The Kra languages (/krɑː/ KRAH; also known as the Geyang or Kadai languages) are a branch of the Kra–Dai language family spoken in southern China (Guizhou, Guangxi, Yunnan) and in northern Vietnam (Hà Giang Province).
| Kra | |
|---|---|
| 仡央 Geyang | |
| Geographic distribution | Southern China, Northern Vietnam |
| Linguistic classification | Kra–Dai
|
| Proto-language | Proto-Kra |
| Language codes | |
| Glottolog | kada1291 |
Names
editThe name Kra comes from the word *kraC[1] "human" as reconstructed by Ostapirat (2000), which appears in various Kra languages as kra, ka, fa or ha. Benedict (1942) used the term Kadai for the Kra and Hlai languages grouped together and the term Kra-Dai is proposed by Ostapirat (2000).
The Kra branch was first identified as a unified group of languages by Liang (1990),[2] who called it the Geyang 仡央 languages. Geyang 仡央 is a portmanteau of the first syllable of Ge- in Gelao and the last syllable of -yang in Buyang. The name Kra was proposed by Ostapirat (2000) and is the term usually used by scholars outside China, whereas Geyang is the name currently used in China.
Significance
editSeveral Kra languages have regionally unusual consonant clusters and sesquisyllabic or disyllabic words, whereas other Kra–Dai languages tend to have only single syllables. The disyllables in Buyang have been used by Sagart (2004)[3] to support the view that the Kra-Dai languages are a subgroup within the Austronesian family. Unlike the Tai and Kam–Sui languages, most Kra languages, including Gelao and Buyang, have preserved the proto-Kra–Dai numerical systems. The only other Kra–Dai branch that preserves this is Hlai.[4] Most other Kra–Dai languages adopted Chinese numerals over 1000 years ago.
As noted by Jerold A. Edmondson, the Kra languages contain words in metalworking, handicrafts and agriculture that are not attested in any other Kra–Dai language.[5] This suggests that the Kra peoples may have developed or borrowed many technological innovations independently of the Tai and Kam-Sui peoples.
Reconstruction
editThe Proto-Kra language has been reconstructed by Weera Ostapirat (2000).
Classification
editMorphological similarities suggest the Kra languages are closest to the Kam–Sui branch of the family. There are about a dozen Kra languages, depending on how languages and dialects are defined. Gelao, with about 8,000 speakers in China out of an ethnic population of approximately 500,000, and consists of at least four mutually unintelligible language varieties, including Telue (White Gelao), Hagei (Blue or Green Gelao), Vandu (Red Gelao), A'ou (Red Gelao), and Qau (Chinese Gelao).
Ostapirat (2000)
editThe internal classification below is from Weera Ostapirat (2000), who splits the Kra branch into the Eastern and Western branches.
| Kra | |
According to Jerold Edmondson (2002), Laha is too conservative to be in Western Kra, considered it to constitute a branch of its own. However, Edmondson (2011)[6] later reversed his position, considering Laha to be more closely related to Paha.
Ethnologue mistakenly includes the Hlai language Cun of Hainan in Kra; this is not supported by either Ostapirat or Edmondson.
Hsiu (2014)
editHsiu's (2014)[7] classification of the Kra languages, based on computational phylogenetic analysis as well as Edmondson's (2011)[6] earlier analysis of Kra, is given below, as cited in Norquest (2021).[8]
Substrata
editAndrew Hsiu (2013, 2017) reports that Hezhang Buyi, a divergent, moribund Northern Tai language spoken by 5 people in Dazhai 大寨, Fuchu Township 辅处乡, Hezhang County 赫章县, Guizhou, China, has a Kra substratum.[9]
Maza, a Lolo–Burmese language spoken in Mengmei 孟梅, Funing County, Yunnan, is also notable for having a Qabiao substratum (Hsiu 2014:68-69).[10]
According to Li Jinfang (1999),[11] the Yang Zhuang people of southwestern Guangxi may have been Kra speakers who had switched to Zhuang.
Demographics
editThe Kra languages have a total of about 22,000 speakers.[5] In Vietnam, officially recognized Kra peoples are the Cờ Lao, La Chí, La Ha and Pu Péo. In China, only the Gelao (Cờ Lao) have official status. The other Kra peoples are variously classified as Zhuang, Buyi, Yi, and Han.
"Hotspots" for Kra languages include: within China, most of western Guizhou, the prefecture-level city of Baise in western Guangxi, and Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous Prefecture in southeastern Yunnan; as well as northern Vietnam's Hà Giang Province. This distribution runs along a northeast-southwest geographic vector, forming what Jerold A. Edmondson calls a "language corridor."[5]
Multilingualism is common among Kra language speakers. For example, many Buyang can also speak Zhuang.[12]
- Western
- Lachi (拉基, La Chí) – 10,300 (7,863 in Vietnam in 1990; 2,500 in Maguan County, Yunnan, China in 1995)
- Gelao (仡佬, Cờ Lao) – 7,900 (spoken in Guizhou, Longlin Various Nationalities Autonomous County in Guangxi, and northern Vietnam)
- Laha (拉哈, La Ha) – 1,400 (officially recognized in Vietnam; most divergent western Kra language)
- Eastern
- Buyang 布央 dialect cluster – 2,000
- Paha 巴哈 (considered a separate language by Ostapirat; spoken in Yangliancun 央连村, Diyu Township, Guangnan County 广南县, Yunnan)
- Langjia 郎架 (spoken in Langjia, Funing County, Yunnan along the Guangxi border)
- Ecun 峨村 (spoken in Ecun, Funing County, Yunnan along the Guangxi border)
- Yalang 雅郎 (Yalhong; spoken in Rongtun 荣屯, Napo County, Guangxi)
- Qabiao (Pubiao 普标, Pu Péo) – 700
- En (Nùng Vên; spoken in northern Vietnam) – 250
- Buyang 布央 dialect cluster – 2,000
Numerals
edit| Language | One | Two | Three | Four | Five | Six | Seven | Eight | Nine | Ten |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (Proto-Austronesian) | *isa | *duSa | *telu | *Sepat | *lima | *enem | *pitu | *walu | *Siwa | *sa-puluq |
| Proto-Kra | *tʂəm C | *sa A | *tu A | *pə A | *r-ma A | *x-nəm A | *t-ru A | *m-ru A | *s-ɣwa B | *pwlot D |
| Buyang, Baha | tɕam45 | θa322 | tu322 | pa322 | m̥a33 | nam31 | ðu33 | mu31 | dʱa33 | pʷat55 |
| Buyang, Ecun | pi53 | θa24 | tu24 | pa24 | ma44 | nam24 | tu44 | ma0 ðu44 | va55 | put55 |
| Buyang, Langjia | am35 | ɕa54 | tu54 | pa54 | ma312 | nam54 | ðu312 | ma0 ðu312 | va11 | put55 |
| Buyang, Yerong | ɔm55 | θau53 | taːi53 | po53 | mo43 | naːm53 | təu31 | ɬəu43 | vo55 | pɔt55 |
| En (Nung Ven) | ʔam332 | θa243 | tu243 | pa33 | ma243 | nəm243 | ʔam332 tu243 | me332 ru33 | wa54 | θət33 |
| Qabiao | tɕia33 | ɕe53 | tau53 | pe53 | ma33 | ma33 nam35 | ma33 tu53 | ma33 ʐɯ33 | ma33 ɕia31 | pət31 |
| Laha, Wet | tɕɐm31 | sa343 | tu343 | pɑ343 | mɑ33 | dɐm343 | tʰo343 | ma33 hu33 | so33 wa24 | pɤt23 |
| Laha, Dry | cạm6 | śa5 | tợw3 | pa3 | ha6 | hôk4 | cêt4 | pet4 | kạw6 | śêp4 |
| Lachi | tɕa33 | su11 | te11 | pu11 | m̩11 | ȵiã11 | te24 | ŋuɛ11 | liu24 | pɛ11 |
| Gelao, Bigong | sɿ55 təɯ33 | səɯ31 təɯ33 | tɔ31 | pɔ31 | mɔ31 | nai31 | tʰɔ31 | ʑɔ31 | ʑɔu31 | hui13 |
| Gelao, Moji | tsɿ53 | səu31 | ta31 | pu31 | mlau31 | tɕʰau31 | xei31 | xe31 | kəu31 | tsʰei53 |
| Gelao, Puding | se55 | so55 | tua55 | pu45 | mu53 | naŋ53 | ɕi33 | vra53 | su33 | paɯ33 |
| Gelao, Pudi | sɪ55 | səɯ42 | tji42 | pau42 | mau31 | mjaŋ31 | te42 | ɣe31 | sau13 | ɕye13 |
| Gelao, Red | tsə44 | se33 | tua44 | pu44 | maŋ44 | ɬoŋ44 | te44 | wu35 | ʂe35 | la51 kwe44 |
| Gelao, White[14] | tsɿ33 | sɯn35 | tau55 | pu55 | mlən35 | tɕʰau55 | hi55 | ɕiau55 | ku55 | tɕʰiu33 |
| Gelao, Sanchong | ʂɿ43 | ʂa45 | tau45 | pu45 | mei21 | ȵaŋ21 | tʂau45 | ʑau21 | ʂo43 | sɿ43 pie43 |
| Gelao, Wanzi | si33 | su33 | ta33 | pu33 | mpu44 | nan33 | ɕi24 | vla44 | səɯ24 | pe24 |
| Mulao[15] | tsɿ53 | ɬu24 | ta24 | pʰu24 | mu31 | ȵe31 | sau31 | ɣau31 | so24 | ve53 |
| Gelao, Heijiaoyan[16] | sɿ44 | sɑ44 | tuu44 | pu44 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Gelao, Jianshan[16] | ʐɤ42 | sw42 | tuɑ42 | pu44 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Gelao, Banliwan[16] | i53 | ɑ53 | ɑ53 muŋ53 | ɑŋ44 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Gelao, Zunyi[16] | 失 (shi) | 沙 (sha) | 刀 (dao) | 波 (bo) | 媒 (mei) | 娘召 (niangshao) | 召 (shao) | 饶 (rao) | 署 (shu) | 失不 (shibu) |
| Gelao, Renhuai[16] | 思 (shi) | 沙 (sha) | 刀 (dao) | 波 (bo) | 差 (cha) | 良 (liang) | - | 绕 (rao) | 素 (su) | 死比 (sibi) |
Notes
edit- ^ Note: The superscript C is a reconstructed tone, typically considered to be historically derived from a glottal stop (*-ʔ).
- ^ Liang Min 梁敏. 1990 "Geyang yuqun de xishu wenti 仡央语群的系属问题[permanent dead link] / On the affiliation of the Ge-Yang group of languages." In Minzu Yuwen 民族语文 1990(6): 1-8.
- ^ Sagart, Laurent. 2004. The Higher Phylogeny of Austronesian and the Position of Tai-Kadai.
- ^ Norquest, Peter Kristian (2007). A Phonological Reconstruction of Proto-Hlai (PhD thesis). University of Arizona. hdl:10150/194203.
- ^ a b c Diller, Anthony, Jerold A. Edmondson, and Yongxian Luo ed. The Tai–Kadai Languages. Routledge Language Family Series. Psychology Press, 2008.
- ^ a b Edmondson, Jerold. 2011. Notes on the subdivisions in Kra Archived 2015-10-02 at the Wayback Machine. Published as Geyang yuyan fenlei buyi 仡央语言分类补议 in Journal of Guangxi University for Nationalities. 广西民族大学学报. 33.2.8-14.
- ^ Hsiu, Andrew. 2014. Kra-Dai notes.
- ^ Norquest, Peter (2021). "Classification of (Tai-)Kadai/Kra-Dai languages". The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia. De Gruyter. pp. 225–246. doi:10.1515/9783110558142-013. ISBN 9783110558142. S2CID 238672319.
- ^ Hsiu, Andrew. 2013. “Shui” varieties of western Guizhou and Yunnan. Presented at the 46th International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics (ICSTLL 46), Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, United States, August 7–10, 2013 (Session: Tai-Kadai Workshop).
- ^ Hsiu, Andrew. 2014. "Mondzish: a new subgroup of Lolo-Burmese Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine". In Proceedings of the 14th International Symposium on Chinese Languages and Linguistics (IsCLL-14). Taipei: Academia Sinica.
- ^ Li Jinfang (1999). Studies in the Buyang Language. Beijing: Central University for Nationalities Press.
- ^ 李锦芳/Li, Jinfang and 周国炎/Guoyan Zhou. 仡央语言探索/Geyang yu yan tan suo. Beijing, China: 中央民族大学出版社/Zhong yang min zu da xue chu ban she, 1999.
- ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2014-04-21. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ Numbers 1-9 are suffixed with du35.
- ^ Note: Mulao here is a Red Gelao language variety spoken in Guizhou, and is not the same as Mulam, a Kam-Sui language of Guangxi.
- ^ a b c d e 遵义地区志：民族志 (1999)
Further reading
edit- Ostapirat, Weera (2000). "Proto-Kra". Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 23 (1): 1-251
- Edmondson, Jerold A. (2002). The Laha language and its position in Proto-Kra.
- Sagart, Laurent. (2004) The higher phylogeny of Austronesian and the position of Tai-Kadai. Oceanic Linguistics 43,2: 411-444.