Acipenser oxyrinchus is a species of sturgeon.
| Acipenser oxyrinchus | |
|---|---|
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| A. o. oxyrinchus | |
Scientific classification 
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| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Actinopterygii |
| Order: | Acipenseriformes |
| Family: | Acipenseridae |
| Genus: | Acipenser |
| Species: | A. oxyrinchus
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| Binomial name | |
| Acipenser oxyrinchus Mitchill 1815
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| Subspecies | |
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| Synonyms[3][4] | |
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Information
editAcipenser oxyrinchus is a species with two subspecies:
- Atlantic sturgeon, Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus Mitchill 1815.
- Gulf sturgeon, Acipenser oxyrinchus desotoi Vladykov 1955.
Their main diet includes crustaceans, worms, and molluscs. This species is also known to migrate up the river when it is spawning.[5] This species is recorded to be near threatened and at risk of becoming an endangered species due to dam construction, dredging, dredge spoil disposal, groundwater extraction, irrigation, flow alterations, and other surface water withdrawals. Acipenser oxyrinchus is mostly native to the countries of Canada and the United States, with a smaller population in northern Europe (essentially the Baltic region).[3] This population is considered Critically Endangered by the IUCN.[6] They can be found in temperate and subtropical climates and in marine or freshwater environments.[3]
Characteristics
editAcipenser oxyrinchus can grow to a length of 14 ft (4.3 m) and a weight of 800 lb (360 kg). The lifespan of this species can be around 60 years. The color of Acipenser oxyrinchus is bluish-black or olive brown with lighter sides and a white belly.
Behavior
editSturgeon are an anadromous species that live solitarily or in small groups. They migrate upriver in the spring to spawn. Sturgeons tend to inhabit the shallow waters of coastal shelves, coastal and estuarine areas on soft bottom in the sea, and can live down to a depth of 160 ft (49 m). Adults are migratory while at sea and will make long migrations to coastal areas, while juveniles will stay in fresh or brackish water until they are between two and five years of age. However, many larvae and juveniles do start to migrate and disperse small distances from their spawning sites.[3]
Migration
editSturgeons will migrate upriver to spawn. Sturgeons from the Gulf of Mexico will naturally exhibit spawning migration in the spring. Peak numbers have been observed in March and April, which is when the fish will migrate into the Suwannee River in Florida.[7] Sturgeon will migrate downstream for twelve days, peaking within the first six days. Atlantic sturgeons only need to move a short distance to reach rearing areas. Early sturgeon migrants tend to be nocturnal while later migrants are diurnal.[8] During summer months, sturgeon will remain in localized bottom areas of the rivers. In the late fall, the sturgeon migrate out of spawning rivers and into the Gulf of Mexico.[7]
For all populations and subspecies of sturgeon, there are spawning migrations into freshwater in early spring and movement into salt water in the fall. Timing and the unusual migratory behavior of sturgeon is a result of temporal water temperature changes.[7] Studies have also shown that amongst sturgeon in Gulf of Mexico and Suwannee River in Florida, fish gained 20% of their body weight while in Gulf of Mexico and lost 12% of their body weight during their time in the river.[9]
Spawning
editThe maximum level of survival for eggs, embryos, and larvae is at 15 to 20 °C (59 to 68 °F). Studies have shown that high mortalities are seen at temperatures of 25 °C (77 °F) or higher.[7] In order for spawning to occur, water temperature should be above 17 °C (63 °F). Spawning normally lasts between nine and twenty-three days, but can continue past this as long as the water temperature remains below 22 °C (72 °F).[10]
Free sturgeon embryos (the first interval of sturgeon after hatching) hide under rocks and do not migrate. They are found in the freshwater spawning areas. Larvae and some juveniles start to migrate slowly for about five months downstream. This leads to a wide dispersal of the fish.[11] Typically, the entire freshwater reach of the river downstream from the actual spawning site is so filled with larva-juvenile individuals that it is considered to be a nursery habitat.[11]
Sturgeon populations will use the same spawning reefs from year to year. Habitat factors that can help determine spawning sites include the presence of gravel substrate, presence of eddy fields, slightly basic pH, and a range in calcium ion content. Eggs are usually deposited in a small area and scatter very little. It is not until larvae and juveniles start to migrate that the fish disperse widely.[10]
Body color
editSome evidence has shown that developmental body color is related to migration style. Free embryos are light and are non-migratory, while migratory larvae and adults are dark. This is found to be consistent among many Acipenser species. The reason for this is unclear, but it may be adaptive to migration behavior and camouflage.[11]
Diet
editThe primary foods of sturgeon while in freshwater areas include soft-bodied annelids, arthropods, aquatic insects, and globular mollusks. Adults that have emigrated from estuaries and into the sea will usually feed on epibenthic and hyperbenthic amphipods, grass shrimp, isopods, and worms. Most adult sturgeon will also feed on detritus and biofilm.[12] Sturgeons are most generally known for feeding on crustaceans, worms, and molluscs.[13]
Larvae-juvenile feeding was at the bottom, benthic foraging. However, food in the benthic zone is scarce, so many adapt drift feeding, in which they have holding positions in the water column and wait for food.[11] Sturgeons may have dominance hierarchies with large fish being dominant when competing for limited foraging space.[8]
Habitat
editSturgeons are widely distributed along the Atlantic coast of the United States. Their wide distribution and tendency to disperse has led to numerous subpopulations of sturgeon.[13]
In general, sturgeons usually inhabit primarily the temperate waters of the northern hemisphere. Gulf of Mexico sturgeons are probably adapted to warmer water temperatures. Due to sturgeons' predilection for cooler waters, when water temperatures rise too high, sturgeon will try to find cool spring waters which serve as thermal refuges until temperatures drop again.[7]
Susceptibility to anthropogenic disturbances
editThere are many wide-ranging subspecies along the Atlantic Coast of North America. Identification of distinct population segments (DPS) is problematic because of sturgeons' ability to disperse so widely. However, it is possible to do some characterization of genetic differentiation and estimate gene flow. This method has been used to determine possibility for listing under the U.S. Endangered Species Act.[14]
The sturgeon's characteristics and life history make it susceptible to anthropogenic disturbances and make population restoration particularly difficult. They have late sexual maturity, only moderate fecundity, and spawn at low frequencies. Females spawn once every three to five years, and males every one to five years. This is due to their ability to live for an extremely long time (various sub-species can have a lifespan ranging from ten years to sixty years).[14]
The population of Atlantic sturgeons has decreased dramatically due to overharvesting. The late 19th century saw a surge in demand for caviar, which led to overfishing of the Atlantic sturgeon. Today, only 22 out of its 38 original spawning rivers still have viable populations of the species.[15] They are particularly susceptible to bycatch mortality due to the many fisheries that exist within their natal estuaries. Their habitat range, which usually includes coastal spawning sites and coastal migrations, makes sturgeon well within contact of coastal fisheries.[14]
Effects of hypoxia
editHypoxia combined with high water temperatures in the summer has been shown to be consistent with decreased survival rates of young of the year sturgeon in Chesapeake Bay.[16]
Hypoxia is defined as low ambient oxygen levels, which may be very harmful to organisms living in the hypoxic body of water. Often, lower regions of the water column will be more hypoxic than upper levels, closer to the surface. When surface access is denied, the situation is lethal to sturgeon. Increased incidences of summertime hypoxia have led, in part, to degradation of many sturgeon nursery habitats in the United States.[16]
Conservation
editPopulations have declined dramatically over the last centuries, and even became extinct in Baltic range states in the later 20th century. Channelisation and barriers were part of the causes for declines affecting migration, along with pollution. Since 1996 Baltic sturgeon recovery has been attempted, with American donor populations used due to genetic similarities. Re-introduction with focus on returning these sturgeon to their native spawning grounds.[17] NatureServe considers the species Vulnerable.[18]
In 2012, the Atlantic sturgeon received protection under the Endangered Species Act.[19]
In 2022, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature noted that sturgeon was "the animal group most at risk of extinction in the world."[15]
References
edit- ^ Hilton, E.; Fox, D. (2022). "Acipenser oxyrinchus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2022: e.T245A2785934. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-1.RLTS.T245A2785934.en. Retrieved 15 April 2023.
- ^ "Appendices | CITES". cites.org. Retrieved 2022-01-14.
- ^ a b c d Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Acipenser oxyrinchus". FishBase. Retrieved 3 May 2019.
- ^ "Acipenseridae" (PDF). Deeplyfish- fishes of the world. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 September 2017. Retrieved 18 May 2017.
- ^ "Atlantic Sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus)". NOAA Fisheries. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
- ^ Gessner, J. & Jaric, I. (2022). "Acipenser oxyrinchus (Baltic Sea subpopulation)". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2022: e.T182572773A182572813. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-1.RLTS.T182572773A182572813.en. Retrieved 26 November 2023.
- ^ a b c d e Chapman, Frank A.; Stephen H. Carr (August 1995). "Implications of early life stages in the natural history of the Gulf of Mexico sturgeon, Acipenser oxyrinchus desotoi". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 43 (4): 407–413. doi:10.1007/bf00001178. S2CID 36638570.
- ^ a b Kynard, Boyd; Martin Horgan (February 2002). "Ontogenetic Behavior and Migration of Atlantic Sturgeon, Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus, and Shortnose Sturgeon, A. brevirostrum, with Notes on Social Behavior". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 63 (2): 137–150. doi:10.1023/A:1014270129729. S2CID 23950901.
- ^ Carr, S.H.; F. Tatman; F. A. Chapman (December 1996). "Observations on the natural history of the Gulf of Mexico sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus desotoi Vladykov 1955) in the Suwannee River, southeastern United States". Ecology of Freshwater Fish. 5 (4): 169–174. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0633.1996.tb00130.x.
- ^ a b Sulak, K.J.; J.P. Clugston (September 1999). "Recent advances in life history of Gulf of Mexico sturgeon, Acipenser oxyrinchus desotoi, in the Suwannee river, Florida, USA: a synopsis". Journal of Applied Ichthyology. 15 (4–5): 116–128. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0426.1999.tb00220.x.
- ^ a b c d Kynard, Boyd; Erika Parker (May 2004). "Ontogenetic Behavior and Migration of Gulf of Mexico Sturgeon, Acipenser oxyrinchus desotoi, with Notes on Body Color and Development". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 70 (1): 43–55. doi:10.1023/b:ebfi.0000022855.96143.95. S2CID 34082533.
- ^ Mason Jr., William T.; James P. Clugston (1993). "Foods of the Gulf Sturgeon in the Suwannee River, Florida". Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 122 (3): 378–385. doi:10.1577/1548-8659(1993)122<0378:fotgsi>2.3.co;2.
- ^ a b "Atlantic Sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus)". NOAA Fisheries Office of Protected Resources. Retrieved 24 October 2013.
- ^ a b c Grunwald, Cheryl; Lorraine Maceda; John Waldman; Joseph Stabile; Isaac Wirgin (October 2008). "Conservation of Atlantic sturgeon Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus: delineation of stock structure and distinct population segments". Conservation Genetics. 9 (5): 1111–1124. doi:10.1007/s10592-007-9420-1. S2CID 25059194.
- ^ a b Lewis, Andrew S. (2023-02-02). "They Outlasted the Dinosaurs. Can They Survive Us?". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-02-06.
- ^ a b Secor, David H.; Troy E. Gunderson (1998). "Effects of hypoxia and temperature on survival, growth, and respiration of juvenile Atlantic sturgeon, Acipenser oxyrinchus" (PDF). Fishery Bulletin. Vol. 96, no. 3. pp. 603–613. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-10-29. Retrieved 24 October 2013.
- ^ Gessner, Jörn; Arndt, Gerd-Michael; Kapusta, Andrzej; Shibayev, Sergey; Gushin, Alexey; Pilinkovskij, Andrej; Povliūnas, Justas; Medne, Ruta; Purvina, Santa; Tambets, Meelis; Møller, Peter Rask (2019). Gessner, Jörn (ed.). "HELCOM Action Plan for the protection and recovery of Baltic sturgeon Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus in the Baltic Sea area" (PDF). Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings. 168.
- ^ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 5 April 2022.
- ^ Eilperin, Juliet (February 1, 2012). "Atlantic sturgeon listed as endangered species". The Washington Post.
External links
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Media related to Acipenser oxyrinchus at Wikimedia Commons
Data related to Acipenser oxyrinchus at Wikispecies
