Wikipedia

Minority group

(Redirected from Ethnic Minority)
"Minorities" redirects here. For the term used in Lebanese politics, see Minorities (Lebanon). For other uses, see Minority (disambiguation).

The term "minority group" has different usages, depending on the context. According to its common usage, the term minority group can simply be understood in terms of demographic sizes within a population: i.e. a group in society with the least number of individuals, or less than half, is a "minority". Usually a minority group is disempowered relative to the majority, and that characteristic lends itself to different applications of the term minority.

In terms of sociology, economics, and politics, a demographic that takes up the smallest fraction of the population is not necessarily labelled the "minority" if it wields dominant power. In the academic context, the terms "minority" and "majority" are used in terms of hierarchical power structures. For example, in South Africa, during Apartheid, white Europeans held virtually all social, economic, and political power over black Africans. For this reason, black Africans are the "minority group", despite the fact that they outnumber white Europeans in South Africa. This is why academics more frequently use the term "minority group" to refer to a category of people that experience relative disadvantage, as compared to members of a dominant social group.[1] To address this ambiguity, Harris Mylonas has proposed the term "non-core group", instead of "minority group", to refer to any aggregation of individuals that is perceived as an unassimilated ethnic group (on a linguistic, religious, physical, or ideological basis) by the ruling political elite of a country"[2] and reserves the term 'minority' only for groups that have been granted minority rights by their state of residence.

Minority group membership is typically based on differences in observable characteristics or practices, such as: ethnicity (ethnic minority), race (racial minority), religion (religious minority), sexual orientation (sexual minority), or disability.[3] The framework of intersectionality can be used to recognize that an individual may simultaneously hold membership in multiple minority groups (e.g. both a racial and religious minority).[4] Likewise, individuals may also be part of a minority group in regard to some characteristics, but part of a dominant group in regard to others.[5]

The term "minority group" often occurs within the discourse of civil rights and collective rights, as members of minority groups are prone to differential treatment in the countries and societies in which they live.[6] Minority group members often face discrimination in multiple areas of social life, including housing, employment, healthcare, and education, among others.[7][8] While discrimination may be committed by individuals, it may also occur through structural inequalities, in which rights and opportunities are not equally accessible to all.[9] Those in favour of minority rights often pursue laws designed to protect minority groups from discrimination and afford members of the minority group equal social status and legal protections as held by members of the dominant group.[10]

Definitions

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Prior to the Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920), the term "minority" primarily referred to political parties in national legislatures, not ethnic, national, linguistic or religious groups. Such minority parties were powerless relative to the majority (or plurality) political group.[11] The Paris Conference has been attributed with coining the concept of minority rights and bringing prominence to it.[11] The League of Nations Minorities Commission defined minority in 1919 as "nationals belonging to racial, religious, or linguistic minorities".[11] Protection of minority groups, such as through careful drawing of boundaries of states and proportional representation, was seen as integral in preventing causes of future wars.[citation needed]

Sociological

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Louis Wirth defined a minority group as "a group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the society in which they live for differential and unequal treatment, and who therefore regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination".[12] The definition includes both objective and subjective criteria: membership of a minority group is objectively ascribed by society, based on an individual's physical or behavioral characteristics; it is also subjectively applied by its members, who may use their status as the basis of group identity or solidarity.[13] Thus, minority group status is categorical: an individual who exhibits the physical or behavioral characteristics of a given minority group is accorded the status of that group and is subject to the same treatment as other members of that group.[12]

Joe Feagin, states that a minority group has five characteristics: (1) suffering discrimination and subordination, (2) physical and/or cultural traits that set them apart, and which are disapproved by the dominant group, (3) a shared sense of collective identity and common burdens, (4) socially shared rules about who belongs and who does not determine minority status, and (5) tendency to marry within the group.[14]

Criticisms

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There is a controversy with the use of the word minority, as it has a generic and an academic usage.[15] Common usage of the term indicates a statistical minority; however, academics refer to power differences among groups rather than differences in population size among groups.[16]

The above criticism is based on the idea that a group can be considered a minority even if it includes such a large number of people that it is numerically not a minority in society.

Some sociologists have criticized the concept of "minority/majority", arguing this language excludes or neglects changing or unstable cultural identities, as well as cultural affiliations across national boundaries.[17] As such, the term historically excluded groups (HEGs) is often similarly used to highlight the role of historical oppression and domination, and how this results in the under-representation of particular groups in various areas of social life.[18]

Political

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The term national minority is often used to discuss minority groups in international and national politics.[19] All countries contain some degree of racial, ethnic, or linguistic diversity.[20] In addition, minorities may also be immigrant, indigenous or landless nomadic communities.[21] This often results in variations in language, culture, beliefs, practices, that set some groups apart from the dominant group. As these differences are usually perceived negatively, this results in loss of social and political power for members of minority groups.[22]

There is no legal definition of national minorities in international law, though protection of minority groups is outlined by the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities. International criminal law can protect the rights of racial or ethnic minorities in several ways.[23] The right to self-determination is a key issue. The Council of Europe regulates minority rights in the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities.

In some places, subordinate ethnic groups may constitute a numerical majority, such as Blacks in South Africa under apartheid.[24] In the United States, for example, non-Hispanic Whites constitute the majority (58.4%)[25] and all other racial and ethnic groups (Mexican, African Americans, Asian Americans, American Indian, and Native Hawaiians) are classified as "minorities".[26] If the non-Hispanic White population falls below 50% the group will only be the plurality, not the majority.

Examples

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Racial and ethnic minorities

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Racial minorities, sometimes referred to synonymously as people of color or non-white people, are minority groups that are discriminated against on the basis of race. Though definitions vary cross-culturally, modern racism is primarily based on the European and American classifications of race that developed during the Age of Exploration, as European countries sought to categorize the nations they colonized into pseudo-scientific phenotypical groups.[27] In the United States's system, whiteness is at the top of a hierarchy that automatically classifies mixed-race individuals as their subordinate race.[28]

Sometimes, racist policies explicitly codified pseudo-scientific definitions of race: such as the United States' one-drop rule and blood quantum laws, South Africa's apartheid, and Nazi Germany Nuremberg race laws. Other times, race has been a matter of self-identification, with de facto racist policies implemented.[29] In addition to governmental policy, racism may persist as social prejudice and discrimination.

There are also social groups that are usually identified through ethnicity.[27] Like race, ethnicity is largely determined hereditarily. However, it can also be influenced by factors such as adoption, cultural assimilation, religious conversion, and language shift. As race and ethnicity often overlap,[30] many ethnic minorities are also racial minorities. However, this is not always the case, and some people are ethnic minorities while also being classified as white, such as some Jews, Roma, and Sámi. In some cases, their ethnic identities have been seen as negating their whiteness, in both inter- and intra-group identification.[31][32]

In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, there is a preference to categorise people by ethnicity instead of race.[33] Ethnicity encompasses a mix of "long shared cultural experiences, religious practices, traditions, ancestry, language, dialect or national origins".[34] The United Kingdom considers everyone but white British people to be an ethnic minority, including other white Europeans such as White Irish people (excluding in Northern Ireland).[33]

National minorities

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A national minority is a social group within a state that differs from the majority and/or dominant population in terms of ethnicity, language, culture, or religion, but also it also tends to have a close link with a specific territory from which the minority social group originates.[35]

Involuntary minorities

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Also known as "castelike minorities", involuntary minorities are a term for people who were originally brought into any society against their will. In the United States, for instance, it includes but is not limited to Native Americans, Native Hawaiians, Puerto Ricans, African Americans,[36] and in the 1800s, native-born Hispanics.[37]

Voluntary minorities

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Immigrants take on minority status in their new country, usually in hopes of a better future economically, educationally, and politically than in their homeland. Because of their focus on success, voluntary minorities are more likely to do better in school than other migrating minorities.[36] Adapting to a very different culture and language makes difficulties in the early stages of life in the new country. Voluntary immigrants do not experience a sense of divided identity as much as involuntary minorities and are often rich in social capital because of their educational ambitions.[38] Major immigrant groups in the United States include Mexicans, Central and South Americans, Cubans, Africans, East Asians, and South Asians.[37]

Gender and sexuality minorities

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Main article: Sexual minority
 
Pride events are held annually around the world for sexual minorities. In picture, people gathering at the Senate Square, Helsinki, right before the 2011 Helsinki Pride parade started.

The term sexual minority is frequently used by public health researchers to recognize a wide variety of individuals who engage in same-sex sexual behavior, including those who do not identify under the LGBTQ+ umbrella. For example, men who have sex with men (MSM), but do not identify as gay. In addition, the term gender minorities can include many types of gender variant people, such as intersex people, transgender people, or non-binary individuals. However, the terms sexual and gender minority are often not preferred by LGBTQ+ people, as they represent clinical categories rather than individual identity.[39]

Though lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ+) people have existed throughout human history, they represent a numerical and social minority. They experience numerous social inequalities stemming from their group membership as LGBTQ+ people. LGBTQ+ rights movements across many western countries led to the recognition of LGBTQ+ people as members of a minority group.[39] These inequalities include social discrimination and isolation, unequal access to healthcare, employment, and housing, and experience negative mental and physical health outcomes due to these experiences.[39]

Disabled people

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Leading up to the Human Rights Act 1998 in the UK, a rise in the awareness relating to how disabled people were being treated began. Many started to believe that they were being denied basic human rights. This act had a section that stated if authorities did not protect people with learning disabilities from others' actions, such as harm or neglect, then they could be prosecuted.[40]

The disability rights movement has contributed to an understanding of disabled people as a minority or a coalition of minorities who are disadvantaged by society, not just as people who are disadvantaged by their impairments. Advocates of disability rights emphasize the difference in physical or psychological functioning rather than inferiority. For example, some autistic people argue for acceptance of neurodiversity, much as opponents of racism argue for acceptance of ethnic diversity. The deaf community is often regarded as a linguistic and cultural minority rather than a group with disabilities, and some deaf people do not see themselves as having a disability at all. Rather, they are disadvantaged by technologies and social institutions designed to cater to the dominant group. (See the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.)

Religious minorities

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Main article: Minority religion

People belonging to religious minorities have a faith that is different from that held by the majority. Most countries of the world have religious minorities. It is now widely accepted in the West that people should have the freedom to choose their religion,[citation needed] including the right to convert from one religion to another, or not to have any religion (atheism and/or agnosticism). However, in many countries, this freedom is constricted. In Egypt, a new system of identity cards[41] requires all citizens to state their religion—and the only choices are Islam, Christianity, or Judaism (See Egyptian identification card controversy).

Women as a disadvantaged group

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In most societies, numbers of men and women are roughly equal. Though women are not considered to be a minority,[42] the status of women, as a subordinate group, has led to many social scientists to refer to them as a disadvantaged group.[43] Though women's legal rights and status vary widely across countries, women often experience social inequalities, relative to men, in various societies.[44] Women are sometimes denied access to education and access to the same opportunities as men, especially in under-developed countries.[45]

Law and government

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In the politics of some countries, a "minority" is an ethnic group recognized by law, and having specified rights. Speakers of a legally recognized minority language, for instance, might have the right to education or communication with the government in their mother tongue. Countries with special provisions[which?] for minorities include Canada, China, Ethiopia, Germany, India, the Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Russia, Croatia, and the United Kingdom.[citation needed]

The various minority groups in a country are often not given equal treatment. Some groups are too small or indistinct to obtain minority protections. For example, a member of a particularly small ethnic group might be forced to check "Other" on a checklist of different backgrounds and so might receive fewer privileges than a member of a more defined group.

Many contemporary governments prefer to assume the people they rule all belong to the same nationality rather than separate ones based on ethnicity. The United States asks for race and ethnicity on its official census forms, which thus breaks up and organizes its population into sub-groups, primarily racial rather than national. Spain does not divide its nationals by ethnic group or national minorities, although it does maintain an official notion of minority languages, that is one of the criteria for to determine a national minority, upon the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities.

Some especially significant or powerful minorities receive comprehensive protection and political representation. For example, the former Yugoslav Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina recognizes the three constitutive nations, none of which constitutes a numerical majority (see nations of Bosnia and Herzegovina). However, other minorities such as Roma[46] and Jews, are officially labelled "foreign" and are excluded from many of these protections. For example, they may be excluded from political positions, including the presidency.[47]

There is debate over recognizing minority groups and their privileges. One view[48] is that the application of special rights to minority groups may harm some countries, such as new states in Africa or Latin America not founded on the European nation-state model, since minority recognition may interfere with establishing a national identity. It may hamper the integration of the minority into mainstream society, perhaps leading to separatism or supremacism. In Canada, some[who?] feel that the failure of the dominant English-speaking majority to integrate French Canadians has provoked Quebec separatism.

Others assert that minorities require specific protections to ensure that they are not marginalized: for example, bilingual education may be needed to allow linguistic minorities to fully integrate into the school system and compete equally in society. In this view, rights for minorities strengthen the nation-building project, as members of minorities see their interests well served, and willingly accept the legitimacy of the nation and their integration (not assimilation) within it.[49]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Healey, Joseph F. (2 March 2018). Race, ethnicity, gender, & class : the sociology of group conflict and change. Stepnick, Andi; O'Brien, Eileen, 1972– (Eighth ed.). Thousand Oaks, California. ISBN 9781506346946. OCLC 1006532841.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  2. ^ Mylonas, Harris (2012). The Politics of Nation-Building: Making Co-Nationals, Refugees, and Minorities. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. xx. ISBN 978-1107661998.
  3. ^ Ritzer, George (15 January 2014). Essentials of sociology. Los Angeles. ISBN 9781483340173. OCLC 871004576.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  4. ^ Hughes, Melanie (2011). "Intersectionality, Quotas, and Minority Women's Political Representation Worldwide". American Political Science Review. 3 (105): 604–620. doi:10.1017/S0003055411000293. S2CID 2592368.
  5. ^ Laurie, Timothy; Khan, Rimi (2017), "The Concept of Minority for the Study of Culture", Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies, 31 (1): 3, doi:10.1080/10304312.2016.1264110, S2CID 152009904
  6. ^ Johnson, Kevin. "The Struggle for Civil Rights: The Need for, and Impediments to, Political Coalitions among and within Minority Groups". Louisiana Law Review. 63: 759. Archived from the original on 15 February 2019. Retrieved 14 August 2018.
  7. ^ Becker, Gary S. (1971). The economics of discrimination (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226041049. OCLC 658199810.
  8. ^ Williams, David R. (1999). "Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Health The Added Effects of Racism and Discrimination" (PDF). Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 896 (1): 173–188. Bibcode:1999NYASA.896..173W. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08114.x. hdl:2027.42/71908. ISSN 0077-8923. PMID 10681897. S2CID 26852165. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 January 2012. Retrieved 23 September 2019.
  9. ^ Verloo, Mieke (2006). "Multiple Inequalities, Intersectionality and the European Union". European Journal of Women's Studies. 13 (3): 211–228. doi:10.1177/1350506806065753. hdl:2066/46605. ISSN 1350-5068. S2CID 21752012. Archived from the original on 10 February 2019. Retrieved 14 September 2018.
  10. ^ Skrentny, John David (2002). The minority rights revolution. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674043732. OCLC 431342257.
  11. ^ a b c Robson, Laura (2021). "Capitulations Redux: The Imperial Genealogy of the Post–World War I "Minority" Regimes". The American Historical Review. 126 (3): 978–1000. doi:10.1093/ahr/rhab358. ISSN 0002-8762.
  12. ^ a b Wirth, L. (1945). "The Problem of Minority Groups". In Linton, Ralph (ed.). The Science of Man in the World Crisis. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 347. The political scientist and law professor, Gad Barzilai, has offered a theoretical definition of non-ruling communities that conceptualizes groups that do not rule and are excluded from resources of political power. Barzilai, G. Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
  13. ^ Wagley, Charles; Harris, Marvin (1958). Minorities in the new world: six case studies. New York: Columbia University Press.
  14. ^ Joe R. Feagin (1984). Racial and Ethnic Relations (2nd ed.). Prentice-Hall. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-13-750125-0.
  15. ^ Cultural Diversity Glossary of Terms. Diversity Training University International Publications Division. 2008. p. 4.
  16. ^ Barzilai, Gad (2010). Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0472024001. Archived from the original on 28 February 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2017.
  17. ^ Laurie, Timothy; Khan, Rimi (2017), "The Concept of Minority for the Study of Culture", Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies, 31 (1): 1–12, doi:10.1080/10304312.2016.1264110, S2CID 152009904
  18. ^ Konrad, Alison M.; Linnehan, Frank (1999), "Handbook of Gender & Work Handbook of gender & work", Handbook of Gender & Work, SAGE Publications, Inc., pp. 429–452, doi:10.4135/9781452231365.n22, ISBN 9780761913559
  19. ^ Daniel Šmihula (2008). "National Minorities in the Law of the EC/EU" (PDF). Romanian Journal of European Affairs. 8 (3): 51–81. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 August 2011.
  20. ^ "The most (and least) culturally diverse countries in the world". Pew Research Center. 18 July 2013. Archived from the original on 11 August 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2019.
  21. ^ Protsyk, Oleh (2010). The representation of minorities and indigenous peoples in parliament : a global overview. Inter-parliamentary Union.627. Geneva: Inter-parliamentary Union. OCLC 754152959.
  22. ^ Verkuyten, Maykel (2005). "Ethnic Group Identification and Group Evaluation Among Minority and Majority Groups: Testing the Multiculturalism Hypothesis". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 88 (1): 121–138. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.595.7633. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.1.121. ISSN 1939-1315. PMID 15631579.
  23. ^ Lyal S. Sunga (2004). International Criminal Law: Protection of Minority Rights, Beyond a One-Dimensional State: An Emerging Right to Autonomy? ed. Zelim Skurbaty. (2004) 255–275.
  24. ^ du Toit, Pierre; Theron, François (1988). "Ethnic and minority groups, and constitutional change in South Africa". Journal of Contemporary African Studies. 7 (1–2): 133–147. doi:10.1080/02589008808729481. ISSN 0258-9001.
  25. ^ "QuickFacts United States". www.census.gov. Retrieved 28 October 2024.
  26. ^ "U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: United States". Census Bureau QuickFacts. Archived from the original on 16 August 2018. Retrieved 17 August 2018.
  27. ^ a b "Historical Foundations of Race".
  28. ^ Asare, Janice Gassam. "The Evolution Of Whiteness In The United States". Forbes.
  29. ^ "Race, Ethnicity, and Politics". In lieu of de jure segregation, various manifestations of de facto segregation persist to this day ... In contrast to de jure segregation, de facto segregation occurs as a result of social practices that, although not codified in law, have a similar outcome in terms of maintaining the separation of a minority group from the majority group.
  30. ^ "What's the difference between race and ethnicity?". Live Science. 3 November 2022.
  31. ^ "We're Jews, We're Not White, We Define Ourselves". 27 March 2019.
  32. ^ "My mother is Native American, but I look white. My identity is more than my DNA". The Washington Post.
  33. ^ a b "Writing about ethnicity". www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk. December 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2023.
  34. ^ "A guide to race and ethnicity terminology and language". www.lawsociety.org.uk. The Law Society. Retrieved 17 September 2023.
  35. ^ "United Nations Guide for Minorities". www.ohchr.org/en/ohchr_homepage.
  36. ^ a b Ogbu, John U. "Understanding Cultural Diversity and Learning" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 October 2015.
  37. ^ a b Ogbu and Simons (1998). "Voluntary and Involuntary Minorities: A Cultural-Ecological Theory of School Performance with Some Implications for Education" (PDF). Anthropology and Education Quarterly. 29 (2): 155–188. doi:10.1525/aeq.1998.29.2.155. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 March 2016.
  38. ^ Valenzuela, Angela. Subtractive Schooling. pp. 116–118.
  39. ^ a b c Mayer, Kenneth H.; Bradford, Judith B.; Makadon, Harvey J.; Stall, Ron; Goldhammer, Hilary; Landers, Stewart (2008). "Sexual and Gender Minority Health: What We Know and What Needs to Be Done". American Journal of Public Health. 98 (6): 989–995. doi:10.2105/ajph.2007.127811. ISSN 0090-0036. PMC 2377288. PMID 18445789.
  40. ^ Clements, Luke; Read, Janet (2003). Disabled people and European human rights: A review of the implications of the 1998 Human Rights Act for disabled children and adults in the UK (1 ed.). Bristol University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctt1t8964p. JSTOR j.ctt1t8964p. S2CID 246084235.
  41. ^ See "The Situation of the Bahá'í Community of Egypt" and "Religion Today: Bahais' struggle for recognition reveals a less tolerant face of Egypt", Bahai.org Archived 2006-10-01 at the Wayback Machine, DWB.sacbee.com Archived 2007-10-14 at the Wayback Machine
  42. ^ "Definition of Minority". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 6 February 2020.
  43. ^ Hacker, Helen Mayer (1951). "Women as a Minority Group". Social Forces. 30 (1): 60–69. doi:10.2307/2571742. JSTOR 2571742.
  44. ^ Shachar, Ayelet (2001). Multicultural jurisdictions : cultural differences and women's rights. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0511040801. OCLC 56216656.
  45. ^ Women, U. N. (2018). Annual Report 2017–2018.
  46. ^ "Political recognition of Roma People in Spain. [Social Impact]. WORKALÓ. The creation of new occupational patterns for cultural minorities: the Gypsy Case (2001–2004). Framework Programme 5 (FP5)". SIOR, Social Impact Open Repository. Archived from the original on 5 September 2017.
  47. ^ Opinion of the Council of Europe's Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, in particular paragraphs 37–43 Archived 2007-06-16 at the Wayback Machine
  48. ^ For example, J.A. Lindgren-Alves, member of the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, speaking at the Committee's 67th Session (Summary Record of the 1724th Meeting, 23 August 2005, CERD/C/SR.1724)
  49. ^ See Henrard, K. (2000). Devising an Adequate System of Minority Protection: Individual Human Rights, Minority Rights and the Right to Self-Determination. Martinus Nijhoff. pp. 218–224. ISBN 978-9041113597. Archived from the original on 28 February 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2017.
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