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Ava–Hanthawaddy War (1408–1418)
Part of the Forty Years' War
DateMarch 1408 – late 1418
Location
Result Hanthawaddy and coalition victory
Territorial
changes
Belligerents

Ava

Hanthawaddy Pegu

China and its client states (1412–1415)

Commanders and leaders
Strength
Southern Theater[note 1]
    • 1408: 26,000 infantry; 2200 cavalry; 100 elephants
    • 1409–10: 14,000+; 1400; 100[c]
    • 1410: 15,000; 600; 40
    • 1412–13: 6000+; ?; ?
    • 1414–15: 22,000+; 600+; 80+
    • 1415: 5 regiments
    • 1416: 8000; 400; 30
    • 1417–18: 16,000; 700; 40
Western Theater
    • 1408: 300+; ?; ?[c]
    • 1411: 10,000+; 1000+; ~100
    • 1411–12: 8000+; 300+; 30+
    • 1416: 1 garrison
Northern Theater
    • 1412: 7000; 400; 20[c]
    • 1413–14: 8000; 400; 30
    • 1414–15: ?
Southern Theater[note 1]
    • 1408: 8000 infantry; 300 cavalry; 60 elephants
    • 1409–10: 8000+; 400+; 90+[c]
    • 1410: 3+ regiments; 2 flotillas
    • 1412–13: 12,000; 800; 30
    • 1414–15: 10,000+; ?; ?
    • 1415: ?
    • 1416: 7000; 500; 30+
    • 1417–18: ?
Western Theater
    • 1408: 4000+; ?; 20+[c]
    • 1411: 5000+; 200; 50
    • 1411–12: 5000+; 200; 50
    • 1416: ?
Northern Theater
    • 1412: 20,000+; 2000+; ?[c]
    • 1413–14: ?
    • 1414–15: ?
Casualties and losses
Total unknown Total unknown
See Ava–Hanthawaddy War (1408–1410) orders of battle, (1410–1412), (1412–1414), (1414–1415), and (1416–1418) for more information.

The Ava–Hanthawaddy War (1408–1418) (Burmese: အင်းဝ–ဟံသာဝတီ စစ် (၁၄၀၈–၁၄၁၈)) was a military conflict between Ava and Hanthawaddy Pegu that lasted from 1408 to 1418. It was the third of the decades-long wars between the two kingdoms, both located in present-day Myanmar.

Background

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This was the third war between Ava and Hanthawaddy Pegu. In the first two wars, each kingdom had tried to take advantage of the other's succession crisis. In the first war (1385–1391), King Swa Saw Ke of Ava tried unsuccessfully to replace the new king of Hanthawaddy, Razadarit.[1][2] In the second war (1401–1403), it was Razadarit that attempted to gain the submission of Ava's new king Minkhaung I.[3][4]

Minkhaung emerged stronger after the second war. Not only was he able to negotiate a favorable peace treaty that obliged Pegu to supply 30 elephants and custom revenues of the port of Bassein (Pathein) annually[5][6] but he had also finally gained the support of his vassals. Minkhaung began using his newfound power almost immediately. Ava went on to take over its neighboring Shan states to the east and the north: Onbaung (1404/05), Yatsauk and Nyaungshwe (1405/06),[7] and Bhamo and Mohnyin (1406).[7][8]

Ava's acquisition spree alarmed its neighbors. In August 1406, the Ming court, which considered the Shan states its tributaries, dispatched an embassy to Ava (Inwa), ordering to Ava to end its "aggression" in the border states.[8] At Pegu, Razadarit had long been wary about Ava's potential threat to Pegu since the end of the second war.[9] According to the Razadarit Ayedawbon chronicle, the Hanthawaddy king's concerns were greatly heightened c. October 1406,[note 2] when he received what his court believed to be credible intelligence that Ava was planning to invade Launggyet Arakan next and Pegu afterwards.[10] (To be sure, the main chronicles—the Maha Yazawin, Yazawin Thit and Hmannan Yazawin—which mainly narrate from the Ava side, dispute the Razadarit's account; they say Ava decided to retaliate only after Pegu had invaded Arakan in 1408.[note 3])

At any rate, Pegu's suspicions were seemingly confirmed shortly after. In November 1406, Ava forces led by Minkhaung's eldest son Minye Kyawswa invaded Arakan.[12] In response, Razadarit and his army rushed to Bassein to closely monitor the events across the Arakan border.[11] Although Ava forces, which went on to capture the kingdom on the western littoral, never crossed the Arakan–Hanthawaddy border, the Pegu court was now convinced that Pegu was indeed next.[11]

Prelude to war

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Razadarit removed the veneer of friendly relations with Ava. He readily gave shelter to King Min Saw Mon of Launggyet (and/or Prince Min Khayi).[note 4] A few months later in 1407, he welcomed Minkhaung's younger brother Prince Theiddat, who had defected after being passed over for crown prince, with great fanfare.[17][18][19] More importantly, he also stopped sending the annual shipment of elephants and the annual customs revenues of the port of Bassein.[18][19] The 1403 peace treaty of Kawliya was now null and void. Pegu now expected an Ava invasion after the rainy season, and prepared for war.[11]

However, the anticipated invasion never came when the dry season arrived. When they learned that Ava was busy suppressing a serious rebellion in Bhamo, the Hanthawaddy command deliberated their next steps.[11] Over the next two months, they came to the conclusion that Pegu must act while Ava had its hands full in the north, and that they should start by capturing Arakan, which they believed should be an easier task than taking on Ava's southern defenses.[14][20] Razadarit did not make the decision lightly, as he would be starting a war against a more powerful and populous kingdom. In January 1408,[note 5] the king prayed at the main pagoda of Pegu (presumably the Shwemawdaw),[note 6] and authorized the Arakan campaign after the solemn prayer.[14]

Hanthawaddy conquest of Arakan (1408)

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Preparations

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See also: Ava–Hanthawaddy_War_(1408–1410)_orders_of_battle § Hanthawaddy_Pegu

Pegu's general plan was to conquer Arakan swiftly by leveraging the popularity of the dethroned Arakanese king. The battle plan for Arakan called for capturing Sandoway first, enlisting more men from the Sandoway region, and finally attacking Launggyet.[21] An expeditionary force, consisted of two divisions (4000[14] to 5000[22] troops in total), commanded by Smin Paik-Nye and Smin Maw-Khwin, was organized.[14][21] Also included in the force was King Min Saw Mon of Launggyet whose presence the Hanthawaddy command believed would entice the local populace to join their side. By late February, the expeditionary force as well as the royal army commanded by Razadarit himself were all massed in Bassein.[21]

Meanwhile, Ava was oblivious to the impending threat. Its main forces were still in Bhamo,[23] and had not reinforced its nominal garrisons in Launggyet and Sandoway.[21]

Campaign

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Anawrahta of Lauggyet portrayed as Shwe Nawrahta nat

The invasion began c. early March 1408.[note 7] The Hanthawaddy expeditionary force took Sandoway without a fight. The small Ava garrison there had fled to Launggyet.[21] The allied forces—Min Saw Mon now commanded a force of his own—marched to the capital. At Launggyet, the Ava-installed king Anawrahta tried to put up a fight behind the city walls. But three vanguard forces–led by Smin Sam Lek, Smin Lauk Ni-Ye and Min Saw Mon—quickly breached the defenses, and defeated the Ava garrison inside.[21] Anawrahta, his queen Saw Pyei Chantha, and 300 household guards, were taken prisoner.[14][21]

Aftermath

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After the campaign, Min Saw Mon was restored to the Launggyet throne.[14][23] Razadarit immediately recalled most of the expedition force (except for a small garrison in Launggyet).[note 8] The captured king and queen of Arakan were also brought back. Razadarit had Anawrahta executed, and made Queen Saw Pyei Chantha, the 16-year-old daughter of Minkhaung, one of his queens.[23][20][27]

The provocations worked. At Ava, a furious Minkhaung ordered an immediate invasion of the southern kingdom. His court was aghast as the rainy season was around the corner. The ministers tried to persuade Minkhaung to delay the campaign until after the rainy season but the king stubbornly insisted on an immediate invasion.[25][28]

First Ava invasion of Hanthawaddy (1408)

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Ava and Hanthawaddy forces fought in Arakan on the western coast and along the Sittaung river near Pegu in 1408–1410.

Ava battle plan

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See also: Ava–Hanthawaddy_War_(1408–1410)_orders_of_battle § Ava_2

The Ava court hastily drew up a battle plan. First and foremost, they needed to secure Bhamo and their entire northern front in general. They sent an embassy to Beijing to reassure the Ming court about Ava's intentions on their borderlands. The embassy, received on 28 May 1408, succeeded in lowering the tensions with China at least for the time being (until late 1409).[note 9]

As for Hanthawaddy, Ava wanted an invasion on two fronts. Pressed by the soon-to-arrive rainy season, the Ava court decided to recruit the Kingdom of Lan Na (in present-day northern Thailand) to attack from Pegu's east. In March 1408,[note 10] they rushed an embassy to Chiang Mai to propose an alliance. However, the embassy veered into Hanthawaddy territory en route, and were promptly arrested. Razadarit released the embassy back to Ava, with Minkhaung's letter to the king of Lan Na unsealed.[14][20][13]

Ava was now on its own. By April, the Ava court had mobilized two invasion armies: a vanguard army (22,000 troops, 2000 cavalry, 80 elephants), and a smaller army commanded by Minkhaung himself (4000 troops, 200 cavalry and 20 elephants).[25][30] In order to beat the rains, they decided to send both armies along the Sittaung river, which represented the shortest path to Pegu but was also much harder to supply. To that end, they had devised an elaborate plan to ship the supplies via the Irrawaddy river to Prome (Pyay), and then transport them by land (over 200 km by modern roads) through the jungles of the Pegu Yoma range to the front.[25][31]

Pegu battle plan

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See also: Ava–Hanthawaddy_War_(1408–1410)_orders_of_battle § Hanthawaddy_Pegu_2

The Hanthawaddy defenses had been on guard—on both the Irrawaddy delta and Sittaung fronts. The Hanthawaddy command had estimated the total strength of the enemy to be about 15,000 infantry, 600 cavalry and 60 elephants. Their general plan was to ambush the more numerous Ava troops along the invasion routes, and defend from inside their fortified towns.[32] Dein Mani-Yut would lead the defense of the delta while Razadarit himself would lead the defense of the Sittaung front with his main army (8000 troops, 300 cavalry, 20 elephants) out of Fort Thagyin (present-day Shwegyin), about 100 km northeast of Pegu.[24][25][26] A 500-strong vanguard regiment led by Lagun Ein was stationed near the border, and Smin Ye-Thin-Yan guarded the capital.[33]

Invasion

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Initial campaign

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Circa mid April 1408,[note 11] vanguard Ava regiments crossed the border.[24][30] Lagun Ein's regiment promptly ambushed the enemy, but was ultimately driven back by more numerous Ava troops.[34] Though his forces came out on top, Minkhaung was spooked by the high losses suffered by his vanguard units. He paused the invasion for another six days in order for more troops to arrive.[35]

This gave the Hanthawaddy command time to readjust its plans. Based on Lagun Ein's report that Ava vanguard forces totaled at least 5,000[36] and perhaps even 10,000,[37] they now reckoned the overall enemy strength to be over 20,000, just on this front alone.[38] They also assessed that their current defenses, including the frontline Thakyin fort, probably could not hold out for long. After a lengthy, contentious debate among his senior staff, Razadarit decided to pull back 70 km southwest to Fort Pankyaw. He also called up more reserves from the delta, and Martaban provinces to come over to Pankyaw.[24][26] Finally, he ordered all the main towns along the invasion route—including the fief of his father-in-law and senior minister Zeik-Bye[note 12]— evacuated, and burned down.[40][39]

The scorched earth policy proved effective from the outset. Advancing Ava forces found nothing but scorched towns—12 in total[41]— en route to Pankyaw. Though still early in the campaign, feeding the large number of troops was already a problem for the Ava command. Even as Ava forces took up their positions outside Pankyaw over five days in late April,[note 13] the troops were already resorting to foraging around the nearby burned out settlements.[40]

Battle of Pankyaw

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The battle began in early May. From the outset, Ava forces were hampered by the difficult terrains and the rains just to reach the two smaller forts that guarded the westerly and easterly approaches to Pankyaw. The smaller stockades were located on the banks of Thayo (သရို့) and Byatlan (ဗြတ်လန်း) streams, and were manned by 18 battalions in addition to 500 to 600 patrols men. Despite their overwhelming numerical superiority, Ava forces had no experience fighting in the swampy terrains or tidal patterns, and could not even get near the stockades.[40][43] Their small window of opportunity closed in late May when both the rainy season and more Hanthawaddy reinforcements from the delta and Martaban arrived. The Hanthawaddy troops at Pankyaw now totaled just over 10,000.[note 14]

Yet Minkhaung stubbornly chose not to retreat. The decision soon proved to be a costly mistake. Over the following weeks, Ava's long supply lines—ambitious even in the best of scenarios—were repeatedly ambushed by Smin Awa Naing's units.[36][44] Starving Ava troops were forced to forage farther and farther, and many became victims of yet more Hanthawaddy ambushes.[44] This went on for nearly two months. By late July, the situation had grown so dire that Minkhaung finally agreed to negotiate to secure a safe withdrawal. The king sent a delegation to the Hanthawaddy camp asking for terms.[24][36]

Attempts on Minkhaung

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Razadarit was in no mood for negotiations. He did not trust Minkhaung, and was determined not to let Minkhaung escape. Justifying that Minkhaung had first broken the 1403 peace treaty, the Hanthawaddy king devised a plan to assassinate Minkhaung at the negotiation table.[45] But the plan could not be carried out after the Ava delegation became suspicious after Lagun Ein's blunt reply to a routine question.[note 15]

Razadarit ordered two more attempts on Minkhaung's life but both failed. The first attempt to ambush Minkhaung near the Ava camp was broken up on a warning by Theiddat who had come along with the Hanthawaddy units. It turned out that Theiddat could not betray his elder brother. Razadarit had Theiddat executed.[47][48] In a second attempt, a 12-member unit led by Lagun Ein tried to infiltrate the Ava camp but ultimately had to retreat.[note 16]

Costly withdrawal

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See also: Ava–Hanthawaddy_War_(1408–1410)_orders_of_battle § Ava_3
See also: Ava–Hanthawaddy_War_(1408–1410)_orders_of_battle § Hanthawaddy_Pegu_3

In August 1408, at the height of the rainy season, Ava forces began their painful withdrawal. Only able-bodied men were allowed to retreat while the wounded and the sick were left behind.[52] The Ava command had hoped that a rearguard army (10,000 troops, 800 cavalry, 80 elephants) could hold off the enemy long enough to ensure an orderly withdrawal of the king and his attendants. However, the Hanthawaddy command had anticipated that. A Hanthawaddy army pursued the Ava rearguard army while another army led by Razadarit himself took another route to cut off Minkhaung's escape path.[51][52][53]

What ensued was a disaster for the invaders. First, Razadarit caught up with Minkhaung near Maw Lyin[53] (or Maw Baw),[52] near the frontier. In the ensuing battle, the Ava units guarding Minkhaung fought their way out of Hanthawaddy units led by Lagun Ein and Smin Upakaung, and brought their king to safety. But the slower caravan of horses and elephants carrying civilian members, including one of Minkhaung's queens, Shin Mi-Nauk, were all captured.[51][52][53] The attention now turned to the Ava rearguard army, which thus far had been pursued by the first Hanthawaddy army.[54] The combined Hanthawaddy forces now launched several attacks on the rearguard army. Only a portion of the army eventually made it back; many of its troops, horses and elephants had been killed, or captured.[55]

First intermission (1408–1409)

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According to the main chronicles, Minkhaung was circumspect. He admitted to his court that he had acted in anger and haste, and promised that the next campaign would be better planned. He set the campaign date more than a year later to the 1409–1410 dry season. However, according to the Rakhine Razawin Thit chronicle, Minkhaung did send an expeditionary force commanded by the lord of Myinsaing (Thray Sithu of Myinsaing) to Arakan later in 1408. The Ava army succeeded in retaking the capital Launggyet. However, Hanthawaddy reinforcements came, and drove out the Ava army out of the capital c. early 1409.[22] (An Ava regiment remained inside Arakan at Nga-Khway-Thaung Taung for another three years, until it too was driven out by another Hanthawaddy army.[22])

Two invasion armies (14,000 troops, 1000 cavalry, 80 elephants)[56][57][58] Minkhaung himself would again lead the campaign.

The army's strength was fewer than the last campaign (14,000 vs. 26,000).

Ava's relations with China were deteriorating. Upon learning that Ava was still active in the borderlands, the Ming court sent a mission to the border in July 1409.[59] In September 1409, the Yongle Emperor wrote that he was prepared to send the army to the Ava-Maw borderlands. (Ming forces had invaded Dai Viet in 1406 and conquered it in 1407 but were fighting incessant rebellions.)

Second Ava invasion of Hanthawaddy (1409–1410)

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Historiography

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Prelude to war

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The main Burmese chronicles say that Minye Kyawswa conquered Arakan in 765 ME (1403/04)[60][61][62] but the Arakanese chronicle Rakhine Razawin Thit gives the exact date Monday, 5th waning of Nadaw 768 ME, which translates to Monday, 29 November 1406.[12] Thus 765 ME appears to be a copying error of 768 ME as the Burmese numeral ၈ (8) can be miscopied as ၅ (5) and vice versa.[note 17]

Event
Ava conquest of Arakan no explicit dates mentioned[note 18] 1403/04[note 19] 1403/04[note 20] 1403/04[note 21] 29 November 1406[note 22]
Theiddat's defection and
Lapse of the Treaty of Kawliya 		c. mid 1407[note 23] c. mid 1407[note 24] no date mentioned [after 1406/07 implied][note 25] not mentioned

Phase 1 (1408–1410)

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Event
Hanthawaddy invasion of Arakan March 1408[note 26] by March 1408[note 27] March 1408[note 7] no date mentioned[note 28] late 1407 or early 1408[note 29]
1st Ava invasion of Hanthawaddy [1408 implied][note 30] April–August 1408[note 31] April–August 1408[note 32] April–August 1407 [sic][note 33] not mentioned
2nd Ava invasion of Hanthawaddy ~5 months in 1409–1410[note 34] by October 1409–March 1410[note 35] by October 1409–March 1410[note 36] by October 1409–March 1410[note 37]

Phase 2 (1410–1415)

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All the main chronicles largely agree on the order of the events but with a few notable exceptions. First, the Razadarit Ayedawbon includes two invasions by Minye Kyawswa whereas the other three chronicles list three invasions by the crown prince. Secondly, the Razadarit places the 3rd Maw/Chinese invasion after Minye Kyawswa's final invasion while the main chronicles place the Chinese invasion during Minye Kyawswa's last invasion.

The most notable difference is the year in which Minye Kyawswa died. The Razadarit says Minye Kyawswa died in Tagu 775 ME (March 1414),[note 38] while the Maha Yazawin places the crown prince's death in Tagu 778 ME (March 1417),[note 39] which may a result of a copying error of 775 ME.[note 17] The Yazawin Thit changes the date to Tagu 776 ME (March 1415)[note 40] but the Hmannan Yazawin keeps Tagu 778 ME (March 1417).[note 41]

In general, many of the Maha Yazawin's dates are inconsistent with the chronicle's narrative.[note 43] The Yazawin Thit largely follows the Maha Yazawin's narrative but updates with internally consistent dates. Indeed, its date for the battle of Dala (Wednesday, 4th waxing of Tagu 776 ME) does fall on a Wednesday (13 March 1415).[note 40] The Hmannan Yazawin uses the Yazawin Thit's dates from 772 ME (1410/11) to 776 ME (1414/15) except at the end when it suddenly switches to Tagu 778 ME (March 1417) for the Battle of Dala and Minye Kyawswa's death.[note 41]

Event
3rd Ava invasion of Hanthawaddy late 1410[78] [late 1410 implied][note 44] late 1410[note 45] late 1410[note 46] not mentioned
Battle of Arakan by early 1411–?[note 47] by early 1411–1410/11 [sic][note 42] by early 1411–c. April 1412[note 48] by early 1411–early 1412[note 49] 1411/12[note 50]
1st Maw/Chinese invasion of Ava
(Siege of Hsenwi) 		6+ months in 1411/12[note 51] c. April 1411–October 1411[note 52] c. April 1412–?[note 53] c. April 1412–October 1412[note 54] not mentioned
1st Hanthawaddy invasion of Ava
(Siege of Prome)
  • 4+ months in 1411/12 (Siege of Prome)[note 55]
  • another 4 months in 1411/12 (Battle of Talezi)[note 56]
 c. April 1411–c. August 1411[note 57] c. April 1412–August 1412[note 58] c. April 1412–August 1412[note 59]
Siamese incursion into Martaban Province 1411/12[note 60] c. May 1411[note 61] c. May 1412[note 62] c. May 1412[note 63]
4th Ava invasion of Hanthawaddy not mentioned late 1411–c. October 1412[note 64] late 1412–c. October 1413[note 65] late 1412–c. October 1413[note 66]
2nd Maw/Chinese invasion of Ava
(Battle of Myedu) 		not mentioned 1412/13[note 67] late 1413[note 68] late 1413[note 69]
Ava garrison in Arakan not mentioned not mentioned not mentioned not mentioned 1413/14[note 50]
5th Ava invasion of Hanthawaddy late 1413–after March 1414[note 70] by October 1415–May 1417[note 71] by October 1414–May 1415[note 72] by Octobr 1414–May 1417[note 73] not mentioned
 · Battle of Dala Saturday, 24 March 1414[note 38] Sunday, 21 March 1417[note 39] Wednesday, 13 March 1415[note 40] Sunday, 21 March 1417[note 41]
3rd Maw/Chinese invasion of Ava after March 1414[note 74] late 1415–January 1416[note 75] late 1414–January 1415[note 76] late 1414–January 1415[note 77]

Phase 3 (1416–1418)

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After having placed the Battle of Dala in 1417, the Hmannan Yazawin places the next campaign in 1416.[note 78]

Event
2nd Hanthawaddy invasion of Ava
(Battle of Toungoo) 		not mentioned late 1417[note 79] late 1416[note 80] late 1416[note 78] not mentioned
Ava driven out of Arakan
(Battle of Ngakhwethindaung) 		not mentioned not mentioned not mentioned not mentioned 1416/17[note 50]
6th Ava invasion of Hanthawaddy specific date not mentioned but after March 1414[note 81] late 1418–late 1419[note 82] late 1417–late 1418[note 83] late 1417–late 1418[note 84] not mentioned

Notes

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  1. ^ from 1415
  2. ^ to 1414
  3. ^ a b c d e f [x] infantry; [y] cavalry; [z] elephants
  1. ^ a b Unless otherwise stated, the military mobilization figures in this article are reduced by an order of magnitude from those reported in the royal chronicles, per G.E. Harvey's analysis in his History of Burma (1925) in the section Numerical Note (pp. 333–335).
  2. ^ According to the Razadarit Ayedawbon, the Pegu court learned about Ava's plans to attack Arakan and Pegu when its border patrols intercepted an Ava envoy en route to Chiang Mai who had inadvertently veered into Hanthawaddy territory.[10] Hanthawaddy spies in Ava shortly after reported that Ava forces had in fact already left for Arakan.[11] Since Ava forces conquered the Arakanese capital of Launggyet on Monday, 5th waning of Nadaw 768 ME (Monday, 29 November 1406) per the Rakhine Razawin Thit chronicle,[12] Ava forces must have left for Arakan around the end of the rainy season, i.e. October/November 1406.
  3. ^ While the Razadarit Ayedawbon says the Pegu court received the intelligence by intercepting Ava's envoys to Chiang Mai before Ava's Arakan campaign,[10] [in 1406], the main chronicles all say Ava's mission to Chiang Mai took place after the southern kingdom invaded Arakan [in 1408], in an attempt to recruit Lan Na into jointly attacking Pegu; they do not mention Arakan at all.[13][14][15]
  4. ^ The chronicle Razadarit Ayedawbon says Razadarit took in Min Saw Mon[11] but the Arakanese Rakhine Razawin Thit chronicle says it was Khayi, the brother of Min Saw Mon, that fled to Hanthawaddy; Min Saw Mon fled to Bengal.[16]
  5. ^ Tabodwe 769 ME (28 December 1407 – 25 January 1408)
  6. ^ The Yazawin Thit quoting the Razadarit Ayedawbon says Razadarit solemnly prayed at the Mya Thitin Pagoda.[14] Presumably, it was the Shwemawdaw Pagoda in Pegu.
  7. ^ a b Citing the Razadarit Ayedawbon, the Yazawin Thit says Razadarit decided to attack Arakan in Tabodwe 769 ME (28 December 1407–25 January 1408), and sent in his invasion forces in [Late] Tagu 769 ME (25 February 1408–24 March 1408).[14]
  8. ^ The Rakhine Razawin Thit chronicle says a garrison commanded by Smin Maw-Khwin stayed behind.[22] But the Razadarit Ayedawbon says both commanders, Smin Paik-Nye and Smin Maw-Khwin, were called back.[23] The main chronicles say Smin Maw-Khwin was one of the commanders at the Pegu front in April/May 1408.[24][25][26]
  9. ^ According to the Ming Shilu,[29]
    • The Ming court considered the Ava embassy, received on 28 May 1408, a "tribute mission".
    • The mission offered a formal apology to the Yongle Emperor for "having occupied his younger brother's land [i.e. Mong Mao or Luchuan-Pingmian] taken his property without authority”.
    • Ava had not kept its word in the following months, the Emperor decided to take military action against Ava; the entry came after the entry on Ava dated 5 September 1409.
  10. ^ [Late] Tagu 769 ME (25 February 1408 to 24 March 1408)[14]
  11. ^ Kason 770 ME (29 March 1408–23 April 1408)
  12. ^ Zeik-Bye had unsuccessfully argued for his town to be defended. (The town was either Thakyin per the Razadarit[39] or Sittaung per the Pak Lat.[40]) Before his town was being burned down, Zeik-Bye had no choice but to "lend" his seven viss (11.43 kg) of gold to the royal treasury.[40]
  13. ^ According to the Razadarit, the first Ava forces arrived on one of the neap tide days the month (ရေသေရက်), four or five days before the tides began rising again (ရေတက်ရက်).[42] Since neap tide days last for one week after the full moon day or the new moon day, the first Ava forces likely reached Pankyaw during the week following the new moon of Kason 770 ME (23 April 1408)—i.e., 24 April to 30 April 1408.
  14. ^ Upon his arrival, Dein conducted a roll call of all the remaining troops, and found that the total strength was "exactly" 102,000 men.[44] Adjusting down by an order of magnitude (per G.E. Harvey 1925) brings the strength to 10,200.
  15. ^ According to the Razadarit Ayedawbon, Thado of Inbe routinely asked Lagun Ein if Pegu was negotiating in good faith. Lagun Ein, who was never comfortable with Razadarit's plan, replied: "Fool, this is war. You'll kill me if you can. I'll kill you if I can. How can you trust anyone?"[46]
  16. ^ All the main chronicles report that Lagun Ein even entered Minkhaung's tent but refused to kill a sleeping king.[49][47][48][50] However, the Yazawin Thit says the story lacks credibility, and classified it as a legend.[51]
  17. ^ a b The Burmese numerals ၅ (5) and ၈ (8) are quite similar when written in longhand, and can easily be miscopied.
  18. ^ Pan Hla's edition of the Razadarit does not provide any specific dates for the events. It covers Theiddat's defection[63] before Ava's conquest of Arakan.[11]
  19. ^ 765 ME (30 March 1403 – 28 March 1404)[60]
  20. ^ 765 ME (30 March 1403 – 28 March 1404)[61]
  21. ^ 765 ME (30 March 1403 – 28 March 1404)[62]
  22. ^ Monday, 5th waning of Nadaw 768 ME (Monday, 29 November 1406)[12]
  23. ^ early 769 ME[64]
  24. ^ early 769 ME[65]
  25. ^ Unlike other chronicles, the Hmannan does not explicitly state any dates of the events.[18] Its previous explicitly stated date right before this section was 768 ME (1406/07).[66]
  26. ^ Different versions of the Razadarit Ayedawbon provide different information:
    • An 18th century copy of the Razadarit, cited in the Yazawin Thit chronicle (1798), says Razadarit decided to attack Arakan in Tabodwe 769 ME (28 December 1407–25 January 1408), and sent in his invasion forces in [Late] Tagu 769 ME (25 February 1408–24 March 1408).[14]
    • Pan Hla's version of the Razadarit gives no dates or years for Hanthawaddy's first Arakan campaign.[67] However, Pan Hla notes a few pages later in a footnote that the chronicle gives 769 ME (1407/08) for Hanthawaddy's second Arakan campaign,[68] which according to other chronicles (including the Pak Lat)[68] took place in 772 ME (1410/11).
  27. ^ The Maha Yazawin only says Hanthawaddy forces invaded Arakan in 769 ME (30 March 1407–28 March 1408),[69] which provoked Minkhaung to launch an invasion in Kason 770 ME (29 March 1408–23 April 1408).[31]
  28. ^ The Hmannan includes no explicit dates about the Arakan campaign itself,[70] except that Minkhaung invaded Hanthwaddy soon after in Kason 769 ME [sic] (6 April–5 May 1407).[26]
  29. ^ 769 ME (30 March 1407 – 28 March 1408), a year after Minye Kyawswa's conquest [in November 1406]. Ava retained a toehold in Arakan at the Ngakhwethindaung fort in 770 ME (1408/09).[22]
  30. ^ right after the Arakan campaign[67]
  31. ^ Invasion begins in Kason 770 ME (29 March 1408–23 April 1408).[31] Negotiations began about three months later but eventually broke down; Ava forces were driven back soon after.[71]
  32. ^ The Yazawin Thit largely follows the Maha Yazawin's narrative but does not explicitly state Kason 770 ME (29 March 1408–23 April 1408). Instead it says Minkhaung launched the invasion right after learning about the fall of Arakan.[72]
  33. ^ The Hmannan follows the Maha Yazawin's narrative but it gives 769 ME as the year (instead of 770 ME). This means the invasion began in Kason 769 ME (6 April 1407–5 May 1407),[26] the attempts to negotiate began about three months into the campaign (July/August 1408),[26] and Ava forces were driven back soon after.[73]
  34. ^ Campaign lasted about five months during the dry season of 771 ME, and ended before the arrival of the rainy season.[74] Unlike the main chronicles, the Razadarit does not explicitly say that the campaign ended in 771 ME.
  35. ^ Campaign lasted about five months during the dry season of 771 ME, and ended in 771 ME.[56]
  36. ^ Campaign lasted about five months during the dry season of 771 ME, and ended in 771 ME.[75]
  37. ^ Campaign lasted about five months during the dry season of 771 ME, and ended in 771 ME.[76]
  38. ^ a b Inconsistent date: According to Pan Hla,
    • The Binnya Dala version of the Razadarit gives Wednesday, 4th waxing of [Late] Tagu 775 ME.[107] which translates to Saturday, 24 March 1414.
    • The Pak Lat gives "Sunday, 4th waxing of Tagu" without the year.[114] Pan Hla continues that because Pak Lat says Minye Kyawswa dies three years after his first campaign in 772 ME, the year of the death should be 775 ME.[107] Sunday, 4th waxing of [Late] Tagu 775 ME translates to Saturday, 24 March 1414.
  39. ^ a b Inconsistent date: Wednesday, 4th waxing of [Late] Tagu 778 ME (Sunday, 21 March 1417)[77]
  40. ^ a b c Consistent date: Wednesday, 4th waxing of [Late] Tagu 776 ME (Wednesday, 13 March 1415)[115]
  41. ^ a b c Inconsistent date: Wednesday, 4th waxing of [Late] Tagu 778 ME (Sunday, 21 March 1417)[116]
  42. ^ a b The Maha Yazawin is inconsistent:
    • In response to Ava's invasion of Arakan, Hanthawaddy sent reinforcements to Arakan in early 773 ME (c. April 1411). After over three months of fighting at Sandoway, Ava forces withdrew.[84]
    • Hanthawaddy forces then went on to retake Launggyet in 772 ME [sic] (1410/11).[85]
  43. ^ The Maha Yazawin's narrative has the following inconsistencies:
    • The Arakan campaign started in late 772 ME (early 1411), fought into early 773 ME (c. April 1412 onwards), and ended in 772 ME [sic] (1410/11).[note 42]
    • Its dates suggest a three-year lull in fighting between 774 ME and 777 ME even though its own narrative shows continuous fighting.
    • Its dates for the fifth invasion indicate two full dry season campaigns in 777 ME (1415–1416) and 778 ME (1416–1417) while its narrative covers a single dry season campaign.
    • It says the Battle of Dala took place on Wednesday, 4th waxing of Tagu 778 ME but the date actually translates to Sunday, 21 March 1417.[77]
  44. ^ The Maha Yazawin does not provide a specific date for this campaign. But the previous campaign took place in 771 ME[79] and the subsequent campaign in 773 ME.[80]
  45. ^ Dry season of 772 ME[81]
  46. ^ Dry season of 772 ME[82]
  47. ^ Began after Minye Kyawswa's withdrawal from the delta;[83] no specific end date given.
  48. ^ Ava forces invaded Arakan in late 772 ME (early 1411), and Hanthawaddy reinforcements came in 773 ME (c. April/May 1411).[81] Battle of Sandoway in 773 ME (mid 1411–late 1411); Battle of Launggyet in early 774 ME (c. April/May 1412).[86]
  49. ^ Ava forces conquered Launggyet and Sandoway in late 772 ME (early 1411) before Hanthawaddy reinforcements arrived in early 773 ME.[87] Battle of Sandoway in 773 ME (mid 1411–late 1411); Battle of Launggyet in late 773 ME (early 1412).[88]
  50. ^ a b c Ava established the Ngakhwethindaung fort in Arakan in 770 ME (1408/09). Three years later, [773 ME (1411/12)] Hanthawaddy forces drove out the Ava garrison. Ava reestablished the fort in 775 ME (1413/14). Arakanese forces drove out Ava forces for good in 778 ME (1416/17).[22]
  51. ^ 6+ months in 773 ME (30 March 1411–28 March 1412)[89]
  52. ^ Hsenwi forces invaded Ava in early 773 ME (c. April 1411).[85] Minye Kyawswa laid siege to Hsenwi for about five months before defeating Chinese relief forces.[90]
  53. ^ Unlike other chronicles, the Yazawin Thit does not say how long the Hsenwi campaign lasted; it only says the campaign took place in 774 ME (29 March 1412–29 March 1413)[91]
  54. ^ Hsenwi campaign began in early 774 ME (c. April 1411), laid siege to Hsenwi for about five months before defeating Chinese relief forces.[92]
  55. ^ 4+ months in 773 ME (30 March 1411–28 March 1412)[89]
  56. ^ According to the Razadarit Ayedawbon the Ava counterattack was limited to Talezi for four months, not into Hanthawaddy territory.[93]
  57. ^ The Maha Yazawin does not provide a specific date for the campaign except that Razadarit invaded when he heard Minye Kyawswa had left for Hsenwi.[90]
  58. ^ Siege of Prome began in 774 ME and lasted about 4 months.[94]
  59. ^ Siege of Prome began in 774 ME and lasted about 4 months.[95]
  60. ^ About one and a half months into the Prome campaign, Razadarit went to Martaban to defend Martaban in 773 ME (30 March 1411–28 March 1412)[96]
  61. ^ Siamese forces attacked Ye, one month into the Prome campaign.[97]
  62. ^ Siamese forces attacked Moulmein and Martaban, one month into the Prome campaign.[91]
  63. ^ Siamese forces attacked Ye, one month into the Prome campaign.[98]
  64. ^ The campaign began after the siege of Prome was lifted, and ended after the next rainy season [774 ME (c. Oct 1412)].[99]
  65. ^ The campaign began after Minye Kyawswa had returned from Hsenwi[100] and lasted into Nayon [775 ME] (30 April 1413–28 May 1413)[101] before withdrawing after the rainy season of 775 ME.[102]
  66. ^ The campaign began after Minye Kyawswa had returned from Hsenwi[103] and lasted into Nayon [775 ME] (30 April 1413–28 May 1413)[104] before withdrawing after the rainy season.[105]
  67. ^ 774 ME (29 March 1412–29 March 1413)[97]
  68. ^ after rainy season of 775 ME (c. November 1413)[106]
  69. ^ after rainy season of 775 ME (c. November 1413)[105]
  70. ^ The campaign was fought in 775 ME (1413/14), and ended soon after Minye Kyawswa's death in March 1414.[107]
  71. ^ The Maha Yazawin says the campaign had begun by Tazaungmon 777 ME (2–31 October 1415),[108] and ended after Minye Kyawswa's death on 4th waxing of Late Tagu 778 ME (1417).[109]
  72. ^ The invasion had begun by Tazaungmon 776 ME (13 October 1413–11 November 1413),[110] and ended after Minkhaung withdrew in early 777 ME (April/May 1415).[111]
  73. ^ The invasion had begun by Tazaungmon 776 ME (13 October 1413–11 November 1413),[112] and ended after Minkhaung withdrew in early 779 ME (April/May 1417).[113]
  74. ^ The Razadarit Ayedawbon places the Chinese invasion of Ava after Minye Kyawswa's death.[117]
  75. ^ The Chinese laid siege to Ava between Tazaungmon 777 ME (2 October 1415–31 October 1415) and Tabodwe 776 ME (30 December 1415–27 January 1416) for a month.[118]
  76. ^ The Chinese invasion took place between Tazaungmon 776 ME (13 October 1414–11 November 1414) and Tabodwe 776 ME (10 January 1415–7 February 1415).[119]
  77. ^ The Chinese invasion took place between Tazaungmon 776 ME (13 October 1414–11 November 1414) and Tabodwe 777 ME (10 January 1415–7 February 1415).[120]
  78. ^ a b Hanthawaddy forces attacked Toungoo in 778 ME (1416/17).[123]
  79. ^ Hanthawaddy forces attacked Toungoo in 779 ME (1417/18).[121]
  80. ^ Hanthawaddy forces attacked Toungoo in 778 ME (1416/17).[122]
  81. ^ The Razadarit Ayedawbon places the invasion in which Binnya Set of Dagon was captured, right after Minye Kyawswa's death in 1414.[124]
  82. ^ Invasion began in 780 ME (1418/19), and ended sometime after the next rainy season.[125]
  83. ^ Invasion began in 779 ME (1417/18), and ended after the next rainy season.[126]
  84. ^ Invasion began in 779 ME (1417/18), and ended after the next rainy season.[127]

References

edit
  1. ^ Harvey 1925: 82–85
  2. ^ Htin Aung 1967: 88
  3. ^ Aung-Thwin 2017: 254–255
  4. ^ Fernquest Spring 2006: 10–11
  5. ^ Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 470
  6. ^ Harvey 1925: 90
  7. ^ a b Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 224–225
  8. ^ a b Fernquest Autumn 2006: 51
  9. ^ Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 467
  10. ^ a b c Pan Hla 2005: 237–239
  11. ^ a b c d e f g Pan Hla 2005: 239
  12. ^ a b c d Sandamala Linkara Vol. 2 1999: 9
  13. ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 332–333
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 228
  15. ^ Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 475–476
  16. ^ Sandamala Linkara 1997–1999, Vol. 2, p. 9.
  17. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 227
  18. ^ a b c Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 473–474
  19. ^ a b Aung-Thwin 2017: 75
  20. ^ a b c Harvey 1925: 91
  21. ^ a b c d e f g Pan Hla 2005: 240
  22. ^ a b c d e f Sandamala Linkara Vol. 2 1999: 10
  23. ^ a b c d Pan Hla 2005: 241
  24. ^ a b c d e Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 334–335
  25. ^ a b c d e Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 229
  26. ^ a b c d e f Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 477
  27. ^ Aung-Thwin 2017: 78
  28. ^ Phayre 1967: 72
  29. ^ Fernquest Autumn 2006: 51–52
  30. ^ a b Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 476–477
  31. ^ a b c Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 334
  32. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 242–243
  33. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 243, 263
  34. ^ Cite error: The named reference nph-243 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  35. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 245
  36. ^ a b c Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 230
  37. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 244
  38. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 248
  39. ^ a b Fernquest 2006: 13–14
  40. ^ a b c d e Pan Hla 2005: 246
  41. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 251
  42. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 247
  43. ^ Fernquest Spring 2006: 14
  44. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference nph-248-249 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  45. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 253–254
  46. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 255
  47. ^ a b Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 232
  48. ^ a b Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 481–483
  49. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 338–339
  50. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 261
  51. ^ a b c Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 233
  52. ^ a b c d Pan Hla 2005: 265
  53. ^ a b c Fernquest Spring 2006: 15
  54. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 264–265
  55. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 234
  56. ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 26–27
  57. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 236
  58. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 2
  59. ^ Fernquest Autumn 2006: 52
  60. ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 309
  61. ^ a b Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 224
  62. ^ a b Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 443
  63. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 236–237
  64. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 332
  65. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 227–228
  66. ^ Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 471
  67. ^ a b Pan Hla 2005: 240–241
  68. ^ a b Pan Hla 2005: 276, footnote 1
  69. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 330, 332
  70. ^ Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 474
  71. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 339–340
  72. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 229, 230, 233
  73. ^ Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 484
  74. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 268, 271
  75. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 235–236
  76. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 2–3
  77. ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 49
  78. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 271
  79. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 27
  80. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 29
  81. ^ a b Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 237
  82. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 4
  83. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 276
  84. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 29–30
  85. ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 31
  86. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 238
  87. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 6
  88. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 6–8
  89. ^ a b Pan Hla 2005: 276–278
  90. ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 32
  91. ^ a b Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 239
  92. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 8–9
  93. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 278–281
  94. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 241
  95. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 8–12
  96. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 277
  97. ^ a b Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 32–33
  98. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 9
  99. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 33
  100. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 240
  101. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 245
  102. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 246
  103. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 10
  104. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 16
  105. ^ a b Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 20
  106. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 246–247
  107. ^ a b c Pan Hla 2005: 317 footnote 1
  108. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 34, 39
  109. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 52
  110. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 247, 253
  111. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 262–263
  112. ^ Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 21, 31
  113. ^ Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 48–50
  114. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 307
  115. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 260
  116. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 48
  117. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 330, footnotes 1 and 2
  118. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 34–36, 38–39
  119. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 252–253
  120. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 30–31
  121. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 54
  122. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 263
  123. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 50
  124. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 323 footnote 1, 324 footnote 2
  125. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 54–55
  126. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 264
  127. ^ Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 51

Bibliography

edit
  • Aung-Thwin, Michael A. (2017). Myanmar in the Fifteenth Century. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-6783-6.
  • Aye Chan (2006). "Burma: Shan Domination in the Ava Period (c. AD 1310–1555)" (PDF). Journal of the Siam Society. 94.
  • Fernquest, Jon (Spring 2006). "Rajadhirat's Mask of Command: Military Leadership in Burma (c. 1384–1421)" (PDF). SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research. 4 (1). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-03-22. Retrieved 2024-01-04.
  • Fernquest, Jon (Autumn 2006). "Crucible of War: Burma and the Ming in the Tai Frontier Zone (1382–1454)" (PDF). SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research. 4 (2). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-08-10. Retrieved 2024-01-04.
  • Harvey, G. E. (1925). History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824. London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd.
  • Hlaing, Mi Mi (2018). "States of Hostilities in the First Ava Period". Mandalay University Research Journal. 9 (1). University of Mandalay.
  • Htin Aung, Maung (1967). A History of Burma. New York and London: Cambridge University Press.
  • Kala, U (2006) [1724]. Maha Yazawin (in Burmese). Vol. 1–3 (4th printing ed.). Yangon: Ya-Pyei Publishing.
  • Maha Sithu (2012) [1798]. Myint Swe; Kyaw Win; Thein Hlaing (eds.). Yazawin Thit (in Burmese). Vol. 1–3 (2nd printing ed.). Yangon: Ya-Pyei Publishing.
  • Pan Hla, Nai (2005) [1968]. Razadarit Ayedawbon (in Burmese) (8th printing ed.). Yangon: Armanthit Sarpay.
  • Phayre, Arthur P. (1967) [1883]. History of Burma. London: Susil Gupta.
  • Royal Historical Commission of Burma (2003) [1832]. Hmannan Yazawin (in Burmese). Vol. 1–3. Yangon: Ministry of Information, Myanmar.
  • Sandamala Linkara, Ashin (1997–1999) [1931]. Rakhine Razawin Thit (in Burmese). Vol. 1–2. Yangon: Tetlan Sarpay.
  • Than Tun (December 1959). "History of Burma: A.D. 1300–1400". Journal of Burma Research Society. XLII (II).


Category:Wars involving Myanmar Category:1400s conflicts Category:1410s conflicts Category:1400s in Asia Category:1410s in Asia

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