from 1368 to 1644 during the late imperial era of China (221 BC – 1912). Members of the Ming dynasty continued to rule a series of rump states in southern China, commonly known as the Southern Ming, until 1662; the Ming dynasty followed the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty and preceded the Manchu-led Qing dynasty.
Emperor of the Great Ming | |
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大明皇帝 | |
Imperial | |
Details | |
Style | Your Majesty, His Majesty the Emperor |
First monarch | |
Last monarch |
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Formation |
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Abolition |
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Residence |
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Appointer | Hereditary |
The Ming dynasty was founded by the peasant rebel leader Zhu Yuanzhang, known as the Hongwu Emperor. The longest-reigning emperor of the dynasty was the Wanli Emperor (r. 1572–1620), who ruled for 48 years; the shortest was his successor, the Taichang Emperor, who ruled for only 29 days in 1620. The youngest ruler at the time of his ascension was Emperor Yingzong, who was only 9 years old, while the oldest ruler at the time of his death was the Hongwu Emperor, who died at the age of 71.[2]
The emperor of the Ming dynasty, following a practice established in the Zhou dynasty, was known as the "Son of Heaven" (天子; Tianzi).[3] He was seen as the intermediary between humans and heaven and was responsible for conducting numerous rituals to honor the supreme deities who safeguarded the empire, including the heavens, the earth, and the imperial ancestors.[4] Additionally, he participated in various ceremonies to commemorate significant events in both his own life and that of the empire, such as the promotion of an heir, a concubine, the granting of fiefs, the reception of envoys, and the metropolitan examinations. During his daily audiences, his subjects were expected to demonstrate their submission by prostrating themselves before him.[5] However, in reality, the majority of decisions were made by the Grand Secretariat and the ministries.[6] When he traveled, he was accompanied by an impressive entourage and protected by his imperial guard.[7]
Of sixteen Ming emperors, fourteen resided in the Forbidden City, a 72 ha (180-acre) complex of palaces and buildings in Beijing. Prior to 1420, the emperors' residence was located in a similar complex in Nanjing.[8]
Background
editThe Ming dynasty was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang (the Hongwu Emperor), who was one of the leaders of the Red Turban peasant rebellion. Despite humble beginnings, he successfully built his own state, defeated other rebel leaders, and forced the last Yuan emperor to flee China proper. On Chinese New Year in 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang declared the establishment of a new imperial dynasty titled Great Ming (大明; Da Ming) and declared himself its first emperor.[11]
The emperors of the Ming dynasty inherited the throne according to the principle of primogeniture. According to the Hongwu Emperor's Ancestral Instructions, the successor to the throne was always the eldest son of the emperor and empress, or his heir, followed by younger sons of the empress. However, sons of concubines were excluded from the line of succession. It was a strict rule that conservative officials strongly insisted on following. Even the Wanli Emperor, who for two decades tried to appoint his third son, Zhu Changxun, as crown prince, was eventually forced to step down and appoint his eldest son, the future Taichang Emperor.[12] The only successful violator of the succession rules was the Yongle Emperor, the third emperor of the dynasty. He gained power in a three-year civil war against his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor.[13]
The emperor, or huangdi, was the supreme head of state, a tradition that dated back to the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and was continued by the Ming dynasty.[15] In theory, he held ultimate authority over all officials and generals, and the entire country was expected to obey his decrees. However, this power came at a cost, as the Hongwu Emperor tightly controlled his power through numerous purges.[16] As the dynasty progressed, the successors of the Hongwu Emperor lacked his decisiveness and were constrained by traditional limitations.[17] The emperor was not expected to make independent decisions regarding the direction of the country.[18] Instead, memoranda and demands were presented to them with proposed solutions. The emperor's role was to either confirm the submitted proposals or negotiate an alternative solution with the submitters.[18] Similarly, the emperors appointed officials and generals based on recommendations from the Ministry of Personnel or the Ministry of War. In the case of high dignitaries, the ruler was given a choice between two to three candidates.[18] Major issues were typically discussed at official audiences or informal meetings, and it was necessary to reach a broad consensus among court dignitaries before making any significant decisions.[17]
During the reigns of the Hongwu Emperor and his successors, China generally experienced a period of economic growth and political stability.[19] However, in the 17th century, a combination of climate changes and poor economic policies led to widespread famines and epidemics. As a result, the government's authority weakened, and numerous uprisings erupted. In 1644, the rebel army successfully captured Beijing, leading to the suicide of the last Ming emperor, the Chongzhen Emperor (r. 1627–1644).[20] The leader of the uprising, Li Zicheng, declared himself the emperor of the new Shun dynasty. To defeat the rebels, Wu Sangui, the last Ming general in the northeast, invited the Manchu-led Eight Banners of the Qing dynasty to enter the Central Plains. The Manchus then occupied northern China that same year.[21]
Despite losing control of the north, members of the Ming imperial family continued to rule over southern China. However, they were gradually pushed out by the Manchus until the last Ming emperor, Zhu Youlang, was executed in 1662 in Burma. Later historians referred to the emperors of the Ming regimes in southern China as the rulers of the Southern Ming dynasty.[22]
List of emperors
editThe emperor's personal name (名字; Mingzi) was tabooed after his ascension to the throne. He was referred to and addressed with titles of varying degrees of formality—Your Majesty (陛下; Bixia), His Majesty the Emperor (皇上 Huangshang, or simply 上 Shang).[23] After death, the emperor received an honorary posthumous name (謚號; Shihao), usually consisting of nineteen written characters for emperors of the Ming dynasty; however, the founder of the dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor, was honored with a name of twenty-three written characters. Another name given posthumously was the temple name (廟號; Miaohao), and along with the posthumous name, they were used for worship in the Imperial Ancestral Temple.[24] Due to the repetition of the same temple and posthumous names for emperors of different dynasties, the dynastic name is used as a differentiator when necessary. For example, the Hongwu Emperor is frequently referred to as "Ming Taizu".[25]
Era name (年號; Nianhao), or "reign title", was chosen at the beginning of the emperor's reign to reflect the political, economic, and/or social landscapes at the time.[25] During the Ming dynasty, except for Emperor Yingzong, the emperors only declared one era name during their reign, whereas emperors of previous dynasties usually had multiple era names. As a result, the emperors of the Ming dynasty were commonly referred to by their single era names.[26]
Ming dynasty (1368–1644)
editPersonal name | Portrait | Lifespan | Reign | Posthumous name | Temple name | Era name | Years | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Zhu Yuanzhang [27] |
朱元璋 | 21 October 1328 – 24 June 1398 |
23 January 1368 – 24 June 1398 |
Emperor Kaitian Xingdao Zhaoji Liji Dasheng Zhishen Renwen Yiwu Junde Chenggong Gao | 開天行道肇紀立極大聖至神仁文義武俊德成功高皇帝 | Taizu | 太祖 | Hongwu | 洪武 | 23 January 1368 – 5 February 1399[a] | |
Zhu Yunwen [30] |
朱允炆 | 5 December 1377 – 13 July 1402 |
30 June 1398 – 13 July 1402 |
Emperor Gongmin Hui | 恭閔惠皇帝 | Huizong[b] | 惠宗 | Jianwen | 建文 | 6 February 1399 – 13 July 1402 | |
Zhu Di [32] |
朱棣 | 2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424 |
17 July 1402 – 12 August 1424 |
Emperor Qitian Hongdao Gaoming Zhaoyun Shengwu Shengong Chunren Zhixiao Wen | 啓天弘道高明肇運聖武神功純仁至孝文皇帝 | Chengzu[c] | 成祖 | Yongle | 永樂 | 23 January 1403 – 19 January 1425 | |
Zhu Gaochi [33] |
朱高熾 | 16 August 1378 – 29 May 1425 |
12 August 1424 – 29 May 1425 |
Emperor Jingtian Tidao Chuncheng Zhide Hongwen Qinwu Zhangsheng Daxiao Zhao | 敬天體道純誠至德弘文欽武章聖達孝昭皇帝 | Renzong | 仁宗 | Hongxi | 洪熙 | 20 January 1425 – 7 February 1426 | |
Zhu Zhanji [34] |
朱瞻基 | 16 March 1399 – 31 January 1435 |
29 May 1425 – 31 January 1435 |
Emperor Xiantian Chongdao Yingming Shensheng Qinwen Zhaowu Kuanren Chunxiao Zhang | 憲天崇道英明神聖欽文昭武寬仁純孝章皇帝 | Xuanzong | 宣宗 | Xuande | 宣德 | 8 February 1426 – 17 January 1436 | |
Zhu Qizhen [35] |
朱祁鎮 | 29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464 |
31 January 1435 – 22 September 1449 |
Emperor Fatian Lidao Renming Chengjing Zhaowen Xianwu Zhide Guangxiao Rui | 法天立道仁明誠敬昭文憲武至德廣孝睿皇帝 | Yingzong | 英宗 | Zhengtong | 正統 | 18 January 1436 – 13 January 1450 | |
11 February 1457 – 23 February 1464 |
Tianshun[d] | 天順 | 11 February 1457 – 26 January 1465 | ||||||||
Zhu Qiyu [37] |
朱祁鈺 | 21 September 1428 – 14 March 1457 |
22 September 1449 – 11 February 1457 |
Emperor Gongren Kangding Jing | 恭仁康定景皇帝 | Daizong | 代宗 | Jingtai | 景泰 | 14 January 1450 – 11 February 1457 | |
Zhu Jianshen [38] |
朱見濡 | 9 December 1447 – 9 September 1487 |
23 February 1464 – 9 September 1487 |
Emperor Jitian Ningdao Chengming Renjing Chongwen Suwu Hongde Shengxiao Chun | 繼天凝道誠明仁敬崇文肅武宏德聖孝純皇帝 | Xianzong | 憲宗 | Chenghua | 成化 | 27 January 1465 – 13 January 1488 | |
Zhu Youcheng [39] |
朱祐樘 | 30 July 1470 – 8 June 1505 |
9 September 1487 – 8 June 1505 |
Emperor Datian Mingdao Chuncheng Zhongzheng Shengwen Shenwu Zhiren Dade Jing | 達天明道純誠中正聖文神武至仁大德敬皇帝 | Xiaozong | 孝宗 | Hongzhi | 弘治 | 14 January 1488 – 23 January 1506 | |
Zhu Houzhao [40] |
朱厚照 | 26 October 1491 – 20 April 1521 |
8 June 1505 – 20 April 1521 |
Emperor Chengtian Dadao Yingsu Ruizhe Zhaode Xiangong Hongwen Sixiao Yi | 承天達道英肅睿哲昭德顯功弘文思孝毅皇帝 | Wuzong | 武宗 | Zhengde | 正德 | 27 January 1522 – 27 January 1522 | |
Zhu Houcong [41] |
朱厚熜 | 16 September 1507 – 23 January 1567 |
27 May 1521 – 23 January 1567 |
Emperor Qintian Lüdao Yingyi Shengshen Xuanwen Guangwu Hongren Daxiao Su | 欽天履道英毅聖神宣文廣武洪仁大孝肅皇帝 | Shizong | 世宗 | Jiajing | 嘉靖 | 28 January 1522 – 8 February 1567 | |
Zhu Zaiji [42] |
朱載坖 | 4 March 1537 – 5 July 1572 |
23 January 1567 – 5 July 1572 |
Emperor Qitian Longdao Yuanyi Kuanren Xianwen Guangwu Chunde Hongxiao Zhuang | 契天隆道淵懿寬仁顯文光武純德弘孝莊皇帝 | Muzong | 穆宗 | Longqing | 隆慶 | 9 February 1567 – 1 February 1573 | |
Zhu Yijun [43] |
朱翊鈞 | 4 September 1563 – 18 August 1620 |
5 July 1572 – 18 August 1620 |
Emperor Fantian Hedao Zhesu Dunjian Guangwen Zhangwu Anren Zhixiao Xian | 範天合道哲肅敦簡光文章武安仁止孝顯皇帝 | Shenzong | 神宗 | Wanli | 萬曆 | 2 February 1573 – 27 August 1620 | |
Zhu Changluo [44] |
朱常洛 | 28 August 1582 – 26 September 1620 |
28 August – 26 September 1620 |
Emperor Chongtian Qidao Yingrui Gongchun Xianwen Jingwu Yuanren Yixiao Zhen | 崇天契道英睿恭純憲文景武淵仁懿孝貞皇帝 | Guangzong | 光宗 | Taichang | 泰昌 | 28 August 1620 – 21 January 1621 | |
Zhu Youjiao [45] |
朱由校 | 23 December 1605 – 30 September 1627 |
26 September 1620 – 30 September 1627 |
Datian Chandao Dunxiao Duyou Zhangwen Xiangwu Jingmu Zhuangqin Zhe | 達天闡道敦孝篤友章文襄武靖穆莊勤悊皇帝 | Xizong | 熹宗 | Tianqi | 天啟 | 22 January 1621 – 4 February 1628 | |
Zhu Youjian [46] |
朱由檢 | 6 February 1611 – 25 April 1644 |
2 October 1627 – 25 April 1644 |
Emperor Zhuanglie Min | 莊烈愍皇帝 | Sizong | 思宗 | Chongzhen | 崇禎 | 5 February 1628 – 25 April 1644 |
Southern Ming (1644–1662)
editTitle before accession Personal name |
Lifespan | Title Reign |
Posthumous name | Temple name | Era name | Years | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Prince of Fu Zhu Yousong [47] |
朱由崧 | 5 September 1607 – 23 May 1646 |
Emperor 19 June 1644 – 15 June 1645 |
Emperor Chutian Chengdao Chengjing Yingzhe Zuanwen Beiwu Xuanren Duxiao Jian | 處天承道誠敬英哲纘文備武宣仁度孝簡皇帝 | Anzong | 安宗 | Hongguang | 弘光 | 28 January 1645 – 17 August 1645 |
Prince of Lu (Luh)[e] Zhu Changfang [48] |
朱常淓 | 1608 – 23 May 1646 |
Regent 1 July – 6 July 1645 |
— | — | regent Lu (Luh)[f] | 潞王監國 | 1 July – 6 July 1645 | ||
Prince of Tang Zhu Yujian [49] |
朱聿鍵 | 25 May 1602 – 6 October 1646 |
Emperor 18 August 1645 – 6 October 1646 |
Emperor Peitian Zhidao Hongyi Sumu Siwen Liewu Minren Guangxiao Xiang | 配天至道弘毅肅穆思文烈武敏仁廣孝襄皇帝 | Shaozong | 紹宗 | Longwu | 隆武 | 18 August 1645 – 4 February 1647 |
Prince of Lu (Lou)[e] Zhu Yihai [50] |
朱以海 | 6 July 1618 – 23 December 1662 |
Regent 7 September 1645 – 1653 |
— | — | regent Lu[f] | 魯監國 | 16 February 1646 – 1653 | ||
Prince of Tang Zhu Yuyue [51] |
朱聿鐭 | 1605 – 20 January 1647 |
Emperor 11 December 1646 – 20 January 1647 |
— | — | Shaowu[g] | 紹武 | — | ||
Prince of Gui Zhu Youlang [52] |
朱由榔 | 1 November 1623 – 1 June 1662 |
Emperor 24 December 1646 – 1 June 1662 |
Emperor Yingtian Tuidao Minyi Gongjian Jingwen Weiwu Liren Kexiao Kuang | 應天推道敏毅恭檢經文緯武禮仁克孝匡皇帝 | Zhaozong | 昭宗 | Yongli | 永曆 | 5 February 1647 – 1 June 1662 |
Posthumously recognized emperors
editPersonal name | Lifespan | Posthumous name | Temple name | Year recognized | Notes | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Zhu Bailiu | 朱百六 | Unknown lifespan | Emperor Xuan | 玄皇帝 | Dezu | 德祖 | 1368 | Great-great-grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor[53] |
Zhu Sijiu | 朱四九 | Unknown lifespan | Emperor Heng | 恆皇帝 | Yizu | 懿祖 | Great-grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor[53] | |
Zhu Chuyi | 朱初一 | Unknown lifespan | Emperor Yu | 裕皇帝 | Xizu | 熙祖 | Grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor[53] | |
Zhu Shizhen | 朱世珍 | 1281–1344 | Emperor Chun | 淳皇帝 | Renzu | 仁祖 | Father of the Hongwu Emperor[53] | |
Zhu Biao | 朱標 | 10 October 1355 – 17 May 1392 |
Emperor Xiaokang | 孝康皇帝 | Xingzong | 興宗 | 1399 1644 |
Son of the Hongwu Emperor, father of the Jianwen Emperor, who posthumously recognized him as emperor.[h][56] |
Zhu Youyuan | 朱祐杬 | 22 July 1476 – 13 July 1519 |
Emperor Zhitian Shoudao Hongde Yuanren Kuanmu Chunsheng Gongjian Jinwen Xian | 知天守道洪德淵仁寬穆純聖恭簡敬文獻皇帝 | Ruizong | 睿宗 | 1538 | Father of the Jiajing Emperor[57] |
Zhu Changxun | 朱常洵 | 22 February 1586 – 2 March 1641 |
Emperor Mutian Fudao Zhenchun Suzhe Xiuwen Xianwu Shengjing Renyi Xiao | 慕天敷道貞純肅哲修文顯武聖敬仁毅孝皇帝 | Gongzong | 恭宗 | 1644 | Father of the Hongguang Emperor, son of the Wanli Emperor[58] |
Zhu Yuwen | 朱宇溫 | 1490–1560 | Emperor Hui | 惠皇帝 | — | 1645 | Great-great-grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors[59] | |
Zhu Zhouyong | 朱宙栐 | 1538–1564 | Emperor Shun | 順皇帝 | — | Great-grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors[59] | ||
Zhu Shuohuang | 朱碩熿 | Unknown – 24 January 1630 | Emperor Duan | 端皇帝 | — | Grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors[59] | ||
Zhu Qisheng | 朱器墭 | Unknown – 1629 | Emperor Xuan | 宣皇帝 | — | Father of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors[59] | ||
Zhu Cilang | 朱慈烺 | 26 February 1629 – June 1644 |
Emperor Dao | 悼皇帝 | — | 1646 | Son of the Chongzhen Emperor[60] | |
Zhu Changying | 朱常瀛 | 25 April 1597 – 21 December 1645 |
Emperor Titian Changdao Zhuangyi Wenhong Xingwen Xuanwu Renzhi Chengxiao Duan | 體天昌道莊毅溫弘興文宣武仁智誠孝端皇帝 | Lizong | 禮宗 | Father of the Yongli Emperor, son of the Wanli Emperor[58] |
Timeline
editSee also
editNotes
edit- ^ After the Jianwen Emperor died in a palace fire, the Yongle Emperor ascended to the throne. In an attempt to diminish the legacy of his predecessor, he chose not to give him a temple name.[28] Additionally, he retroactively abolished the Jianwen era and extended the Hongwu era in its place.[29]
- ^ The temple name Huizong was given to the Jianwen Emperor long after his reign by Zhu Yousong, the Prince of Fu, in 1644.[31]
- ^ Following his death, the Yongle Emperor was given the temple name Taizong (太宗) by his successor the Hongxi Emperor, but this was changed on 3 October 1538 to Chengzu (成祖) by the Jiajing Emperor. The latter has been used since its bestowment.[31]
- ^ Emperor Yingzong was captured by the Mongols in 1449, and his brother, the Jingtai Emperor, ascended to the throne. After the Jingtai Emperor was deposed in a palace coup in 1457, Emperor Yingzong returned to the throne and declared a new era, Tianshun.[36]
- ^ a b The two characters are both pronounced Lu but with different tones; to distinguish them in Roman script, one is usually kept as Lu and the other spelled differently. Luh is from Cambridge History of China; Lou is from A.C. Moule's Rulers of China (1957). When one irregular spelling is used, the other is kept as regular (Lu). The two systems are distinct and not used simultaneously.
- ^ a b Not an actual era name, but used in place of an era name and served a similar function.
- ^ The era name Shaowu was originally planned to supersede Longwu in 1647, but the Shaowu Emperor's reign ended before the era name was put into effective use.
- ^ After overthrowing the Jianwen Emperor in 1402, the Yongle Emperor abolished Zhu Biao's emperor status.[54] In 1644, Zhu Biao was again promoted to the status of emperor.[55]
References
editCitations
edit- ^ Brook (2010), p. 12.
- ^ a b c Twitchett & Mote (1998), p. 16.
- ^ Paludan (1998), pp. 6–7.
- ^ "The Emperor in the Cosmic Order". Asia for Educators (AFE), Weatherhead East Asian Institute at Columbia University.
- ^ Duhalde, Marcelo (8 August 2018). "Life inside the Forbidden City. Chapter 3". South China Morning Post.
- ^ Ch'ien (1982), p. 96.
- ^ Paludan (1998), pp. 177, 180.
- ^ "Forbidden City". Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^ Atwell (2002), p. 84.
- ^ Melvin, Shelia (7 September 2011). "China's Reluctant Emperor". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
- ^ Dillon (2016), p. 444.
- ^ Huang (1997).
- ^ Huang (1997), p. 175.
- ^ Paludan (1998), p. 180.
- ^ Mote (2003), p. 98.
- ^ Ch'ien (1982), p. 91.
- ^ a b Ch'ien (1982), p. 93.
- ^ a b c Hucker (1966), p. 41.
- ^ Fan (2016), p. 97.
- ^ Paludan (1998), p. 187.
- ^ Atwell (1988), p. 639.
- ^ Dennerline (1985), pp. 824–825.
- ^ Twitchett & Mote 1998, p. 17; Wilkinson 2000, pp. 109–110.
- ^ Moule 1957, p. 106; Wilkinson 2018, pp. 288, 290–291; Twitchett & Mote 1998, p. 17.
- ^ a b Theobald, Ulrich (23 September 2011). "Chinese History – Names of Persons and Titles of Rulers". Chinaknowledge – a universal guide for China studies. Retrieved 10 July 2013.[better source needed]
- ^ Twitchett & Mote 1998, p. 17; Wilkinson 2000, pp. 294–295.
- ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 381–392; Paludan 1998; Langlois 1988, pp. 107–181; Moule 1957, p. 106; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
- ^ Goodrich & Fang (1976), p. 397.
- ^ Tsai (2002), p. 88.
- ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 397–404; Paludan 1998, p. 163; Chan 1988, pp. 184–204; Moule 1957, p. 106; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
- ^ a b Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
- ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 355–364; Paludan 1998, pp. 163–167; Chan 1988, pp. 205–275; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
- ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 338–340; Paludan 1998, pp. 167–169; Chan 1988, pp. 276–283; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
- ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 279–289; Paludan 1998, p. 169; Chan 1988, pp. 284–304; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
- ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 289–294; Paludan 1998, pp. 170–171; Twitchett & Grimm 1988, pp. 305–324, 339–342; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
- ^ Paludan (1998), p. 171.
- ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976; Paludan 1998, p. 171; Twitchett & Grimm 1988, pp. 325–338; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
- ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 298–304; Paludan 1998, pp. 173–174; Mote 1988, pp. 343–369; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
- ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 375–380; Paludan 1998, p. 174; Mote 1988, pp. 343–369; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
- ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 307–315; Paludan 1998, pp. 176–178; Geiss 1988a, pp. 403–439; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
- ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 315–322; Paludan 1998, pp. 178–180; Geiss 1988b, pp. 440–510; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
- ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 365–367; Paludan 1998, p. 180; Huang 1988, pp. 511–513; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
- ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 324–338; Paludan 1998, pp. 180–183; Huang 1988, pp. 511–517; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
- ^ Kennedy 1943a, pp. 176–177; Paludan 1998, p. 183; Atwell 1988, pp. 590–594; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
- ^ Kennedy 1943b, p. 190; Paludan 1998, pp. 183, 187; Atwell 1988, pp. 595–610; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 886.
- ^ Kennedy 1943c, pp. 191–192; Paludan 1998, p. 187; Atwell 1988, pp. 611–636; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 886.
- ^ Kennedy 1943d, pp. 195–196; Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii.
- ^ Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Kerlouegan 2011, p. 51.
- ^ Kennedy 1943e, pp. 196–198; Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. xxi.
- ^ Kennedy 1943g, pp. 180–182; Bo 2010, p. 543; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii.
- ^ Kennedy 1943e, pp. 196–198; Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii.
- ^ Kennedy 1943f, pp. 193–195; Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. xxi.
- ^ a b c d Zhang (1739), vol. 2.
- ^ Zhang 1739, vol. 115; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. 347.
- ^ Qian (2016), vol. 7.
- ^ Zhang 1739, vol. 115; Qian 2016, vol. 7; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii; Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 346–347.
- ^ Zhang 1739, vol. 115; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.
- ^ a b Qian 2016, vols. 7, 26; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.
- ^ a b c d Qian (2016), vols. 7, 26.
- ^ Qian 2016, vol. 26; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.
Works cited
edit- Zhang, Tingyu (1739). Ming Shi 明史 [History of Ming] (in Literary Chinese).
- Dennerline, Jerry P. (1985). "The Southern Ming, 1644–1662. By Lynn A. Struve". The Journal of Asian Studies. 44 (4). JSTOR 2056469. S2CID 162510092.
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Further reading
edit- Heer, Ph. de (1986). The Care-taker Emperor: Aspects of the Imperial Institution in Fifteenth-century China as Reflected in the Political History of the Reign of Chu Chʾi-yü. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9004078983.
External links
edit- Media related to Emperors of the Ming Dynasty at Wikimedia Commons