Wikipedia

Spring training

Spring training is the preseason in Major League Baseball (MLB), a series of practices and exhibition games preceding the start of the regular season. Spring training allows new players to try out for roster and position spots, and gives established players practice time prior to competitive play. Spring training has always attracted fan attention, drawing crowds who travel to the warm climates of Arizona and Florida to enjoy the weather and watch their favorite teams play.

A 1994 Grapefruit League game at the LA Dodgers' former camp of Holman Stadium in Vero Beach, Florida

In modern training, teams that train in Florida will play other Florida-training teams in their exhibition games, regardless of regular-season league affiliations. Likewise, Arizona-training teams will play other Arizona teams. These have been nicknamed the Grapefruit League and Cactus League, respectively, after plants typical of the respective states.

Spring training typically starts in early February and continues until just before Opening Day of the regular season, which falls in the last week of March or the first week of April. In some years, teams not scheduled to play on Opening Day will play spring training games that day. Pitchers and catchers report to spring training first because pitchers benefit from a longer training period. A few days later, position players arrive and team practice begins. Exhibition games usually begin in late February.

History

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The New York Mutuals became perhaps the first baseball team to hold a spring training outside of their home when, in 1869, Boss Tweed sent the Mutuals south to New Orleans to prepare for the season.[1]: 183 [2] In the 1870s, several clubs began following the example set by the Mutuals by training in warmer climates. New Orleans was a popular location for spring training in the 19th century but teams also trained in Washington, D.C.; Savannah, Georgia; and Cape May, New Jersey, among other locations. In 1888, the Washington Nationals became the first club to hold spring training in Florida.[1]: 183  The practice was not universally adopted, however. Critics including Cap Anson argued that players would be more prone to sore muscles and colds after returning to their colder home climates.[1]: 184 

Hot Springs, Arkansas

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Boston Red Sox players (from L-R) Olaf Henriksen, Larry Gardner, Buck O'Brien, Heinie Wagner, Steve Yerkes, and Hugh Bradley in Hot Springs, Arkansas for spring training, 1912

Spring training by major league teams in sites other than their regular season game sites first became popular in the 1890s and by 1910 was in wide use. Hot Springs, Arkansas, has been called the original "birthplace" of spring training baseball. The location of Hot Springs and the concept of getting the players ready for the upcoming season was the brainchild of Chicago White Stockings (today's Chicago Cubs) team President Albert Spalding and Cap Anson. In 1886, the White Stockings traveled to Hot Springs to prepare for the upcoming season.[3][4] After holding spring training at the Hot Springs Baseball Grounds, the White Stockings went on to have a successful season and other teams took notice. In subsequent years other teams joined Chicago and began holding spring training in Hot Springs, leading to the first spring training games.[4] The Cleveland Spiders, Detroit Tigers, Pittsburgh Pirates, Cincinnati Reds, Brooklyn Dodgers, and Boston Red Sox followed the White Stockings to Hot Springs. Whittington Field/Ban Johnson Park (1894), Majestic Park (1909), and Fogel Field (1912) were all built in Hot Springs to host Major League teams.[5][6]

 
1885 Chicago White Stockings (known today as the Chicago Cubs)
 
Babe Ruth hit a 573-foot (175 m) home run in spring training, 1918. He led the league with 11 home runs and had a 13–7 record as the Red Sox won the 1918 World Series.

Famously, on St. Patrick's Day in 1918, a successful young pitcher for the Red Sox named Babe Ruth was forced to play an emergency game at first base in a spring training game against Pittsburgh. This game possibly changed the course of baseball history, as it was the first time Ruth had ever played any position other than pitcher. Ruth responded by hitting two home runs that day in Hot Springs, with the second being a 573-foot (175 m) shot that landed across the street from Whittington Park in a pond of the Arkansas Alligator Farm and Petting Zoo. The Red Sox took notice and soon Ruth was playing the field more often.[7][8][9] Over 130 Major League Baseball Hall of Famers, including Ruth, Anson, Cy Young, Honus Wagner, Ty Cobb, Tris Speaker, Walter Johnson, Rogers Hornsby, Mel Ott, Dizzy Dean, Jimmie Foxx, and Stan Musial, trained in Hot Springs.[10] The First Boys of Spring is a 2015 documentary about Hot Springs Spring Training. The film was narrated by actor Billy Bob Thornton, an area native, and produced by filmmaker Larry Foley.[11][12][13] The documentary began airing nationally on the MLB Network in February 2016.[14]

Early training sites include the St. Louis Cardinals in Hot Springs and Tulsa, Oklahoma; the New York Yankees in New Orleans and later Phoenix, Arizona, when the team was owned by Del Webb; the Chicago Cubs in Los Angeles when owned by William Wrigley Jr.; the St. Louis Browns and later the Kansas City Athletics in San Diego and then in West Palm Beach, Florida; the Pittsburgh Pirates in Dawson Springs, Kentucky around 1915 and Honolulu, while other teams joined in by the early 1940s. The Detroit Tigers are credited with being the first team to conduct spring training camp in Arizona. They trained in Phoenix at Riverside Park at Central Avenue and the Salt River in 1929.[15]

Founding of the Grapefruit League

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The Philadelphia Phillies were the first of the current major-league teams to train in Florida, when they spent two weeks in Jacksonville, Florida in 1889.[16] Spring training in Florida began in earnest in 1913, when the Chicago Cubs trained in Tampa and the Cleveland Indians in Pensacola. One year later, two other teams moved to Florida for spring training, the real start of the Grapefruit League. Except for a couple of years during World War II, when travel restrictions prevented teams from training south of the Potomac and Ohio Rivers,[17] Florida hosted more than half of the spring training teams through 2009. Since 2010, major league teams have been equally divided between Arizona and Florida during spring training, with 15 teams in Florida and 15 teams in Arizona.[18] All but six of the major league teams have gone to spring training in Florida at one time or another (Anaheim Angels, Milwaukee Brewers, Seattle Mariners, San Diego Padres, Colorado Rockies and Arizona Diamondbacks). Many of the most famous players in baseball history (Ruth, Gehrig, Musial, Cobb, Mays, DiMaggio, Berra, Mantle, and many more) have called Florida home for 4–6 weeks every spring.[19]

Founding of the Cactus League

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A 2007 Cactus League game between the Cubs and the White Sox at HoHoKam Park
See also: Baseball color line

According to the autobiography of former Cleveland Indians owner Bill Veeck, the avoidance of racism was one reason the Cactus League was established.[20] In 1947, Veeck was the owner of the minor league Milwaukee Brewers and the team trained in Ocala, Florida. Veeck inadvertently sat in the Black section of the segregated stands and engaged in conversation with a couple of fans. According to Veeck's book, the local law enforcement told Veeck he could not sit in that section, and then called the Ocala mayor when Veeck argued back. The mayor finally backed down when Veeck threatened to take his team elsewhere for spring training and promised to let the country know why.

Veeck sold the Brewers in 1945 and temporarily retired to a ranch in Tucson, Arizona, but purchased the Cleveland Indians in 1946. Intending to introduce African-American players, Veeck decided to buck tradition and train the Indians in Tucson and convinced the New York Giants to give Phoenix a try. Thus the Cactus League was born.[21] In 1947, Veeck signed Larry Doby to the Indians. Doby was the second African-American to play MLB in the 20th century, and the first in the American League.[22]

Arizona had eight teams in the Cactus League in 1989, with the other eighteen in Florida.[23] By 2018, the split was even, with 15 teams training in each location.

Other spring training sites

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While Florida and Arizona now host all Major League Baseball teams for spring training, this has not always been the case. Especially in the early 20th century, baseball clubs did not build facilities dedicated to spring training and would use local facilities in various cities, sometimes changing spring training sites on an annual basis. The Cleveland Indians, for example, held spring trainings in seven different cities – including New Orleans, Dallas, and Macon, Georgia – between 1902 and 1922. This was not uncommon at the time.[24]

The New York Giants likely built the first "permanent" spring training facility in Marlin, Texas. The Giants trained in Marlin from 1908 to 1918 and built Emerson Park and adjacent parks for spring training activities. The city of Marlin deeded the land to the ballclub.[25][26][27]

 
New York Giants during Spring Training in Marlin, Texas (circa 1915)
 
Jim Thorpe, US Olympian, New York Giants Spring Training in Marlin, Texas, likely 1918
 
A Braves spring training game against the Mets in 2008

During World War II, most teams held an abbreviated spring training within easy reach of their cities. In order to conserve rail transport during the war, 1943's Spring Training was limited to an area east of the Mississippi River and north of the Ohio River. The Chicago White Sox held camp in French Lick, Indiana; the Washington Senators in College Park, Maryland; and the New York Yankees in Asbury Park, New Jersey.[28]

After World War II, some teams trained outside of the United States. The Brooklyn Dodgers trained in Havana, Cuba in 1947 and 1949, and in the Dominican Republic in 1948.[29] The New York Yankees also trained in the early 1950s in Cuba and the Dominican Republic. Spring training camps and games were also held in Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and various cities of northern Mexico, sometimes by visiting major league teams in the 1950s and 1960s.

Before and shortly after big league baseball reached the West Coast, a number of teams trained in the state of California or along the state line. The Chicago Cubs trained on Catalina Island in the 1920s, '30s, and '40s. For example, early in their history, the then-California Angels held spring training in Palm Springs, California from 1961 to 1993, the San Diego Padres in Yuma, Arizona from 1969 to 1993, the Oakland Athletics in Las Vegas, Nevada in the 1970s, and various major league teams had trained in El Centro, Riverside, and San Bernardino.

International spring training

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The concept of spring training is not limited to North America; the Japanese professional baseball leagues' teams adopted spring training and preseason game sites across East Asia such as South Korea, the Philippines, and Taiwan; on the Pacific Islands (most notably in Hawaii); and in two cities in the United States: Salinas, California and Yuma, Arizona on the Mexican border.

In 2015, 2016 and 2019, MLB has hosted spring training games in Mexico. In 2015, the Arizona Diamondbacks played against the Colorado Rockies at Estadio Sonora, Hermosillo. A year later, the San Diego Padres hosted the Houston Astros at Estadio Fray Nano in Mexico City. Finally, in 2019, the Diamondbacks played once again the Rockies but, this time, at Estadio de Béisbol Monterrey in Monterrey.[30] In 2020, MLB hosted a spring training game between the Minnesota Twins and the Detroit Tigers at Estadio Quisqueya in Santo Domingo.[31] In 2024, the Rays and Red Sox played the inaugural Dominican Republic series in Santo Domingo. The series resulted in a split, 1-1, and showcased Dominican talent while honoring players that have been developed through Dominican Republic Academies.[32]

Spring training locations

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Further information: List of Major League Baseball spring training ballparks

Generally, teams train in either Florida or Arizona based on their geographic location in North America, with eastern teams playing in Florida and western teams training in Arizona; the exceptions being the Cleveland Guardians, Cincinnati Reds, Milwaukee Brewers, and the two Chicago-based teams all training in Arizona; and the Houston Astros, Minnesota Twins and St. Louis Cardinals training in Florida. The last West Coast team to train in Florida was the Los Angeles Dodgers, who moved to Arizona in 2009.

Spring training teams can play colleges, minor league baseball clubs, intra-squad games (members of the same team play against each other), split-squad games (games when one team is scheduled for two games in one day, so the team splits into two squads and each squad plays in one of the games), and B Games (unofficial spring training games where statistics and standings are not counted).[33] The players union will sometimes operate its own training facility if many free agents are unsigned by the start of spring training.[34]

Grapefruit League

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Grapefruit League
 
 
75km
50miles
 
Yankees
 
Twins
 
Tigers
 
Red Sox
 
Rays
 
Phillies
 
Pirates
 
Orioles
 
Mets
 
Marlins, Cardinals
 
Braves
 
Blue Jays
 
Astros, Nationals
Current Grapefruit League team locations:
  One team
  Two teams

The origin of the name "Grapefruit League" has several explanations. One popular myth was that Casey Stengel threw a grapefruit at Brooklyn Dodgers manager Wilbert Robinson. The accepted version is that aviator Ruth Law threw the grapefruit. In 1915, Law had been throwing golf balls from her airplane to advertise a golf course. Someone suggested throwing a baseball from her airplane. Robinson, whose team was in the Daytona Beach area for spring training, agreed to try to catch the baseball. Flying 525 feet (160 m) above Robinson, Law realized she had forgotten her baseball and threw a grapefruit that she had. When Robinson tried to catch it, the grapefruit exploded in his face, at first leading him to believe he had been seriously injured.[35][36][37][a]

Grapefruit League teams primarily play against the others located on the same coast, rarely traveling to the other side of Florida for spring training games. The Astros, Cardinals, Marlins, Mets, and Nationals—all of whom play on the Atlantic Coast—play the majority of their games against each other, only playing three or four games against opponents located on the Gulf Coast.[39]

Following is the list of spring training locations by team in the Grapefruit League in Florida:[40]

Team Ballpark Capacity City
Atlanta Braves CoolToday Park 8,000 North Port
Baltimore Orioles Ed Smith Stadium 8,500 Sarasota
Boston Red Sox JetBlue Park 10,823 Fort Myers
Detroit Tigers Publix Field at Joker Marchant Stadium 8,500 Lakeland
Houston Astros CACTI Park of the Palm Beaches 7,858 West Palm Beach
Miami Marlins Roger Dean Stadium 6,871 Jupiter
Minnesota Twins Hammond Stadium 9,300 Fort Myers
New York Mets Clover Park 7,160 Port St. Lucie
New York Yankees George M. Steinbrenner Field 11,026 Tampa
Philadelphia Phillies BayCare Ballpark 8,500 Clearwater
Pittsburgh Pirates LECOM Park 8,500 Bradenton
St. Louis Cardinals Roger Dean Stadium 6,871 Jupiter
Tampa Bay Rays Charlotte Sports Park 7,670 Port Charlotte
Toronto Blue Jays TD Ballpark 8,500 Dunedin
Washington Nationals CACTI Park of the Palm Beaches 7,858 West Palm Beach

Cactus League

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Cactus League
 
 
15km
10miles
 
Giants
 
Diamondbacks, Rockies
 
Cubs
 
A's
 
Angels
 
Dodgers, White Sox
 
Brewers
 
Guardians, Reds
 
Rangers, Royals
 
Mariners, Padres
Current Cactus League team locations:
  One team
  Two teams

Unlike the Grapefruit League, teams in the Cactus League often share stadiums; of the 15 teams who train in Arizona, only the Cubs, Angels, Brewers, Giants, and Athletics have their own home stadiums. The Cactus League teams are all within the Phoenix metropolitan area (as of 2014 when the Diamondbacks and Rockies left Tucson for their new shared facility, Salt River Fields at Talking Stick[41]).

The newest stadium built for MLB spring training is Sloan Park, the spring training home for the Chicago Cubs in Mesa, Arizona, which opened in February 2014. The oldest stadium in Cactus League spring training is Tempe Diablo Stadium, built in 1969.

According to the Arizona Republic, the Cactus League generates more than $300 million a year in economic impact to the greater Phoenix metropolitan area economy. The Arizona Republic newspaper reports that more than $500 million has been spent on "building eight new stadiums and renovating two others for the 15 teams in the Valley."[42]

Attendance set a new record at 2011 Cactus League games with 1.59 million attending games at the various stadiums in the Phoenix metro area. Much of the attendance surge is attributed to the Salt River Fields at Talking Stick venue that accounted for 22 percent of the Cactus League attendance.[43]

Following is the list of spring training locations by team in the Cactus League in Arizona:[40]

Team Ballpark Capacity City
Arizona Diamondbacks Salt River Fields at Talking Stick 11,000 Salt River Pima-Maricopa Indian Community
Athletics Hohokam Stadium 10,500 Mesa
Chicago Cubs Sloan Park 15,000 Mesa
Chicago White Sox Camelback Ranch 13,000 Glendale
Cincinnati Reds Goodyear Ballpark 10,311 Goodyear
Cleveland Guardians
Colorado Rockies Salt River Fields at Talking Stick 11,000 Salt River Pima-Maricopa Indian Community
Kansas City Royals Surprise Stadium 10,500 Surprise
Los Angeles Angels Tempe Diablo Stadium 9,558 Tempe
Los Angeles Dodgers Camelback Ranch 13,000 Glendale
Milwaukee Brewers American Family Fields of Phoenix 10,000 Phoenix
San Diego Padres Peoria Sports Complex 12,339 Peoria
San Francisco Giants Scottsdale Stadium 12,000 Scottsdale
Seattle Mariners Peoria Sports Complex 12,339 Peoria
Texas Rangers Surprise Stadium 10,500 Surprise

Statistics

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Statistics are recorded during spring training games, but they are not combined with the listed statistics for regular season games, and unusual performances which would have broken records if accomplished during the regular season are considered to be unofficial.

For example, on March 14, 2000, the Red Sox used six pitchers to achieve a 5–0 perfect game victory over the Toronto Blue Jays. A perfect game is considered a crowning accomplishment during the regular season or postseason, but in spring training it attracts little notice. Starting pitcher Pedro Martínez, who lost a perfect game in extra innings in 1995 while pitching for the former Montreal Expos, was talking to reporters at the conclusion of the game, rather than watching the final pitches. Reliever Rod Beck, who finished the game, did not realize the nature of his accomplishment until informed by catcher Joe Siddall. Many fans also left before the game's conclusion.[44]

Although spring training statistics are unofficial, teams frequently use players' spring training performances as a way of assigning starting roles and roster spots on the club.

Experimentation

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Spring training is the time of MLB's calendar year to make improvements to the game of baseball. These changes to the traditional game of baseball allow for MLB to adapt to the modern day of playing and set up teams throughout the league for success. The league also experiments with on-field personnel to determine the best umpire crews, home plate umpires, and field umpires.

2023 changes

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In 2023, the pitch clock was implemented. The timer was developed to create a quicker pace of play and allow for more fans to actively watch games. Timers of 30 seconds between batters, 15 seconds between pitches, and 20 seconds between pitches with runners on base have drastically reduced playing times.[45] Pitchers were also limited to two disengagements from the mound per plate appearance.[46] Any time a pitcher disengages with the mound after the first two disengagements have been used, the pitcher is charged with a balk. These factors have contributed to the increased pace of play and allows for games to move quicker. After the pitch clock's success throughout spring training, it was ultimately placed into effect for the 2023 MLB season. Along with the experimentation of the pitch clock, spring training also tested out larger bases to protect player's safety and a shift restriction to promote more exciting plays. Although home plate remained unchanged, all other bases within the field of play increased in size. The base sizes increased from 15 inches square to 18 inches square and slightly reduced the distance between bases.[47] Defensive shift limit rules included four infielders staying within the boundary of the infield dirt, two infielders staying on each side of second base, and had no restrictions on outfielders.[48]

2024 changes

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Although positive feedback had been received about the rules changes during the 2023 season, the 2024 spring training season sparked controversy. Nike, MLB's uniform provider, conducted a redesign of player jerseys and pants to allow for better athletic performance.[49] Player's last names and numbers decreased in size making the uniforms look unappealing to both players and fans. As a result of the backlash, MLB and Nike redesigned the jerseys for the 2025 season to allow for both effective performance and appeal.[50]

Umpires

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In a predominately male job, the 2024 spring training season saw the first woman umpire since Ria Cortesio in 2007. On February 24, Jen Pawol was a field umpire for the Astros and Nationals game.[51] She began the game with three innings umpiring third base followed by an additional three innings at both second and first as well. Cacti park hosted 3,655 people to witness history as Pawol umpired a 7-4 Astros victory. Pawol hopes her efforts throughout spring training will lead to the opportunity for her to become the first female umpire to work a regular season game. She credits the women that umpired before her for paving an exciting career path for women such as herself in the future.[52]

Extended spring training

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An extended spring training game in Sarasota, Florida, during the 2008 season

Minor league players participate in spring training following a telescoped schedule that generally lasts from March 1 to 31. At its conclusion, most players are assigned to farm team rosters to begin the minor league season. However, those players deemed unready for a full-season campaign—through inexperience or injury—are assigned to "extended spring training", a structured program of workouts, rehabilitation sessions, simulated games, and exhibition games based in the major league parent team's minor league training complex. If a player is later deemed ready to participate in full-season league action, he is promoted to an appropriate-level farm club. When short-season leagues (Rookie league, or previously Class A Short Season) begin play in late June, extended spring training players are assigned to those rosters, placed on the injured list, or released.

Conflicts

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Every four years, the World Baseball Classic creates a significant impact on how traditional spring training occurs. The tournament runs throughout the month of March with the opportunity for players to represent their countries and play for the national teams. This impacts spring training as many star players opt to represent their country rather than prepare for the upcoming MLB season with their respective teams. This leaves teams in tough situations as they are forced to build their lineups, sell tickets, and play games without their star players. However, players opt to play in the tournament's games due to the intense competitive atmosphere. Since these games take place so early into the baseball year, this leads to an increased risk of injury among players as well as conflicting development within MLB organizations. As recent as 2023, Mets pitcher Edwin Diaz suffered a torn patellar tendon after a game, leaving him out for the entire upcoming season.[53] Diaz's injury has left teams concerned with letting their star players play under another team's supervision. Pitchers have to follow tight restrictions to comply with proper throwing progressions to ensure health and safety.[54] This can impact how an MLB team planned on building up a pitcher throughout spring training, potentially impacting regular season performance.

Notes

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  1. ^ A contemporaneous account, published in The Daytona Daily News on March 17, 1915, reported that Robinson misjudged the catch, resulting in the grapefruit hitting him on the arm.[38]

References

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  1. ^ a b c Seymour, Harold; Mills, Dorothy Seymour (July 13, 1989). Baseball: The Early Years. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-983917-9. Retrieved July 5, 2022.
  2. ^ Fountain, Charles (March 4, 2009). Under the March Sun: The Story of Spring Training. Oxford University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-19-974370-4. Retrieved July 5, 2022.
  3. ^ cjrw.com, CJRW-. "History Buffs". Hot Springs National Park Arkansas.
  4. ^ a b "Encyclopedia of Arkansas". Encyclopedia of Arkansas.
  5. ^ "Ban Johnson Park-Whittington Park/Majestic Park/Fogel Field — Hot Springs Arkansas — Major League Spring Training grounds". digitalballparks.com.
  6. ^ "Untold Stories « Hot Springs Arkansas Historic Baseball Trail". hotspringsbaseballtrail.com.
  7. ^ "From a Fan: Rare Photos of Babe Ruth in Hot Springs". Babe Ruth Central. October 13, 2014.
  8. ^ Budd Bailey (October 27, 2014). "Road Trips!".
  9. ^ "Bill Jenkinson". Bill Jenkinson.
  10. ^ "Historic Baseball Trail Documenting Hot Springs as Birthplace of Spring Baseball Will Open on March 29; 45 Percent of Hall of Fame, Other Legendary Players Included". Yahoo Finance. March 26, 2012.
  11. ^ "Boys of Spring — Arkansas Life".
  12. ^ "My Site". thefirstboysofspring.weebly.com.
  13. ^ "Larry Foley".
  14. ^ "MLB Network to air 'First Boys of Spring' doc". Major League Baseball.
  15. ^ The Arizona Republic: "Cactus League: Then and Now." Source: Rodney Johnson, the Society for American Baseball Research. March 6, 2011.
  16. ^ Philadelphia Inquirer, March 1889; SABR Spring Training Database, http://sabr.org/content/spring-training-database (restricted access), Retrieved January 25, 2012.
  17. ^ Chesterton, Eric (March 4, 2020). "The time Spring Training didn't go south". MLB.com. MLB Advanced Media, LP. Retrieved June 2, 2024.
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  19. ^ Arsenault, Raymond. "Spring Training Baseball in Florida – Our Roots Run Deep". Archived from the original on May 17, 2008. Retrieved May 16, 2011.
  20. ^ Veeck, Bill and Linn, Edward (2001). Veeck as in Wreck: The Autobiography of Bill Veeck. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-671-67540-0. pgs. 171–172.
  21. ^ "Buckhorn Baths: A unique Mesa landmark". archive.azcentral.com.
  22. ^ "Larry Doby" Retrieved 2010-03-20.
  23. ^ Clarke, Ric (March 9, 1989). "Florida lobbies for Cactus League teams". Spokesman-Review. (Spokane, Washington). Cox News Service. p. D5.
  24. ^ Hoynes, Paul (February 17, 2015). "Cleveland Indians spring training through the years in photos: From New Orleans to Goodyear". cleveland.com. Retrieved October 8, 2018.
  25. ^ "Spring Training, 1912 Style in Marlin, Texas!". February 29, 2020.
  26. ^ Johnson, Charles (February 14, 2013). "Marlin, Texas (pop. 4,000)".
  27. ^ "Sherrington: Giants manager John McGraw loved what Marlin offered as spring-training site, even if his players didn't". Dallas News. March 9, 2014.
  28. ^ Suehsdorf, A. D. (1978). The Great American Baseball Scrapbook, p. 103. Random House. ISBN 0-394-50253-1.
  29. ^ Echevarría, Roberto González (1988). "The '47 Dodgers on Havana: Baseball at a Crossroads". Spring Training. Vanguard Publications. Retrieved January 10, 2007.
  30. ^ "MLB to return to Mexico for three series in 2019". MLB.com. Retrieved September 26, 2019.
  31. ^ Hayes, Dan. "'That's a big moment': Twins stars light it up as MLB..." The Athletic. Retrieved March 8, 2020.
  32. ^ "MLB Dominican Republic Series | MLB International". MLB.com. Retrieved April 30, 2024.
  33. ^ "Thomas debuts in B game". Archived from the original on March 11, 2007. Retrieved March 8, 2008.
  34. ^ Associated Press (February 8, 2018). "Players Union Will Host Spring Training Camp for Free Agents". The New York Times. Retrieved April 2, 2018.
  35. ^ Gardner, Dakota (March 13, 2014). "The amazing story of 'Uncle Robbie' Robinson's plane-assisted grapefruit catch". mlb.com. Archived from the original on March 19, 2015 – via Wayback Machine.
  36. ^ "Wilbert Robinson". National Baseball Hall of Fame.
  37. ^ Semchuck, Alex. "Wilbert Robinson". Society for American Baseball Research.
  38. ^ "No More Grapefruit for Manager Robinson". The Daytona Daily News. Daytona Beach, Florida. March 17, 1915. p. 4. Retrieved February 17, 2024 – via newspapers.com.
  39. ^ "Washington Nationals March 2021 Schedule". MLB. Retrieved December 10, 2020.
  40. ^ a b "Spring Training Official Website". MLB. Retrieved March 5, 2011.
  41. ^ jess (February 19, 2019). "Visitors' guide to 2020 Cactus League spring training in Arizona". How Dare She. Retrieved February 15, 2020.
  42. ^ "Arizona Diamondbacks, Colorado Rockies break in new park". archive.azcentral.com.
  43. ^ The Arizona Republic. "A successful spring: New venue helps Cactus League set attendance mark." Peter Corbett. March 30, 2011.
  44. ^ "Martinez, 5 relievers pitch perfect game", Jimmy Golen, the Associated Press, published March 15, 2000, Retrieved February 22, 2007.
  45. ^ "Pitch Timer (2023 rule change) | Glossary". MLB.com. Retrieved May 2, 2024.
  46. ^ "MLB Rule Changes". Baseball Almanac. Retrieved May 7, 2024.
  47. ^ "Base Sizes (2023 rule change) | Glossary". MLB.com. Retrieved May 6, 2024.
  48. ^ "Defensive Shift Limits (2023 rule change) | Glossary". MLB.com. Retrieved May 6, 2024.
  49. ^ Peyser, Eve (March 12, 2024). "See-Through Baseball Pants Have Fans, and Brands, Pointing Fingers". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved May 7, 2024.
  50. ^ "MLB uniforms to be fixed by 2025 season: League says Nike will address multiple issues after player complaints". CBS Sports. May 3, 2024. Retrieved May 9, 2024.
  51. ^ "Pawol first woman to ump spring game since '07". ESPN.com. February 25, 2024. Retrieved May 7, 2024.
  52. ^ "Pawol to be first woman to umpire MLB Spring Training games since 2007". MLB.com. Retrieved May 8, 2024.
  53. ^ "Mets closer Edwin Diaz is set for spring debut after freak WBC injury a year ago". NBC Sports. March 11, 2024. Retrieved May 9, 2024.
  54. ^ "2023 World Baseball Classic: Rules, format, rosters and more for international tournament". CBS Sports. March 8, 2023. Retrieved May 9, 2024.

Further reading

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