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Truganini

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Truganini (c.1812 – 8 May 1876), also known as Lalla Rookh and Lydgugee,[1] was a woman famous for being widely described as the last "full-blooded" Aboriginal Tasmanian to survive British colonisation. Although she was one of the last speakers of the Indigenous Tasmanian languages, Truganini was not the last Aboriginal Tasmanian.[2]

Truganini
Portrait of Truganini by Charles A. Woolley
Bornc.1812
Recherche Bay, Van Diemen's Land
Died8 May 1876 (aged 63–64)
Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
Other namesTruganini, Trucanini, Trucaninny, Trugananner, Lydgugee and Lalla Rookh
Known forBeing described as the last "full-blooded" Aboriginal Tasmanian
SpousesWoureddy
Maulboyheenner
Mannapackername
William Lanne

She lived through the devastation of invasion and the Black War in which most of her relatives died, avoiding death herself by being assigned as a guide in expeditions organised to capture and forcibly exile all the remaining Indigenous Tasmanians. Truganini was later taken to the Port Phillip District where she engaged in armed resistance against the colonists. She herself was then exiled, first to the Wybalenna Aboriginal Establishment on Flinders Island and then to Oyster Cove in southern Tasmania. Truganini died at Hobart in 1876, her skeleton later being placed on public display at the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery until 1948. Her remains were finally cremated and laid to rest in 1976.[3]

In being mythologised as "the last of her people", Truganini became the tragic and triumphal symbol of the conquest of British colonists over an "inferior race".[2][4] In modern times, Truganini's life has become representative of both the dispossession and destruction that was exacted upon Indigenous Australians and also their determination to survive the colonial genocidal policies that were enforced against them.[5][2]

Name and spelling

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Other spellings of her name include Trukanini,[6] Trugernanner, Trugernena, Truganina, Trugannini, Trucanini, Trucaminni,[a] and Trucaninny.[b] Truganini was widely known by the nickname Lalla(h) Rookh,[a] and also called Lydgugee.

In the Indigenous Bruny Island language, truganina was the name of the grey saltbush, Atriplex cinerea.[8]

"Lalla Rookh" was an Orientalist romance by Irish poet Thomas Moore, published in 1817.

Early life

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Truganini was born around 1812[9] at Recherche Bay (Lyleatea) in southern Tasmania.[10] Her father was Manganerer, a senior figure of the Nuenonne people whose country extended from Recherche Bay across the D'Entrecasteaux Channel to Bruny Island (Lunawanna-alonnah). Truganini's mother was probably a Ninine woman from the area around Port Davey.[11]

At the time of Truganini's birth, the British had already begun colonising the region around Nuenonne country, severely disrupting the ability of her people to live and practise their traditional culture. The violence directed at the Nuenonne, who were regarded as helpful to the colonists, was sustained and horrific. Around 1816, a group of British sailors raided the camp of Truganini's family, stabbing her mother to death. In 1826, Truganini's older sisters Lowhenune and Magerleede were abducted by a sealer and eventually sold to other sealers on Kangaroo Island, while in 1829 her step-mother was abducted by mutinous convicts and taken to New Zealand.[11]

There is also an account that around 1828 Truganini's uncle was shot by a soldier, and that she was abducted and raped by timber-cutters. The timber-cutters also brutally murdered and drowned two Nuenonne men, one of which was Truganini's fiancé, by throwing them out of a boat and cutting off their hands with an axe as they tried to clamber back in.[12][10]

By 1828 the British had established three whaling stations on Bruny Island. A relationship existed between the whalers and Nuenonne females, where flour, sugar and tea were exchanged for sex. Truganini participated in this trade. She also was an exceptional swimmer and provided further food for her people by diving for abalone and other shellfish.[13]

Association with George Augustus Robinson

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In 1828, the Lieutenant-Governor of Van Diemen's Land, Colonel George Arthur, ordered the creation of an Aboriginal ration station on Bruny Island, which in 1829 was placed under the authority of an English builder and evangelical Christian named George Augustus Robinson.[14]

 
1835 painting by Thomas Bock of Truganini

On arriving at Bruny Island, Robinson was immediately impressed by Truganini's intelligence and decided to form a close association with her to facilitate other Nuenonne to come to the Aboriginal station which he established at Missionary Bay on the west side of the island.[15] With the assistance of Truganini, Robinson initially had some success in attracting Nuenonne and Ninine people to his establishment. He even took Truganini and her cousin Dray to Hobart dressed in fine European dresses to display them to the Lieutenant-Governor as being examples of his ability to "civilise the natives".[14]

However, colonial violence and European diseases rapidly killed off most of the Indigenous people who visited the establishment, including Truganini's father Manganerer. By October 1829, only a handful of Nuenonne and Ninine had survived, and to strengthen his father-like bonds with the survivors, Robinson oversaw the partnering of the young Truganini with an important surviving Nuenonne man named Woureddy.[16]

Guide for the "friendly mission"

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Realising that the Aboriginal station at Bruny Island was doomed, Robinson formulated a scheme to use Truganini, Woureddy and a few other captured Aboriginal people such as Kikatapula and Pagerly, to guide him to the clans residing in the uncolonised western parts of Van Diemen's Land. Once contacted, Robinson would "conciliate" these clans to accept the British invasion and avoid conflict. Lieutenant-Governor Arthur approved Robinson's plan and employed him to conduct this venture which was named the "friendly mission".[14]

The mission left Bruny Island in early 1830 with Truganini playing a very important role not only as an linguistic interpreter on local Aboriginal language and culture, but also by providing much of the seafood for the group. None of the men in the expedition could swim, so Truganini also did most of the work pushing the other group members on small rafts across the various rivers they encountered.[17]

 
Sketch of Truganini swimming a raft across the Arthur River

As they made their way up the west coast past Bathurst Harbour and Macquarie Harbour, the "friendly mission" made brief contacts with Ninine and Lowreenne clans. When Truganini and Woureddy were sent to obtain rations at the Macquarie Harbour Penal Station on Sarah Island, Robinson was abandoned by his other guides. Alone, starving and debilitated by skin and eye infections, Robinson was saved from death by being located by Truganini and Woureddy on their return from the penal colony.[18]

By June 1830, the group had reached the north west tip of Van Diemen's Land known as Cape Grim. Here they found that the Van Diemen's Land Company had appropriated a massive area of land for farmland; displacing and massacring the local Tarkiner, Pennemukeer, Pairelehoinner, Peternidic and Peerapper clans in the process. Sealers on nearby Robbins Island were also found with women kidnapped from both local clans and elsewhere in Tasmania. On meeting Truganini, the kidnapped women cried with joy as Robinson negotiated their release. However, Robinson being informed that the government were offering a £5 bounty for every native captured, now sought financial gain from his "friendly mission". He duplicitously used a Pairelehoinner youth named Tunnerminnerwait to gather some of the local people, who he shipped to Launceston to claim the bounty. Joseph Fossey, the superintendent for the Van Diemen's Land Company, meanwhile took an interest in Truganini and wanted her as an "evening companion". An experienced convict bushman attached to Robinson's expedition named Alexander McKay also began a sexual relationship with Truganini at this time.[19]

The expedition made its way east to Launceston where the settler population was preparing for the climax of the Black War. Called the Black Line, it was a 2,200 man strong chain of armed colonists and soldiers to sweep the settled areas looking to kill or trap any Aboriginal people they found. Robinson, Truganini and the other guides were allowed to continue their mission to the north-east, away from the direction of the Black Line.[20]

They arrived at Cape Portland in October 1830 having rescued several Indigenous women from the slavery of the local sealers, and been joined by the respected warrior Mannalargenna and his small remnant clan. They were informed of the failure of the Black Line to capture or kill many Aboriginal people and it was decided by the government to use the nearby Bass Strait Islands as a place of enforced exile for those Indigenous Tasmanians collected by Robinson.[21]

Robinson's first choice of island to confine the approximately 20 Aboriginal Tasmanians in his charge was Swan Island. Exposed to powerful gales, the small island had poor access to water supply and was infested with tiger snakes. After not only coming close to being bitten by one of these deadly snakes, Truganini managed to escape a large shark when diving for crayfish. However, Robinson soon took Truganini and a few other guides off this island to accompany him to Hobart where he had a meeting with the Lieutenant-Governor in early 1831. For his "friendly mission" work, Robinson was rewarded with land grants and hundreds of pounds worth of pay increases. Truganini's reward, in contrast, was a set of cotton dresses.[22]

Guide for further expeditions to capture the remaining Aboriginal Tasmanians

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While in Hobart, Robinson successfully negotiated a contract with the colonial authorities for him to lead further expeditions to capture all the remaining Aboriginal Tasmanians and transfer them to confinement in Bass Strait. Robinson firstly took Truganini, the other guides and around 25 Aboriginal people held in various hospitals and jails in Hobart and Launceston, and transported them to Swan Island where the others were still being held. The combined captive population swelled to over 50 and Robinson decided to move the place of exile to a former sealer's camp on Gun Carriage Island.[23]

Expedition of 1831

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Gun Carriage Island proved little better than Swan Island and many of the exiled Aborigines started to sicken, with several dying in the first few weeks. Truganini was able to escape this disaster though as Robinson took her, Wurati, Kikatapula, Pagerly, Mannalargenna, Woretemoeteryenner, Tunnerminnerwait and Maulboyheenner as guides to capture the remaining Aboriginal Tasmanians in the settled districts. They started off in July 1831 with the initial aim of finding the respected Tyerrernotepanner leader Eumarrah and his small clan, whom they captured in late August near the locality of Pipers Brook. They then continued on, looking to take captive the remaining members of the Oyster Bay and Big River tribes who had condensed into a single group taking refuge in the Central Highlands. Truganini and the other Indigenous guides frustrated Robinson by seeming to alert this group of their approach and it wasn't until December that they were seized. This group which included the once-feared warriors Tongerlongeter and Montpelliatta, were paraded in Hobart before being transported to Gun Carriage Island.[14]

Expeditions of 1832 and 1833

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Truganini again avoided exile to the Bass Strait Islands by being a guide for Robinson's expedition to capture the remaining Indigenous people of the west coast of Tasmania. Several other guides including Eumarrah and Kikatapula died early in the expedition, but Robinson still managed to apprehend through deceitful means most of the remaining tribespeople from the Cape Grim region. In September 1832, Truganini saved Robinson by swimming him across the Arthur River away from a group of Tarkiner people who intended to kill him.[14]

In late 1832 and early 1833, Truganini assisted in several mostly unsuccessful expeditions in the west and south-west led by the colonist Anthony Cottrell, whom Robinson had delegated authority to while he was away.[14]

In April 1833, Robinson returned to lead another expedition to seize the west coast clans, with Truganini, Woureddy and others again chosen as guides. Robinson captured the remaining Ninine by taking captive the child of a prominent man named Towterer which forced the clan to surrender. By July they had captured almost all of the remaining west coast people including the Tarkiner tribe led by a man named Wyne who had attempted to kill Robinson the previous year. Truganini was employed by Robinson to push the rafts carrying people across the rivers. The water in winter was very cold and Truganini performed this arduous task almost daily for weeks. She had a seizure after a particularly demanding day of ferrying captives.[14]

Robinson deposited his prisoners at the Macquarie Harbour Penal Station to await transportation to Flinders Island where the Wybalenna Aboriginal Establishment had been formed to replace the internment camp at Gun Carriage Island. The approximately 35 captives were held in terrible conditions at Macquarie Harbour, with around half dying from bacterial pneumonia and suicide within a couple of weeks. This included previously healthy young men, pregnant women and infants. Over 80% of the captured Tarkiner people perished. After shipping off the survivors to Wybalenna, Robinson returned with his guides to Hobart.[14]

Expedition of 1834

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Some Aboriginal people were still reported to be residing in the wilderness around Sandy Cape and the Vale of Belvoir, so in early 1834 Robinson set out again with Truganini and the other guides to find them. Before heading west, they firstly attempted to obtain two Aboriginal slaves that were in possession of John Batman at his Kingston estate along the Ben Lomond Rivulet. However, Batman, who at this stage had tertiary syphilis, refused to give them up saying they were his property.[14]

From February to April, Robinson's group located and captured twenty Tarkiner people on the west coast. This was despite Truganini and Woureddy temporarily refusing to act as guides for Robinson. However, crossing the Arthur River on the return journey, Truganini again saved Robinson's life by swimming out to his raft and towing it to the bank after it was carried away by the swift current.[14]

After sending these Tarkiner off to exile at Wybalenna, Robinson left the expedition, placing his sons in charge to find the remnant Tommigener clan located near the Vale of Belvoir. For months, Truganini and the others trudged through heavy winter snow and spring rains but finally located the last eight people of this tribe in December near the Western Bluff. In February 1835, these Tommigener were shipped off to Wybalenna from Launceston, leaving Robinson to claim his rewards for removing almost in entirety the remaining Aboriginal population from mainland Tasmania.[14]

Wybalenna and a final expedition

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Wybalenna Aboriginal Establishment

With the completion of the removal of Aborigines from mainland Tasmania, Robinson brought his Indigenous guides to his house in Hobart for a few months of respite. During this period Truganini and Woureddy became celebrities and had their portraits painted by Thomas Bock and the sculptor Benjamin Law also created casts and busts of their profiles. However, in September 1835, they too were taken into exile at the Wybalenna Aboriginal Establishment with the other Indigenous Tasmanians.[24]

Robinson became the superintendent at Wybalenna and began a program of Christianising the inmates. He changed their names, made them wear European clothes and attempted to prohibit their practising of Aboriginal culture and language. Illness and mortality rates were high. Although Truganini's name was changed to Lalla Rookh, she remained otherwise resistant to the enforced changes, defiantly keeping her cultural practices.[25]

In March 1836, she and eight others from Wybalenna were chosen as guides for a final expedition led by Robinson's sons to locate a last Indigenous group in north-west Tasmania that had managed to avoid Robinson's previous missions. For sixteen months, this relatively leisurely expedition provided an escape for Truganini from the death and misery of Wybalenna. They managed to locate a Tarkiner family group with four children (one of whom would later be known as William Lanne), but they refused to go to Flinders Island. By July 1837, Truganini and the other guides were taken back to Wybalenna.[14]

Port Phillip District

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In 1839, Robinson accepted the position of Protector of Aborigines in the newly colonised Port Phillip District in present-day Victoria. Robinson quit his role as manager of Wybalenna and took Truganini and sixteen other Aboriginal Tasmanians with him as servants. However, once in Melbourne, Robinson was soon not able to keep such a large number of assistants, and Truganini with most of the others were left to fend for themselves.[26]

Truganini gained income from selling her traditional woven baskets and by offering her company to townsmen and shepherds. Oral histories claimed that she had a child named Louisa Esmai with John Strugnell at Point Nepean in Victoria, but anthropologist Diane Barwick later disproved those claims in 1974.[27][28][c]

In 1841, Truganini abandoned her husband Woureddy, and ran off with Maulboyheenner, a young Tasmanian Aboriginal man who had also come from Wybalenna. They were joined by another Tasmanian man named Tunnerminnerwait and two women called Plorenernoopner and Maytepueminer. The group decided to head to Westernport Bay to take revenge on a local colonist named William Watson, whom they believed shot dead Maytepueminer's husband Lacklay.[26]

The group stole some guns and staked out Watson's beachside hut at the Powlett River. While Watson was away they plundered and set fire to the hut, causing his wife and daughter to flee. When Watson returned, they shot at him wounding him and his servant. The group then hid out in the bush while Watson went to get armed reinforcements.[26]

A few days later, two whalers named Yankee and Cook, happened to be walking along the beach looking for provisions. They approached the hide-out of Truganini's group, who mistook them for Watson and his man. Maulboyheenner and Tunnerminnerwait subsequently shot and beat the whalers to death.[26]

As a result, the five Aboriginal Tasmanians became outlaws, triggering a long pursuit by the authorities around the Bass River and Tooradin regions. The group raided huts along the way, taking food, guns and ammunition. A party under the command of Commissioner Frederick Powlett was tasked with apprehending them. Powlett's force consisted of 30 armed and mounted men, including soldiers, colonists, Border Police and Native Police troopers.[26]

After a month at large, Powlett managed to surround and ambush the outlaws back at the Powlett River area. Thirty guns fired simultaneously at the Aboriginal Tasmanians only resulted in Maytepueminer receiving a slight graze to the head. Truganini and the others were then taken into custody.[26]

The two men were charged with murder and Truganini with the two other women were charged with being accessories to the crime. At the trial in Melbourne, the three women including Truganini were exonerated, but Maulboyheenner and Tunnerminnerwait were found guilty. The two men were publicly hanged in what was the first legal execution conducted in Melbourne on 20 January 1842.[29]

Oyster Cove

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Photographs by Alfred Winter, c. 1869
 
Truganini, Bruni Island, Tasmania, 1866

Truganini and Robinson's other surviving Aboriginal guides were transported back to Wybalenna on Flinders Island several months later. Her first husband, Woureddy, died on the journey. At Wybalenna, Truganini refused to be bound by the rules and often ran away with the local sealers. The superintendent forced her into a marriage with Mannapackername, a detainee who was regarded as reliable man, but this did little to modify her rebelliousness, in fact Mannapackername himself became insubordinate under Truganini's influence.[3]

By 1847, many of the exiled Aboriginal Tasmanians at Wybalenna had died including Mannapackername and it was decided to shift the approximately 47 survivors to an abandoned convict settlement at Oyster Cove, south of Hobart.[30]

 
Truganini, seated right

Oyster Cove had been abandoned as a convict station due to its infertile soil and unhealthy dampness. The buildings had poor ventilation and were in disrepair, and the new Aboriginal detainees sickened as they did at Wybalenna. However, Oyster Cove was also located in Truganini's home Nuenonne country and she was allowed to go on extensive hunting journeys across what was once her people's land. She often used a boat to travel across to Bruny Island to dive for crayfish, hunt for swan eggs or collect small shells to make her distinctive necklaces.[31]

Demoralisation though set in for the other inmates and the local British settlers encouraged prostitution and alcoholism to thrive at Oyster Cove. Death followed with detainees such as Mathinna dying miserably. According to The Times newspaper, quoting a report issued by the Colonial Office, by 1861 the number of survivors at Oyster Cove was only fourteen:

...14 persons, all adults, aboriginals of Tasmania, who are the sole surviving remnant of ten tribes. Nine of these persons are women and five are men. There are among them four married couples, and four of the men and five of the women are under 45 years of age, but no children have been born to them for years. It is considered difficult to account for this... Besides these 14 persons there is a native woman who is married to a white man, and who has a son, a fine healthy-looking child...

The article, headed "Decay of Race", adds that although the survivors enjoyed generally good health and still made hunting trips to the bush during the season, after first asking "leave to go", they were now "fed, housed and clothed at public expense" and "much addicted to drinking".[32]

Truganini continued to survive and in the 1860s became involved in a relationship with a younger Tasmanian Aboriginal man, William Lanne (known as "King Billy") who died in March 1869.[a]

By 1873, Truganini was the sole Aboriginal Tasmanian survivor at Oyster Cove. The government subsequently sold off the land and buildings, with Truganini being moved to Hobart to live in the family home of the last superintendent of the Oyster Cove facility.[33]

Death

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Photograph of Truganini in old age by Henry Hall Baily

She died in May 1876 and was buried at the former Female Factory at Cascades, a suburb of Hobart. Before her death, Truganini had pleaded to colonial authorities for a respectful burial, and requested that her ashes be scattered in the D'Entrecasteaux Channel. She feared that her body would be mutilated for perverse scientific purposes as William Lanne's had been.[34]

Despite her wishes, within two years, her skeleton was exhumed by the Royal Society of Tasmania.[35] It was placed on public display in the Tasmanian Museum in 1904 where it remained until 1947.[36] Only in April 1976, approaching the centenary of her death, were Truganini's remains finally cremated and scattered according to her wishes.[37][38] In 2002, some of her hair and skin were found in the collection of the Royal College of Surgeons of England and returned to Tasmania for burial.[39]

Legacy

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Truganini is often incorrectly referred to as the last speaker of a Tasmanian language.[40] However, The Companion to Tasmanian History details three full-blood Tasmanian Aboriginal women, Sal, Suke and Betty, who lived on Kangaroo Island in South Australia in the late 1870s and "all three outlived Truganini". There were also Tasmanian Aboriginal people living on Flinders and Lady Barron Islands. Fanny Cochrane Smith (1834–1905) outlived Truganini by 30 years and in 1889 was officially recognised as the last Tasmanian Aboriginal person, though there has been speculation that she was actually mixed-race.[41] Smith recorded songs in her native language, the only audio recordings that exist of an indigenous Tasmanian language.[9][42]

According to historian Cassandra Pybus's 2020 biography, Truganini's mythical status as the "last of her people" has overshadowed the significant roles she played in Tasmanian and Victorian history during her lifetime. Pybus states that "for nearly seven decades she lived through a psychological and cultural shift more extreme than most human imaginations could conjure; she is a hugely significant figure in Australian history".[43]

Truganini Place in the Canberra suburb of Chisholm is named in her honour.[44] The suburb of Truganina in Melbourne's outer western suburbs is believed to be named after her, as she had visited the area for a short time.

Cultural depictions

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Visual art

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Benjamin Law's 1835 bust of Truganini, commissioned by George Augustus Robinson

In 1835 and 1836, settler Benjamin Law created a pair of busts depicting Truganini and Woureddy in Hobart Town that have come under recent controversy.[45] In 2009, members of the Tasmanian Aboriginal Centre protested an auction of these works by Sotheby's in Melbourne, arguing that the sculptures were racist, perpetuated false myths of Aboriginal extinction, and erased the experiences of Tasmania's remaining indigenous populations.[46] Representatives called for the busts to be returned to Tasmania and given to the Aboriginal community, and were ultimately successful in stopping the auction.[47]

Artist Edmund Joel Dicks also created a plaster bust of Truganini, which is in the collection of the National Museum of Australia.[48]

In 1997, the Royal Albert Memorial Museum, Exeter, England, returned Truganini's necklace and bracelet to Tasmania.

Music and literature

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See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ a b c "A royal lady - Trucaminni, or Lallah Rookh, the last Tasmanian aboriginal, has died of paralysis, aged 73. She was Queen Consort to King Billy, who died in March 1871, and had been under the care of Mrs Dandridge, who was allowed £80 annually by the Government for maintenance."[7]
  2. ^ Colonial-era reports spell her name "Trugernanner" or "Trugernena" (in modern orthography, Trukanana or Trukanina). In 1869, the town of Truganini was established near Bendigo in Victoria. In 1870, the current spelling was first used for Truganini's name.[citation needed]
  3. ^ According to the Australian Dictionary of Biography, Louisa Briggs was probably the daughter of Doog-by-er-um-boroke, a Woiorung woman kidnapped from Port Phillip by sealers (Barwick 2005).

Citations

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  1. ^ Pybus 2020, p. 310.
  2. ^ a b c Ryan, Lyndall (2012). Tasmanian Aborigines. Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 9781742370682.
  3. ^ a b Pybus, Cassandra (2024). A Very Secret Trade. Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 9781761066344.
  4. ^ Boyce, James (2008). Van Diemen's Land. Collingwood: Black Inc. ISBN 9781760644819.
  5. ^ Pybus 2020, p. xvi.
  6. ^ TAC place names n.d.
  7. ^ The Times, Thursday, 6 July 1876; p. 6; Issue 28674; col D
  8. ^ Ellis 1981, p. 3.
  9. ^ a b Ryan & Smith 1976.
  10. ^ a b Pybus 2020, p. 281.
  11. ^ a b Pybus 2020, p. 280.
  12. ^ "Black Chieftainess of Van Diemen's Land". The World's News. No. 2787. New South Wales, Australia. 21 May 1955. p. 14. Retrieved 9 June 2024 – via National Library of Australia.
  13. ^ Pybus 2020, pp. 9–18.
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Plomley, NJB; Robinson, George Augustus (2008). Friendly Mission, the Tasmanian journals and papers of George Augustus Robinson. Hobart: Quintus. ISBN 9780977557226.
  15. ^ Pybus 2020, pp. 12–13.
  16. ^ Pybus 2020, pp. 22–23.
  17. ^ Pybus 2020, pp. 26–49.
  18. ^ Pybus 2020, pp. 38–42.
  19. ^ Pybus 2020, pp. 46–49.
  20. ^ Cox, Robert (2021). Broken Spear. Adelaide: Wakefield Press. ISBN 9781743058671.
  21. ^ Pybus 2020, pp. 53–64.
  22. ^ Pybus 2020, pp. 65–77.
  23. ^ Pybus 2020, pp. 78–84.
  24. ^ Pybus 2020, pp. 161–168.
  25. ^ Pybus 2020, pp. 170–172.
  26. ^ a b c d e f Pybus 2020, pp. 183–229.
  27. ^ Radeska 2016.
  28. ^ Barwick 1985, p. 187.
  29. ^ The Australasian Chronicle 1842, p. 2.
  30. ^ Gough 2006.
  31. ^ Pybus 2020, pp. 239–258.
  32. ^ The Times, issue 23848 dated Tuesday, 5 February 1861; p. 10; col A
  33. ^ Pybus 2020, pp. 262–263.
  34. ^ Australian Museum.
  35. ^ Kühnast 2009.
  36. ^ Barwick 2005.
  37. ^ Aboriginal News 1976.
  38. ^ DPAC Tasmania 2011.
  39. ^ Barkham & Finlayson 2002.
  40. ^ Crowley & Thieberger 2007.
  41. ^ Roth 1898, pp. 451–454.
  42. ^ Fanny Cochrane Smith.
  43. ^ Pybus 2020, p. xv.
  44. ^ Gazette 1978, p. 14.
  45. ^ Hansen 2010.
  46. ^ ABC News 2009.
  47. ^ Davies 2009.
  48. ^ NMoA 1931.
  49. ^ The Times, Saturday, 24 April 1886; p. 4; Issue 31742; col E
  50. ^ The Times, Thursday, 22 October 1908; p. 13; issue 38784; col A
  51. ^ Harari 2011, pp. 310–311.
  52. ^ Kongfooey 2019.

Sources

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