Wikipedia

User:Meclee/proj1-sandbox

< User:Meclee

NOTE: This sandbox content is related to the WP article Racism. See the talk page there.

LEDE

edit

Racism is a product of complex interaction in a given society of a race-based worldview with prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination. Racism can be present in social actions, practices, or political systems (e.g., apartheid) that support the expression of prejudice or aversion in discriminatory practices. The ideology underlying racist practices often includes the idea that humans can be subdivided into distinct groups that are different in their social behavior and innate capacities and that can be ranked as inferior or superior. [1] Today, the use of the term "racism" does not easily fall under a single definition.[2] It is usually found in, but usage is not limited to, law, the social and behavioral sciences, humanities, and popular culture.

Racist ideology can become manifest in many aspects of social life. Social actions can be based in human ideas and actions associated with xenophobia, otherness, segregation, hierarchical ranking, supremacism, and related social phenomena.

While race and ethnicity are considered to be separate in contemporary social science, the two terms have a long history of equivalence in popular usage and older social science literature. "Ethnicity" is often used in a sense close to one traditionally attributed to "race": the division of human groups based on qualities assumed to be essential or innate to the group (e.g. shared ancestry or shared behavior). Racism and racial discrimination are often used to describe discrimination on an ethnic or cultural basis, independent of whether these differences are described as racial. According to a United Nations convention, there is no distinction between the terms racial discrimination and ethnic discrimination. The UN convention further concludes that superiority based on racial differentiation is scientifically false, morally condemnable, socially unjust and dangerous, and there is no justification for racial discrimination, anywhere, in theory or in practice.[3]

Etymology, definition and usage

edit

In the 19th century, many scientists subscribed to the belief that the human population can be divided into races. The term racism is a noun describing the state of being racist, i.e, subscribing to the belief that the human population can be classified according to race. The origin of the root word "race" is far from clear. Linguists generally agree that it came to the English language from Middle French, but there is no such agreement on how it came into Latin-based languages, generally. A recent proposal is that it derives from the Arabic ra's, which means "head, beginning, origin" or the Hebrew rosh, which has a similar meaning.[4] Early race theorists generally held that some races were inferior to others and that differential treatment of races was consequently justified.Cite error: A <ref> tag is missing the closing </ref> (see the help page).[5][6] These early theories guided pseudo-scientific research assumptions; the collective endeavors to adequately define and form hypotheses about racial differences are generally termed scientific racism.

Today, most biologists, anthropologists, and sociologists reject a taxonomy of races in favor of more specific and/or empirically verifiable criteria, such as geography, ethnicity or a history of endogamy.[7] To date, there is little evidence in human genome research indicating that race can be defined in such a way as to be useful in a genetic classification of humans.[8]

An entry in the Oxford English Dictionary (2008) defines racialism simply as "An earlier term than racism, but now largely superseded by it," and cites it in a 1902 quote.[9] The revised Oxford English Dictionary cites the shortened term "racism" in a quote from the following year, 1903.[10][11][12] It was first defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as "[t]he theory that distinctive human characteristics and abilities are determined by race", which gives 1936 as the first recorded use. Additionally, the Oxford English Dictionary records racism as a synonym of racialism: "belief in the superiority of a particular race". By the end of World War II, racism had acquired the same supremacist connotations formerly associated with racialism: racism now implied racial discrimination, racial supremacism and a harmful intent. (The term "race hatred" had also been used by sociologist Frederick Hertz in the late 1920s.)

As its history indicates, popular use of the word racism is relatively recent. The word came into widespread usage in the Western world in the 1930s, when it was used to describe the social and political ideology of Nazism, which saw "race" as a naturally given political unit.[13] It is commonly agreed that racism existed before the coinage of the word, but there is not a wide agreement on a single definition of what racism is and what it is not. Today, some scholars of racism prefer to use the concept in the plural racisms, to emphasize its many different forms, that do not easily fall under a single definition, and that different forms have characterized different historical periods and geographical areas.[14] Garner (2009: p. 11) summarizes different existing definitions of racism and identifies three common elements contained in those definition of racism. First, a historical, hierarchical power relationship between groups; second, a set of ideas (an ideology) about racial differences; and, third, discriminatory actions (practices).[2]

edit

Though many countries around the globe have passed laws related to race and discrimination, the first significant international human rights instrument developed by the United Nations (UN) was the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR).[15] The UDHR was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. The UDHR recognizes that if people are to be treated with dignity, they require economic rights, social rights including education, and the rights to cultural and political participation and civil liberty. It further states that everyone is entitled to these rights "without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status."

The UN does not define "racism"; however, it does define "racial discrimination": According to the 1965 UN International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination,[16]

the term "racial discrimination" shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction, or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin that has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.

In their 1978 United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice (Article 1), the UN states, "All human beings belong to a single species and are descended from a common stock. They are born equal in dignity and rights and all form an integral part of humanity."[17]

The UN definition of racial discrimination does not make any distinction between discrimination based on ethnicity and race, in part because the distinction between the two has been a matter of debate among academics, including anthropologists.[18] Similarly, in British law the phrase racial group means "any group of people who are defined by reference to their race, colour, nationality (including citizenship) or ethnic or national origin".[19]

In Norway, the word "race" has been removed from national laws concerning discrimination as the use of the phrase is considered problematic and unethical.[20][21] The Norwegian Anti-Discrimination Act bans discrimination based on ethnicity, national origin, descent and skin color.[22]

Social and behavioral science

edit
Main article: Sociology of race and ethnic relations

Sociologists, in general, recognize "race" as a social construct. This means that, though the concepts of race and racism are based in observable biological characteristics, any conclusions drawn about race on the basis of those observations is heavily influenced by cultural ideologies. Racism, as an ideology, exists in a society at both the individual and the institutional level.

While much of the research and work on racism in the last half-century or so has concentrated on "white racism" in the Western world, historical accounts of race-based social practices can be found across the globe.[23] Thus, racism can be broadly defined to encompass individual and group prejudices and acts of discrimination that result in material and cultural advantages conferred on a majority or dominate social group.[24] So-called "white racism" focuses on societies in which white populations are the majority or dominant social group. In studies of these majority white societies, the aggregate of material and cultural advantages are usually termed "white privilege".

Race and race relations are prominent areas of study in sociology and economics. Much of the sociological literature focuses on white racism. Some of the earliest sociological works on racism were penned by sociologist W. E. B. Du Bois, the first African American to earn a doctoral degree from Harvard University. Du Bois wrote, "The problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color line.”[25] Wellman (1993) defines racism as "culturally sanctioned beliefs, which, regardless of intentions involved, defend the advantages whites have because of the subordinated position of racial minorities".[26] In both sociology and economics, the outcomes of racist actions are often measured by the inequality in income, wealth, net worth, and access to other cultural resources, such as education, between racial groups.[27]

In sociology and social psychology, racial identity and the acquisition of that identity is often used as a variable in racism studies. Racial ideologies and racial identity affect individuals' perception of race and discrimination. Cazenave and Maddern (1999) define racism as "... a highly organized system of 'race'-based group privilege that operates at every level of society and is held together by a sophisticated ideology of color/'race' supremacy. Racial centrality (the extent to which a culture recognizes individuals' racial identity) appears to affect the degree of discrimination African American young adults perceive whereas racial ideology may buffer the detrimental emotional effects of that discrimination.[28] Sellers and Shelton (2003) found that a relationship between racial discrimination and emotional distress was moderated by racial ideology and social beliefs.[29]

Some sociologists also argue that, particularly in the West where racism is often negatively sanctioned in society, racism has changed from being a blatant to a more covert expression of racial prejudice. The "newer" (more hidden and less easily detectable) forms of racism—which can be considered as embedded in social processes and structures—are more difficult to explore as well as challenge. It has been suggested that, while in many countries overt or explicit racism has become increasingly taboo, even in those who display egalitarian explicit attitudes, an implicit or aversive racism is still maintained subconsciously.[30]

Humanities

edit

Language, linguistics and discourse are active areas of study in the humanities, along with literature and arts. Discourse analysis seeks to reveal the meaning of race and the actions of racists through careful study of the ways these factors of human society are described and discussed in various written and oral works. Van Dijk (1992), for example, examines the different ways in which descriptions of racism and racist actions are described by perpetrators of such actions and their victims.[31] He notes that when descriptions of action have negative implications about the majority, and especially of white elites, they are often seen as controversial and such controversial interpretations are typically marked with quotation marks or expressions of distance or doubt. The above mentioned book, The Souls of Black Folk by W.E.B. Du Bois, represents early African American literature that describes the author's experience of racism traveling in the South as an African American.

Much American fictional literature has focused on issues of racism and the black "racial experience" in the US, including those written by whites such as Uncle Tom's Cabin, To Kill a Mockingbird, and Imitation of Life, or even the non-fiction Black Like Me. These books, and others like them, feed into what has been called the "white savior narrative in film", in which the heroes and heroines are white even though the story is about things that happen to black characters. Textual analysis of such writings can contrast sharply with black authors' descriptions of African Americans and their experiences in US society. African American writers have been sometimes portrayed in African-American studies as retreating from racial issues when they write about "whiteness", while others identify this as an African American literary tradition called "the literature of white estrangement", part of a multipronged approach to challenge and dismantle white supremacy in the US.[32]

edit

The Urban Dictionary states that the "commonly intended definition" (of "racism in America) is: A bias that white people have against blacks.[33] Racism can be said to describe a condition in society in which a dominant racial group benefits from the oppression of others, whether they want such benefits or not.[34]

In popular usage, as in some academic usage, little distinction is made between "racism" and "ethnocentrism". Often the two are listed together as "racial and ethnic" in describing some action or outcome that is associated with prejudice within a majority or dominant group in society. Further, the meaning of the term racism is often conflated with the terms prejudice, bigotry, and discrimination. Racism is a complex concept that can involve each of those, but cannot be equated to nor is it synonymous with these other terms.

Also, the term is often used in relation to what is seen as prejudice within a minority or subjugated group, as in the concept of "reverse racism". Reverse racism describes discriminatory action by members of a minority group against a dominant or formerly dominant racial or other group representative of the majority in a particular society. [35]

Aspects

edit 
The ideology underlying racism can become manifest in many aspects of social life.  Such aspects are described in this section, although the list is not exhaustive.

Xenophobia

edit
Main article: Xenophobia

Dictionary definitions of xenophobia include: intense or irrational dislike or fear of people from other countries (Oxford Dictionaries),[36] unreasonable fear and hatred of strangers or foreigners or of anything that is strange or foreign (Merriam-Webster)[37] The Dictionary of Psychology defines it as "a fear of strangers".[38]

Supremacism

edit
Main article: Supremacism

Centuries of European colonialism of the Americas, Africa and Asia was often justified by white supremacist attitudes.[39] During the early 20th century, the phrase "The White Man's Burden" was widely used to justify imperialist policy as a noble enterprise.[40][41]

 
A rally against school integration in 1959.

Segregationism

edit
Main article: Racial segregation

Racial segregation is the separation of humans into socially-constructed racial groups in daily life. It may apply to activities such as eating in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a bath room, attending school, going to the movies, or in the rental or purchase of a home.[42] Segregation is generally outlawed, but may exist through social norms, even when there is no strong individual preference for it, as suggested by Thomas Schelling's models of segregation and subsequent work.

Note: I would argue that each of the following are also aspects of racism rather than "types":

  • 3.1 Racial discrimination
  • 3.2 Institutional
  • 3.3 Economic
  • 3.4 Symbolic/modern
  • 3.5 Cultural
  • 3.6 Color blindness
  • 3.7 Othering

Note

edit

This is an extract from an older revision of the article that attempted to add some new info to definition. I am placing it here for reference. Racism consists of ideologies and practices that seek to justify or cause unequal treatment of groups or individuals that are conceptualized as racially or ethnically different.

Garner, 2009 in the book "Racisms: An Introduction" p. 11 summarizes different definitions of racism and concludes by listing three necessary elements of any definition of racism: 1. a historical power relationship, 2. a set of ideas (an ideology), 3. forms of discrimination (practices). [2]

These can take the form of social actions, practices, beliefs, or political systems (e.g., apartheid) that consider different races to be ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities. It may also hold that members of different races should be treated differently.Cite error: A <ref> tag is missing the closing </ref> (see the help page). 

Some variants include a belief in hierarchies of worth arising from biological differences between peoples.[1]

References

edit
  1. ^ a b Newman, D. M. (2012). Sociology: exploring the architecture of everyday life (9th ed.). Los Angeles: SAGE. p. 405. ISBN 978-1-4129-8729-5. racism: Belief that humans are subdivided into distinct groups that are different in their social behavior and innate capacities and that can be ranked as superior or inferior.
  2. ^ a b c Garner, Steve (2009). Racisms: An Introduction. Sage.
  3. ^ "International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination". Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Retrieved December 23, 2011.
  4. ^ "race (n2)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 21 February 2016.
  5. ^ "Framework decision on combating racism and xenophobia". Council Framework Decision 2008/913/JHA of 28 November 2008. European Union. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
  6. ^ "International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination". UN Treaty Series. United Nations. Archived from the original on 2011-08-26. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
  7. ^ Bamshad, Michael; Steve E. Olson (December 2003). "Does Race Exist?". Scientific American. 289 (6): 78–85. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1203-78. PMID 14631734. If races are defined as genetically discrete groups, no. But researchers can use some genetic information to group individuals into clusters with medical relevance.
  8. ^ Patrinos, Ari (2004). "'Race' and the human genome". Nature Genetics. 36 (S1–S2): S1–S2. doi:10.1038/ng2150. PMID 15510100. S2CID 20747935.
  9. ^ "racialism, n.". OED Online. September 2013. Oxford University Press. (Accessed December 03, 2013).
  10. ^ "racism, n.". OED Online. September 2013. Oxford University Press. (Accessed December 03, 2013).
  11. ^ Miles, Robert (1989). Racism. Routledge. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-415-01809-8.
  12. ^ The term "racism" was used as the title of a 1930s book, and possibly coined, by sexologist and homosexual activist Magnus Hirschfeld.
  13. ^ Fredrickson, George M. (2002). Racism: A Short History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. p. 5. ISBN 9780691116525. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  14. ^ Bethencourt, Francisco (2014). Racisms: From the Crusades to the Twentieth Century. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
  15. ^ "Universal Declaration of Human Rights". United Nations. Retrieved 22 February 2016.
  16. ^ "International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination". United Nations. Adopted December 1965, entered into force January 1969. Retrieved 22 February 2016. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  17. ^ "Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice". United Nations. 1978. Retrieved 22 February 2016.
  18. ^ Metraux, A. (1950). "United nations Economic and Security Council Statement by Experts on Problems of Race". American Anthropologist. 53 (1): 142–145. doi:10.1525/aa.1951.53.1.02a00370.
  19. ^ "Racist and Religious Crime – CPS Prosecution Policy". The CPS. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
  20. ^ Jon Dagsland Holgersen (23 July 2010) Rasebegrepet på vei ut av loven Aftenposten. Retrieved 10 December 2013 (in Norwegian)
  21. ^ Rase: Et ubrukelig ord Aftenposten. Retrieved 10 December 2013 (in Norwegian)
  22. ^ Ministry of Labour The Act on prohibition of discrimination based on ethnicity, religion, etc. Regjeringen.no. Retrieved 10 December 2013
  23. ^ Gossett, Thomas F. Race: The History of an Idea in America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0195097785
  24. ^ Feagin, Joe R. (2000). Racist America : roots, current realities, and future reparations. Routledge. ISBN 9780415925310.
  25. ^ Du Bois, W. E. B. (1903). The Souls of Black Folk . New York: Bantam Classic.
  26. ^ Wellman, David T. (1993). Portraits of White Racism. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. pp. x.
  27. ^ Massey, D. and N. Denton (1989). "Hypersegregation in U.S. Metropolitan areas: Black and Hispanic Segregation Along Five Dimensions". Demography. 26 (3): 378–79. doi:10.2307/2061599. JSTOR 2061599. PMID 2792476. S2CID 37301240.
  28. ^ Cazenave, Noel A and Darlene Alvarez Maddern (1999). "Defending the White Race:White Male Faculty Opposition to a White Racism Course". Race and Society. 2 (1): 25–50. doi:10.1016/S1090-9524(00)00003-6.
  29. ^ Sellers RM and JN Shelton (2003). "The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 84 (5): 1079–1092. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.5.1079. PMID 12757150.
  30. ^ Greenwald, A. G. and M.R. Banaji (1999). "Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes". Psychological Review. 2 (1): 4–27.
  31. ^ Van Dijk, Tuen (1992). Analyzing Racism Through Discourse Analysis Some Methodological Reflections in Race and Ethnicity in Research Methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. pp. 92–134. ISBN 978-0803950078.
  32. ^ Watson, Veronica T. (2013). The Souls of White Folk: African American Writers Theorize Whiteness. Jackson, MS: The University Press of Mississippi. p. 137. ISBN 9781496802453.
  33. ^ "The Urban Dictionary". Urban Dictionary. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
  34. ^ Blay, Zeba (26 August 2015). "'Reverse Racism' Myths That Need To Stop". HuffPost. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
  35. ^ Norton, Michael I. and Samuel R. Sommers (2011). "Whites See Racism as a Zero-Sum Game That They Are Now Losing". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 6 (3): 215–18. doi:10.1177/1745691611406922. PMID 26168512. S2CID 10616480. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |lay-date= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |lay-source= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |lay-url= ignored (help)
  36. ^ 2012
  37. ^ "Xenophobia - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary". merriam-webster.com.
  38. ^ Dictionary of Psychology, Chapman, Dell Publishing, 1975 fifth printing 1979.
  39. ^ Takashi Fujitani; Geoffrey Miles White; Lisa Yoneyama (2001). Perilous memories: the Asia-Pacific War(s). Duke University Press. p. 303. ISBN 978-0-8223-2564-2.
  40. ^ Miller, Stuart Creighton (1984-09-10). Benevolent Assimilation: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03081-5. p. 5: "... imperialist editors came out in favor of retaining the entire archipelago (using) higher-sounding justifications related to the "white man's burden."
  41. ^ Opinion archive, International Herald Tribune (February 4, 1999). "In Our Pages: 100, 75 and 50 Years Ago; 1899: Kipling's Plea". International Herald Tribune: 6.: Notes that Rudyard Kipling's new poem, "The White Man's Burden," "is regarded as the strongest argument yet published in favor of expansion."
  42. ^ Principles to Guide Housing Policy at the Beginning of the Millennium, Michael Schill & Susan Wachter, Cityscape
Retrieved from "https://en.wiki.x.io/w/index.php?title=User:Meclee/proj1-sandbox&oldid=1095115264"