A democratic deficit (or democracy deficit) occurs when ostensibly-democratic organizations or institutions (particularly governments) fall short of fulfilling the principles of democracy in their practices or operation. Representative and linked parliamentary integrity have become widely discussed.[1] The qualitative expression of the democratic deficit is the difference between the democracy indices of a country from the highest possible values.
The phrase "democratic deficit" is cited as first being used by the Young European Federalists in their Manifesto in 1977,[2] which was drafted by Richard Corbett. It was also used by David Marquand in 1979, referring to the European Economic Community, the forerunner of the European Union.[3]
Voting rights
editThe term "democratic deficit" is commonly used to refer to situations where territories under the jurisdiction of a sovereign state do not enjoy equal participation in electing representatives that legislate for them. Examples include:
Australia: Three external territories of Australia (Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands and Norfolk Island), have laws from the states of Western Australia or New South Wales apply to them but cannot vote in the elections of those states.[4][5][6]
Netherlands: Three constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (Aruba, Curacao and Sint Maarten) have no representation in the States General of the Netherlands.[7]
United Kingdom: Eleven inhabited British Overseas Territories and three Crown Dependencies (Guernsey, Jersey and the Isle of Man) have no representation in the Parliament of the United Kingdom.[8]
United States: The District of Columbia and five inhabited territories of the United States (Puerto Rico, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, American Samoa and U.S. Virgin Islands), only have non-voting representation in the United States House of Representatives, and none in the United States Senate.[9][10][11]
Tokelau, a dependent territory of New Zealand with no representation in the New Zealand Parliament, could also be said to be in a similar position.[12] However, in practice, no legislation from New Zealand is extended to Tokelau without the territory's consent.[13]
Multinational organizations
editSome scholars have argued that the ratification of European Union treaties by repeated referendums, such as those held in Ireland for the Treaty of Nice and the Treaty of Lisbon, is also associated with a democratic deficit.[14] National parliaments have given up power to the centralised European Parliament. As European Union citizens elect those who make up Council who then elect those become that Commissioners, there is a real fear it is too distant for many citizens.[15] Often, EU elections are treated as second-order elections; with protest votes more common during national and local elections, example of this would be the success of anti-immigration parties such as Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy. Another problem in the EU is that voters vote more on the basis of national issues in the European Parliament elections and that the election is more used by voters to punish their government in the middle of their term.[16] There is also insufficiently a European public opinion or European public sphere that votes against or rewards European politicians.[17] Another problem is the big influence of lobbying groups on European institutions.[18][19] The European Parliament was created to give more democratic legitimacy to the EU but shares legislative power with the Council of the European Union, which has one vote per country.
The UN Parliamentary Assembly has been proposed as a way of ameliorating a democratic deficit within the United Nations.[20]
Other examples
edit
A study of the Columbia University concluded that policy in US states is congruent with the majority only half the time. The largest influences were found to be legislative professionalization, term limits, and issue salience. Partisanship and interest groups affect the ideological balance of incongruence more than the aggregate degree thereof. Policy is found to be overresponsive to ideology and party, which leads policy to be polarized relative to state electorates.[21] The large differences in voter turnout during US elections for various income groups are also seen as a problem for the functioning of democracy.[22] Sanford Levinson argues that campaign financing and gerrymandering are seen as serious problems for democracy, but another of the root causes of the American democratic deficit lies in the US Constitution itself.[23] For example, there is a lack of representation in the US Senate for highly populated states such as California as all states in the United States regardless of population receive 2 seats in the Senate.[24]
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ "A democratic deficit occurs when ostensibly democratic organizations or institutions, in fact, fall short of fulfilling what are believed to be the principles of democracy." Sanford Levinson, How the United States Constitution Contributes to the Democratic Deficit in America, 55 Drake L. Rev. 859, 860 (2007).
- ^ Richard (10 October 1977). "The first use of the term "democratic deficit"".
- ^ Marquand, David (1979). Parliament for Europe. Cape. p. 64. ISBN 978-0-224-01716-9.
The resulting 'democratic deficit' would not be acceptable in a Community committed to democratic principles.
Chalmers, Damian; et al. (2006). European Union law: text and materials. Cambridge University Press. p. 64. ISBN 978-0-521-52741-5.'Democratic deficit' is a term coined in 1979 by the British political scientist . . . David Marquand .
Meny, Yves (2003). "De La Democratie En Europe: Old Concepts and New Challenges". Journal of Common Market Studies. 41: 1–13. doi:10.1111/1468-5965.t01-1-00408. S2CID 154742986.Since David Marquand coined his famous phrase 'democratic deficit' to describe the functioning of the European Community, the debate has raged about the extent and content of this deficit.
- ^ Laughland, Oliver (13 October 2014). "Trauma, segregation, isolation: Christmas Island, the tropical outpost where asylum seekers are held against their will". the Guardian. Retrieved 18 November 2023.
- ^ Mathews, Kelvin (1 September 2017). "Delegated legislation and the democratic deficit: The case of Christmas Island". Australasian Parliamentary Review. Australasian Study of Parliament Group: 32-38. Retrieved 18 November 2023.
- ^ Wettenhall, Roger (27 November 2015). "The lands that democracy forgot: ignoring the rights of Norfolk, Christmas and Cocos islanders". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 20 January 2024.
- ^ Wekking, Noor (9 May 2022). "Democratisch tekort in het Koninkrijk" [Democratic deficit in the Kingdom]. Bulletineke Justitia (in Dutch). Retrieved 18 November 2023.
- ^ Clegg, Peter; Stæhr Harder, Mette Marie; Nauclér, Elisabeth; Alomar, Rafael Cox (7 June 2022). "Parliamentary representation of overseas territories in the metropolis: a comparative analysis". Commonwealth & Comparative Politics. 60 (3). Informa UK Limited: 229–253. doi:10.1080/14662043.2022.2065623. ISSN 1466-2043.
- ^ Jones, Colin P.A. (31 August 2022). "The Territorial and District Representation Amendment: A Proposal". Brigham Young University Journal of Public Law. 36 (2): 175. Retrieved 18 November 2023.
- ^ Colón, Rafael Hernández (1998). "Doing Right by Puerto Rico: Congress Must Act". Foreign Affairs. 77 (4). JSTOR: 112–114. doi:10.2307/20048972. ISSN 0015-7120. JSTOR 20048972.
- ^ Efrati, Maya (18 March 2022). "DC Statehood Explained". Brennan Center for Justice. Retrieved 18 November 2023.
- ^ Angelo, Tony; Pasikale, Talei (2008). "Tokelau: A History of Government" (PDF). Government of Tokelau. Wellington, New Zealand: MTC. p. 33. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 January 2024.
- ^ "Tokelau Government". Government of Tokelau. Retrieved 18 November 2023.
- ^ Jerzak, Connor T. (1 September 2014). "The EU's Democratic Deficit and Repeated Referendums in Ireland" (PDF). International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society. 27 (3): 367–388. doi:10.1007/s10767-014-9185-8. S2CID 144466639. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 February 2024.
- ^ Follesdal, Andreas; Hix, Simon (September 2006). "Why There Is a Democratic Deficit in the EU: A Response to Majone and Moravcsik". Journal of Common Market Studies. 44 (3): 533–562. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5965.2006.00650.x. S2CID 154774453.
- ^ Reif, K. and Schmitt, H. (1980) 'Nine Second-Order National Elections: A Conceptual Framework for the Analysis of European Election Results'. European Journal of Political Research, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 3–45.
- ^ David Ward (2002) The European Union Democratic Deficit and the Public Sphere: An Evaluation of EU Media Policy. IOS Press.
- ^ Rudenkova, Daria. "Interest Representation: Can Lobbying Regulation Help EU Overcome Democratic Deficit?". Euroacademia. Archived from the original on 28 November 2023.
- ^ Karr, Karolina (2007). Democracy and lobbying in the European Union. Campus Verlag. p. 10. ISBN 9783593384122.
- ^ "Commission of Latin American Parliament joins call for UN Parliamentary Assembly". Campaign for a UN Parliament. 14 June 2008. Archived from the original on 8 July 2012. Retrieved 14 July 2020.
- ^ R. Lax, Jeffrey; H. Phillips, Justin. "The Democratic Deficit in the States" (PDF). Columbia University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 June 2023.
- ^ "Voter Turnout By Income, 2008 US Presidential Election". Demos. Archived from the original on 3 July 2018.
- ^ Levinson, Sanford. "The Democratic Deficit in America". DigitalCommons@UM Carey Law. Archived from the original on 24 June 2023.
- ^ Sanford Levinson (16 October 2006). "Our Broken Constitution". University of Texas School of Law -- News & Events. LA Times. Archived from the original on 5 October 2009. Retrieved 10 October 2009.