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Xiongnu

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Xiongnu horseman on bronze plaque.[1]
  • "Ancient bronze plaque showing horseman with prominent cheekbones and full beard, from Troitskosavsk,Transbaikalia.", similar to the Xiongnu statue of Huo Qubing.[2]
  • Bronze plaque in form of a man. Ordos type, 3rd-1st c. BCE. OA 1922.6-1.20 [1] Museum notice for OA 1922.6-1.20. "Bronze plaque from the Ordos region, showing a man of Europoid stock with wide open eyes and moustache".[3]

Shang

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Karasuk culture (1500–800 BCE)

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"The Karasuk culture is a Late Bronze Age culture that succeeded the Andronovo culture in southern Siberia (late second millenium BC.). Karasuk people were farmers who practiced metallurgy on a large scale. They produced a realistic animal art, which probably contributed to the development of the later Scytho-Siberian animal art style. The Karasuk culture was replaced by the early Iron Age Tagar culture (1rst millenium BC.) which Xourished in Khakassia (southern part of the Krasnoyarsk Krai) producing an art of animal motifs related to that of the Scythians of southern European Russia. On the Yenisey River, the Tagar culture was replaced by the Tashtyk culture, dating from the 1rst to fourth century AD."
in Keyser, Christine; Bouakaze, Caroline; Crubézy, Eric; Nikolaev, Valery G.; Montagnon, Daniel; Reis, Tatiana; Ludes, Bertrand (16 May 2009). "Ancient DNA provides new insights into the history of south Siberian Kurgan people". Human Genetics. 126 (3): 395–410. doi:10.1007/s00439-009-0683-0. PMID 19449030. S2CID 21347353.

 
Karasuk culture diffusion.[4]

Moreover, the south Siberian tribes under study (Andronovo, Karasuk, Tagar) have been described as exhibiting pronounced Europoid features (Kozintsev et al. 1999; Lebedynsky 2003; Moiseyev 2006). (p. 405)

(p. 406):
S18 Blue or brown eye, blond or light brown hair, fair or medium skin – European
S19 Blue or brown eye, blond or light brown hair, fair or medium skin – European

(p.408, on Tocharians): "Two hypotheses have been offered by archaeologists to account for the origins of these Bronze Age people believed to have spoken an Indo-European language called Tocharian and depicted as possessing red or blonde hair, long noses and blue or green eyes: the “steppe hypothesis” and the “Bactrian oasis hypothesis”. Proponents of the latter assert that settlement of the Xinjiang came from sedentary based population of the Oxus civilisation found in Uzbekistan, Afghanistan and Turkmenistan, whereas proponents of the “steppe hypothesis” maintain that the Tarim region experienced a colonization attributed to Afanasievo and Andronovo populations who migrated to Xinjiang from the Altai–Minusinsk regions north of the Tarim Basin (Hemphill and Mallory 2004). Our results corroborate the “steppe hypothesis”."

Andronovo

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Andronovo culture phenotypes (Keyser, Christine; Bouakaze, Caroline; Crubézy, Eric; Nikolaev, Valery G.; Montagnon, Daniel; Reis, Tatiana; Ludes, Bertrand (16 May 2009). "Ancient DNA provides new insights into the history of south Siberian Kurgan people". Human Genetics. 126 (3): 406. doi:10.1007/s00439-009-0683-0. PMID 19449030. S2CID 21347353.):
S07 Brown Blue or brown eye, dark brown hair, fair or medium skin Asian
S08 Brown – Asian
S09 Blue Blue or brown eye, blond or light brown hair, fair or medium skin European
S10 – Blue or brown eye, brown hair European
S11 Blue – European
S13 – Blue or brown eye, blond or light brown hair, fair or medium skin European
S14 Brown Blue or brown eye, brown hair, fair or medium skin European
S15 Blue – European
S16 Blue Blue or brown eye, blond or light brown hair, fair or medium skin European

Aržan culture

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8th century BCE deerstone, Arzhan-1.[5] State Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg, 2830/23.[6]

An 8th century BCE deerstone, Arzhan village (next to Arzhan 1). Expedition of L. S. Marsadolov, 1989. State Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg, 2830/23.[7]

Location of Arzhan 1= 52°03′42″N 93°35′51″E / 52.061548°N 93.597545°E / 52.061548; 93.597545
Location of Arzhan 2= 52°05′46″N 93°42′40″E / 52.096060°N 93.711143°E / 52.096060; 93.711143

Not sure "Aržan culture" is a more current spelling compared to "Arzhan culture".

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    Arzhan-2 daggers and knives (Prince and Princess)

Mamluks and Arabic language

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"What strongly distinguishes the Turks is of course their language, as strange for other Muslims, Persians, Kurds and Arabs as for Christians, Orientals, Greeks and Latins. This language, with its sounds that are appreciated in different ways, is that of the military and political elite of Egypt, Syria and Iraq. It is spoken by everyone in Seljuk and Turkoman Anatolia; and Turkophones in the Near East are often criticized for speaking Arabic and Persian very poorly, when they are not completely ignorant of these languages. (...) The sultans of Egypt Kalâwun, Katbugâ or Barsbay had only a summary knowledge of Arabic. Some Mamluks communicated only through an interpreter, others took decades to learn the language of their subjects, and most spoke with a strong accent and many Turkish expressions."[8]

Kipchaks

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Near-contemporary depiction of Sultan Baybars, of Kipchak origin

 
A probable near-contemporary depiction of Sultan Baybars, of Kipchak origin:[9] enthroned ruler and attendants in the Baptistère de Saint Louis (1320–1340).[9]

Ancient Northeast Asian

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Ancient Northeast Asian, Prehistoric Mongolia, Neolithic in Mongolia.
Objects from Eastern Mongolia, contemporaneously with the Afanasievo culture.
Timeline and geographic placement

While the Afanasievo culture was present in the Altai and western and central Mongolia, elements of a distinct neolithic culture were present in eastern Mongolia.[10]

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    Neolithic stone amulet, Dornod, Mongolia, 4000-3000 BCE
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    Neolithic necklace, Dornod, Mongolia, 4000-3000 BCE
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    Neolithic necklace, Dornod, Mongolia, 4000-3000 BCE
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    Neolithic stone microblades

Afanasievo petroglyphs

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The attribution of these petroglyphs to the Afanasievo culture is supported by stratigraphy as well as stylistic similarities between the line patterns on the petroglyphs and those on known Afanasievo ceramics.

"The Khuroogiin Uzuur (Хуроогийн узуур) petroglyphs are applied to the surface of basalt boulders and rock outcrops of several hills along the right bank of the Khoyt Tamir River. Their most ancient layer is represented, first of all, by images of ungulates: goats and rams, horses, bulls." "The most important find is the image of a horse, the body of which is completely covered with an ornament consisting of several rows of parallel inclined lines located at an angle to each other in the form of a “herringbone” or “fish bones” (Fig. 1, 2). Such an ornament, first of all, reveals an analogy with the decor of the Afanasievo ceramics of the Eneolithic era of Central Asia, for which it is the most widespread and traditional (Fig. 1, 3–5)." "The connection of the monument with the Afanasievo culture of Mongolia is probable." in [11]

Akhtala Monastery

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Jewish notables from the Bible, depicted in Akhtala Monastery.

The Fresco depicting "Muslims" in the Akhtala Complex:
"The Jewish details from the Gospel accounts have been translated into the language of Muslim motifs. This was more comprehensible for the 13th-century inhabitant of the Caucasus and aroused an acute, specific and unequivocally negative response. The traditional Jewish headwear of the high priests were transformed into elaborate turbans, the scrolls open in front of them contain something similar to Arabic script, while the Jew in the background of «Christ before Pilate» is shown as a Seljuk Turk with a shaven chin, long moustaches and a cap that recall the fez." p.393
Also remove from Haghpat Monastery article, where it is mis-attributed to that monastery.

Bagratuni dynasty

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Smbat and Gurgen Bagratuni, relief from Sanahin monastery.

Smbat and Gurgen Bagratuni, relief from Sanahin Monastery.

Upper Xiajiadian

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Artifacts, including charriot hook [2]

Chawuhugou-1

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Chawuhugou 察吾乎沟文化 Saka site in the Tarim Basin, 8-6th century.[12]

Yanglang culture

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Yanglang culture
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Location of the Yanglang culture ( ), with contemporary cultures in the 6th-5th century BCE
Geographical rangeNingxia, Gansu
Dates6th-3rd century BCE
Major sites36°00′36″N 106°15′25″E / 36.01°N 106.257°E / 36.01; 106.257
Preceded byOrdos culture (800–150 BCE)
Shajing culture (800–200 BCE)[13]
Followed byQin dynasty

The Yanglang culture (杨郎青铜文化, 6th-3rd century BCE) is an early archeological culture of northwestern China, mainly identified by burial grounds in the southern part of the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, and in the adjacent Qingyang County of eastern Gansu. The culture is named after the Bronze culture Yanglang cemetery (杨郎墓地), excavated in 1989 in Guyuan, Ningxia.[14] Other sites are the Pengbao cemetery (彭堡墓地) and Wang Dahu cemetery (王大户墓地). These sites are characterized by Chinese archaeology as belonging to the "Northern Bronze cultures of the Spring and Autumn Period" (春秋战国北方青铜文化), related to the Xirong (西戎) people. The famous Majiayuan site is considered as representative of the end of the Yanglang culture.[15]

The Yanglang culture is thought to have been directly or indirectly connected to the Saka (Scythian) culture, with suggestions of direct prenetration of Saka groups into North China.[15] The animal style of the funeral artifacts in particular connects it to the world of the steppes.[16][15][17] In particular, the decorated chariots and many artifacts have strong resemblance with Saka objects from the Issyk-kul kurgan.[18]

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    Gold belt plaques in animal style found in Majiayuan M4, Gansu.[19]
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    Gold plate in the form of walking feline found in Majiayuan M3, Gansu.[19] The animal style of the funeral artifacts in particular connects it to the world of the steppes.[20][21]
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    Majiayuan tomb figurines.[22]

Georgia

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Abaqa coinage in Georgia in 1281-1286.

Abaqa Georgian coinage with Christian cross at the time of Demetrius II of Georgia (Kingdom of Eastern Georgia) in 1281-1286.[23][24][25]

George V of Georgia

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  • "Georgia during the second part of his reign ( 1327-46 ) , nonetheless had little control of the type of silver currency which was struck at Tiflis and Kakheti . The dominant coins struck in these two Georgian mints were Ilkhanid dirhams".[26]
  • "Georgia paid the Ilkhanid treasury 1,202,000 dinars in 1336. Before the Mongol invasion, the Georgian treasury collected, in a comparable territory, almost five times as much. (...) If George V had achieved independence from the Ilkhans, he would never have issues coins in the name of the Mongols. Thus in the mid-fourteenth century, Tiflis and eastern Georgia were strictly subjects of the Ilkhanate." [27]
  • "In 1329-1334, George the Brilliant took advantage of the situation created in the Ilkhanate, eliminated his political opponents and restored the territorial integrity of Georgia. He created a solid legal basis for the country and regulated the ecclesiastic area. He was in West Georgia in 1329-1332/1333. The Ilkhanid coin was not minted in Georgia during that period; yet, soon the king of Georgia, which had already been united by that time, restored relations with Ilkhanids and returned to Tbilisi, which implied making the already united Georgia subject to Mongols. Ilkhanid coins and later, coins of Chobanids, the Golden Horde and Jalayirids circulated during the reign of George the Brıllıant. In 1338-1339 George the Brilliant conquered Ossetia and Ilkhanid coins were disseminated on the territory of the Golden Horde after that. Formally, Georgia remained under the control of Ilkhanids, which was replaced by Chobanids in 1338 and the governors of the Golden Horde in 757/1356; and in parallel and afterwards by Jalayirids, which is evidenced by written sources as well as numismatic data; Despite formal dependence on the foreign power, which is evidenced by the deployment of 10,000 troops at the border of Georgia as well, the country enjoyed a rather wide internal autonomy." Alasania, Giuli (University of Georgia) (10 August 2016). "Level of Independence in Georgia Throughout the 14th Century".

Tocharians

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(p. 201) "Wall paintings of Tocharian speakers depict these individuals as possessing red or blond hair, long noses, blue or green eyes, and wearing broadswords inserted in scabbards hanging from their waists."[28]

Misc.

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Miniature from the Majma al-Tawarikh by Hafiz Abru circa 1425, depicting the accession to the throne by Alp Arslan

References

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  1. ^ Maenchen-Helfen, Otto (1973). The world of the Huns; studies in their history and culture. Berkeley, University of California Press. p. 370. ISBN 978-0-520-01596-8.
  2. ^ Maenchen-Helfen, Otto (1973). The world of the Huns; studies in their history and culture. Berkeley, University of California Press. p. 370. ISBN 978-0-520-01596-8.
  3. ^ Maenchen-Helfen, Otto (1973). The world of the Huns; studies in their history and culture. Berkeley, University of California Press. p. 371. ISBN 978-0-520-01596-8.
  4. ^ Chernykh, Evgeny (30 December 2008). "The "Steppe Belt" of stockbreeding cultures in Eurasia during the Early Metal Age". Trabajos de Prehistoria. 65 (2): 91, Fig 18. doi:10.3989/tp.2008.08004.
  5. ^ Simpson, St John; Pankova, Svetlana (1 January 2017). Scythians: warriors of ancient Siberia. pp. 82–83.
  6. ^ "Hermitage Museum, Room 30". pano.hermitagemuseum.org.
  7. ^ Simpson, St John; Pankova, Svetlana (1 January 2017). Scythians: warriors of ancient Siberia. pp. 82–83.
  8. ^ Balivet, Michel (2002). "Un peuple de l'An Mil: les Turcs vus par leurs voisins". Année mille, an mil (in French). Presses universitaires de Provence. p. 39. ISBN 978-2-8218-8285-0.
  9. ^ a b Fuess, Albrecht (2018). "Sultans with Horns: The Political Significance of Headgear in the Mamluk Empire (MSR XII.2, 2008)" (PDF). Mamlūk Studies Review. 12 (2): 76, 84, Fig. 5. doi:10.6082/M100007Z.
  10. ^ Gantulga, Jamiyan-Ombo (2020). "Ties between steppe and peninsula: Comparative perspective of the Bronze and Early Iron Ages of Мongolia and Кorea". Proceedings of the Mongolian Academy of Sciences. The department of Bronze and Early Iron Age, Institute of Archaeology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia: 66.
  11. ^ Esin, Yury (2012). Towards the problem of discovery of Afanasev culture of Mongolia rock art: new materials and approaches (in Russian) in CULTURES OF THE STEPPE ZONE OF EURASIA AND THEIR INTERACTION WITH ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS. St. Petersburg: RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES INSTITUTE FOR THE HISTORY OF MATERIAL CULTURE.
  12. ^ Shulga, Peter (1 January 2020). "P.I. Shulga, D.P. Shulga The cultures of the early iron age in China as a part of the Scythian world". P.I. Shulga, D.P. Shulga The cultures of the early iron age in China as a part of the Scythian world // Археология, история, нумизматика, сфрагисти-ка и эпиграфика –2020. № 12. – С. 111–147.
  13. ^ Li, Xin; Wei, Wenyu; Ma, Minmin; Lu, Minxia; Du, Linyao; Yang, Yishi; Chen, Guoke; Ren, Lele (2023). "Transformation of animal utilization strategies from the late Neolithic to the Han Dynasty in the Hexi Corridor, northwest China: Zooarchaeological and stable isotopic evidence". Frontiers in Earth Science. 10. doi:10.3389/feart.2022.1064803. ISSN 2296-6463.
  14. ^ Xu, C., Li, J., Wei, Z., Han, X. & Yan, S. (1993). Ningxia Guyuan Yanglang qingtong wenhua mudi (宁夏固原杨郎青铜文化墓地: Bronze culture cemetery at Yanglang, Guyuan, Ningxia). Kaogu xuebao (考古学报: Acta Archaeologica Sinica), 1, 13–56.
  15. ^ a b c Shulga, P.I.; Shulga, D.P. (2020). "THE CULTURES OF THE EARLY IRON AGE IN CHINA AS A PART OF THE SCYTHIAN WORLD" (PDF). МАИАСП. 12. doi:10.24411/2713-2021-2020-00004. Until recently, the Yanglang culture was practically unknown to archaeologists in the postSoviet area. It did not attract "Western" researcher's attention although the materials were published there (Bunker 1997: 41—46). The situation changed after elite burials at the Majiayuan burial ground of the 3rd — 2nd centuries BCE excavation. A peculiar Animal style from Majiayuan gave rise to ideas about its indirect links with Saka culture. There were even suggestions about groups of Saka masters penetration into North China. There, these masters allegedly created wonderful decorations in Majiayuan and Xinchuangtou (M30) (Kang 2018: 410). The position of Wu Xiaolong seems to be more balanced; he pointed to the Yanglang culture funeral rite and animal style characteristic features which are clearly visible in Majiayuan (Gansu sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiusuo 2014; Yang, Linduff 2013; Xiaolong 2013). To date, the Yanglang culture is the most representative Scythian culture of the 6th — 3rd centuries in North China. Only there elite burials (Majiayuan) have been identified, and all the "triad" components are present: Animal style, weapons and horse harness. Most of the known Yanglang culture burial grounds are located in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region southern part, as well as in adjacent Qingyang County of Gansu eastern part.
  16. ^ Liu, Yang (1 January 2021). "The Eurasian Nomadic Origins of Animal Imagery in the Gold, Silver and Bronze Ornaments Excavated from the Majiayuan Cemetery". 《秦与戎——秦文化与西戎文化十年考古成果展》，文物出版社.
  17. ^ Burman, Edward (8 February 2018). Terracotta Warriors: History, Mystery and the Latest Discoveries. Orion. p. 155. ISBN 978-1-4746-0611-0.
  18. ^ Linduff, Katheryn (2013). "A Contextual Explanation for "Foreign" or "Steppic" Factors Exhibited in Burials at the Majiayuan Cemetery and the Opening of the Tianshan Mountain Corridor". Asian Archaeology.
  19. ^ a b Liu, Yan; Li, Rui; Yang, Junchang; Liu, Ruiliang; Zhao, Guoxing; Tan, Panpan (26 April 2021). "China and the steppe: technological study of precious metalwork from Xigoupan Tomb 2 (4th–3rd c.BCE) in the Ordos region, Inner Mongolia". Heritage Science. 9 (1): 46. doi:10.1186/s40494-021-00520-5. ISSN 2050-7445.
  20. ^ Liu, Yang (1 January 2021). "The Eurasian Nomadic Origins of Animal Imagery in the Gold, Silver and Bronze Ornaments Excavated from the Majiayuan Cemetery". 《秦与戎——秦文化与西戎文化十年考古成果展》，文物出版社.
  21. ^ Shulga, P.I.; Shulga, D.P. (2020). "THE CULTURES OF THE EARLY IRON AGE IN CHINA AS A PART OF THE SCYTHIAN WORLD" (PDF). МАИАСП. 12: 141, Fig.6 item 14. doi:10.24411/2713-2021-2020-00004.
  22. ^ See Linduff, Katheryn (2013). "A Contextual Explanation for "Foreign" or "Steppic" Factors Exhibited in Burials at the Majiayuan Cemetery and the Opening of the Tianshan Mountain Corridor". Asian Archaeology: 81, Figure 6 (Majiayuan Tomb 3).
  23. ^ KG, Fritz Rudolf Künker GmbH & Co. Künker Auktion 137 - The De Wit Collection of Medieval Coins, 1000 Years of European Coinage, Part III: England, Ireland, Scotland, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Balkan, the Middle East, Crusader States, Jetons und Weights. Numismatischer Verlag Künker. p. 305.
  24. ^ Diler, Ömer (2006). Ilkhans: coinage of the Persian Mongols. İstanbul: Turkuaz Kitapçılık Yayıncılık. p. A-126. ISBN 978-9944552912.
  25. ^ Diler A-126; Bennett 305e; Album 2130
  26. ^ Harris, Jonathan; Holmes, Catherine; Russell, Eugenia (29 November 2012). Byzantines, Latins, and Turks in the Eastern Mediterranean World After 1150. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-964188-8.
  27. ^ Biran, Michal; Kim, Hodong (17 August 2023). The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire 2 Volumes. Cambridge University Press. p. 766. ISBN 978-1-009-30197-8.
  28. ^ Hemphill, Brian E.; Mallory, J.P. (July 2004). "Horse‐mounted invaders from the Russo‐Kazakh steppe or agricultural colonists from western Central Asia? A craniometric investigation of the Bronze Age settlement of Xinjiang". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 124 (3): 199–222. doi:10.1002/ajpa.10354.
  29. ^ May, Timothy (7 November 2016). The Mongol Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. xxvii. ISBN 978-1-61069-340-0.

[[Category:Archaeological sites in China]]

Xixia dynasty

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Xixia Artifacts (Gary Todd, Ningxia Provincial Museum)

Shajing

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Indicate Shajing culture culture in Saka map

Continental Asia 200 CE

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Template:Continental Asia in 200 CE

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Main polities in Asia, circa 200.[1][2][3]


Armenia – Georgia – Islam : A Need to Break Taboos in the Study of Medieval Architecture (Patrick Donabédian)

Photos:

  • Astvatsankal Monastery (Gavit and muqarnas vault with oculus)
  • Horomos Mausoleum of Aruits (composite)
  • Harichavank
  • Gochavank gavit
  • Ivane color

A colophon from 1292 mention Amir Hasan I and Mongol rule: {{quote|This book was written in the Armenian calendar year 741 (= 1292), under the rule of the oppresser, of strange appearance and ruthless, which is called Tatar, of the impious race of Cathay, who invaded the whole world because of our sins. And they are so ruthless and cruel that brother kills brother and father kills son, but God's punishment will come.

And this year, because of our sins, divine wrath fell upon Christians, since the cursed people of Muhammad arose from Egypt, came and took possession of the impregnable Horomklay, patriarchal seat, by means of war machines and took prisoner the Catholikos Stephanos and every consecrated object, and destroyed that land and exterminated all the Christians with the sword and slavery, up to Teodosiopoli and, apart from Ani, destroyed the whole country.

This book was written in the region called Vayoc Jor, in the hermitage called Alaw, under the protection of the Mother of Jesus and of Saint George and of other saints, under the priestly guidance of the province of Stepannos, benevolent and philanthropist, and under the government of the sons of the glorious prince of princes Pros, Papak' and Amir Hasan.

And I, the vardapet Mateos, by order and with the support of Amir Hasan, I built the premises of this monastery inhabited by monks, I built the church and zamatun. But this year an indelible pain came, since the prince of princes (isxanac isxan) Amir Hasan passed to Christ with death, and the whole world fell into mourning and sadness, Armenians, Georgians, Abkhaz and Romeans. And he, although he was called "prince of the princes", was actually inseparable from the kings, all from the good news and the fame of him, so much so that both the distant people sobbed and groaned than those nearby. But he left as lieutenant his son, who he is called Eacci, endowed with all the virtues of his father, who is the Lord May Jesus be preserved for a long time in honor and glory, amen [...]|Colophon of Xalbakeank.[1]


 
Saladin began his military carreer in the army of Nur ad-Din, during the Zengid conquest Egypt in 1163-1169.[2]

The Tesinsky culture was a culture of the Minusinsks basin, from the 1st century BCE to the 1st century CE.[3] The Tesinsky culture was at the junction between the Tagar culture and the culture of the Xiongnu and the Xianbei, and artistic evolutions can be traced to that period.[4]

References

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  1. ^ VANLINT, THEO MAARTEN (2010). "THE MONGOLS IN MEDIEVAL ARMENIAN POETRY" (PDF). Gaznavet: 515–516.
  2. ^ Lyons & Jackson 1982, pp. 6–7.
  3. ^ "Hall 31. Tesinsky culture exhibit". State Hermitage Museum.
  4. ^ Байбердина (Талягина), М. А. (24 September 2019). "ИЗОБРАЖЕНИЯ ТЕСИНСКОГО ВРЕМЕНИ В МИНУСИНСКОЙ КОТЛОВИНЕ В КОНТЕКСТЕ АРХЕОЛОГИЧЕСКОГО МАТЕРИАЛА". Теория и практика археологических исследований (in Russian). 27 (3): 20–34. doi:10.14258/tpai(2019)3(27).-02. ISSN 2712-8202.

The Medieval Turks

  • Peerless images : Persian painting and its sources
  • "Mais, al-Jāḥiẓ fait allusion ici aux étrangers de façon générale et non pas aux Turcs. Il est encore moins évident que le gouverneur soit un Turc quand on lit comment Ibn Butlān décrivait les esclaves turques au XIe siècle :

«À la peau claire, les femmes turques sont pleines de grâce et d’animation. Elles ont de petits yeux mais séduisants. Elles sont costaudes et elles ont tendance d’être petites de taille. Il n’y a que très peu de grandes femmes entre elles.» p.350

<imagemap>File:JoshuaReynoldsParty.jpg|Image map example of [[The Club (dining club)|The Club]]. Clicking on a person in the picture causes the browser to load the appropriate article.|350px|thumb rect 0 0 300 200 [[File:Map_of_the_Uyghur_Khaganate.png|Map of the Uyghur Khaganate]] </imagemap> <!--<imagemap>File:Map Asia physical (continental).png|300px|--> c.

Cocoon pottery Rong and Di unfluences in Chong, Alan (1 January 2011). Terracotta Warriors: The First Emperor and His Legacy. Asian Civilisations Museum. p. 70.

Sources:

  • Establishment of a Khanate on the Yenesei river in 840 CE (would be the Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate), by defeated the Uyghur Khanate. With the Mongol invasions, were displaved from Siberia to today's Kyrgystan. Conversion to Sunni Islam in the 16th-17th century. 1700s: fell under the weak control of the Kokand Khanate. Vassal state of the Russian Empire from 1868. [8]
  • From 840, creation of the Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate, between the Yenesei and Orkhon river, agains the Uyghur Khanate. Central Asia's most powerful state ("Great Kyrgyz") between 840-925. Destruction of the original Yenesei Kyrgyz Khanate by the Mongol invasions from 1218. Resettled in the Tian Shan and Xianjiang areas. The Kyrgiz were Conquered by the Four Oirat in 16th century. Became independent from Oirat rule in 1510, and established a Kyrgiz Khanate in 1514 ("In 1510, the Kyrgyz threw off Oirat rule and established a Kyrgyz Khanate in 1514."). Invasion by the "Kalmyks" (?) in 1683-1685... this would be the Dzungar Khanate rather. Followed Kyrgyz dispersion in Xinjiang and Central Asia. Returned to the Tian Shan region after the defeat of the Dzungar Khanate by the Qing Empire in 1758. Lived there under Chinese rule. Kyrgyz diplomatic ties with Russia in 1775. 1830s: a Kyrgyz tribe backed by the Khanate of Kokand conquered all the other Kyrgyz tribe, establishing Uzbek Kokand rule. Entrenchement of Islam as a consequence. 1854: one Kyrgyz trive appeals for Russia protection, so that the Russians built a fort at Pishpek. 1867: placement under Russian protection, againt Kokand. 1870: Kyrgyz revolt against Kokand, Russian invasion and destruction of Kokand. Followed by Kyrgyz jihad against Russian domination, but submission to Russian rule in 1876... Russification and influx of colonists ensued. [9]
  • Independence from Mongol rule in 1510. Defeat against the Kalmuks (Dzungar Khanate) in the 17th century, Qing dynasty (18th century), and Uzbeks (Kokand Khanate) 18-19th century (intermittently 1710-1876). Four major wars against the Uzbeks in 1845-1873. Russian protection and invasion in 1876. [10]
  • Establishment of the Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate (6-13th century). Destruction of the Uyghur Empire in 840 CE. Defeat by the Khitan Khanate in the 10th century and the Mongol in the 13th, and resettlement in the Tian Shan region. Fell under Chagatai rule. Independence (from the Golden Horde??) in 1510. Invasion by the Dzungar Khanate in 1685. Subjects of the Qing after the defeat of the Dzungars to the Qing in 1758. Then domination by the Kokand Khanate and resistance... [11]
  • Independence from the Chagatai in 1510, but conquered by the Dzungars in the 1680s.[12]
  • Same [13]
  • "Kyrgyz beks" for History of Civilization in Central Asia [14], but also "Kyrgyz Khans": "In particular, there are episodes in the epic Manas concerning the celebration of funerals of the Kyrgyz khan" (p.118) "allies of the Kyrgyz khans in their struggle against foreign conquerors" (p.113)
  • Kyrgyz confederacies [15][16]
  • "The Kyrgyz Khanate was established in Tian Shan by Khan Ajmet " [17]
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