Wikipedia

Smoking in South Korea

Smoking in South Korea has decreased overall for both men and women in the past decades. However, a high prevalence of tobacco use is still observed, especially with the rise of novel tobacco products such as e-cigarettes and heat-not-burn tobacco products. There are socioeconomic inequalities in smoking prevalence according to gender, income, education, and occupational class.[1] Advocates call for measures to reduce the smoking rates and address smoking inequalities using a combination of monitoring and tobacco control policies. These measures include significant price hikes, mandatory warning photos on cigarette packs, advertising bans, financial incentives, medical help for quitting, and complete smoking bans in public places.[2]

In 2021, the smoking rate for Koreans over 19 was 19.3%, a record low.[3][4] That year, 31.3% of men and 6.9% of women were smokers.[3] A 2022 study reported that this was a 50% decrease from 20 years ago.[5]

History

edit
 
Korean boatman smoking a pipe, c. 1904

Smoking arrived in Korea through the introduction of tobacco in the early 1600s from Japan and quickly became a widespread and popular activity among the people regardless of gender, social class, and age.[6] This was due to the appealing characteristics of tobacco in the context of Korea at that time. Namely, the favorable climate and soil for tobacco cultivation created a profitable economic sector, and smoking was thought to be a health-promoting, social, and cultural activity.[6] Although smoking was common amongst all people, the quality of tobacco used differed across the established classes of the hierarchical system.[7] The Dutch mariner Hendrick Hamel wrote in the 17th century that tobacco use was so prevalent that even children began smoking by age four or five.[8] The practice became so widespread that it became said that even tigers must have smoked in Korea, which gave rise to the phrase "a long time ago, when tigers smoked pipes..." (Korean: 『옛날 옛적에 호랑이 담배 피던 시절에...』) to begin stories about the distant past.[9][10]

Men and women both smoked until around 1880, when stigmas against women, especially young and middle-aged women, started to arise.[7]

Prevalence of smoking

edit

Cigarettes

edit

Adults

edit

According to the 2017 World Health Organization (WHO) report on the global tobacco epidemic, smoking prevalence was estimated to be 49.8% among males and 4.2% among females in 2015, when both daily and non-daily smokers were included.[11] Another survey by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), which included only daily smokers, indicated a smoking prevalence of 31.1% among males and 3.4% among females in 2015.[12]

The Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) tracks smoking behavior in Korean adults (aged 19 years or older).[13][14] KNHANES aims to represent the Korean population through surveying approximately 10,000 individuals aged 1 year and older from 3,840 households.[13] In this survey, adult smokers were defined as those who smoked at least five packs of cigarettes in their lifetime and currently smoke everyday or on somedays. In 2016, the cigarette smoking prevalence was 40.7% among male adults and 6.4% among female adults.[13]

Adolescents

edit

The Korea Youth Risk Behavior Web-based Survey (KYRBWS) annually tracks smoking behavior in Korean adolescents, defined as individuals between the ages 12 and 18.[13][15] In this survey, adolescent smokers are defined as those who had smoked on more than one day during the past 30 days. In 2015, adolescent cigarette prevalence was measured to be 7.8%.[16] In 2013, the cigarette smoking prevalence was 14.4% among male adolescents and 4.6% among female adolescents.[13] When the adolescent group was divided, high school students had a higher prevalence rate (20.7% males, 6.3% females) compared with middle school students (7.9% males, 2.8% females).[13]

E-cigarettes

edit

E-cigarettes were introduced in the South Korean market in 2007.[17] Whereas other countries have seen a dramatic rise in e-cigarette use among adolescents, it has remained at a stable low level in Korea.[18] According to the 2015 KYRBWS, e-cigarette prevalence among adolescents was 4%.[17] Adolescents make up less than 3% of e-cigarette users.[18]

Other tobacco products

edit

IQOS, a heat-not-burn tobacco product from company Philip Morris International (PMI), was introduced in South Korea in May 2017 in two stores in Seoul.[19] A month later in June, IQOS was sold by other retail outlets including CU (a convenience store chain) and Electromart (an electronics store chain).[20]

Cultural environment

edit

General attitudes

edit

Compared with the past, smoking has become substantially less prevalent. Still, South Korea has a high smoking prevalence, but tobacco control measures may be a strategy to depict smoking as an undesirable or socially unacceptable activity in public places. Research has shown that smoke-free policies help to change attitudes towards smoking bans in public places.[21] Specifically, through a process called denormalization, smoke-free policies may shift attitudes of smokers and non-smokers from smoking acceptance to regarding it as an atypical behavior.[21]

There is a cultural reluctance to seek treatment such as medical or psychological support. 87.8% of Korean male smokers indicated that they would rather try to quit smoking by themselves than seek out smoking cessation tools.[11]

Local smoking etiquette in South Korea is influenced by Confucianism. For instance, smokers generally refrain from or seek permission before lighting up in the presence of social superiors;[22] a social superior could be a boss, professor, parent, grandparent, or teacher.

Social differences

edit

According to the 2013 KNHANES, the highest prevalence rates among both Korean male and female adults were found to be among those of either lower household income or lower education level.[13] Another study also indicated that the “low” income quartile group showed the highest smoking rates for both males and females.[23] Specifically, the difference in cigarette smoking prevalence between those with the highest and lowest household incomes was 11.8% among males and 5.4% among females. On the other hand, the lowest rates were found to be among those with college and higher education levels.[13] For males, smoking was most prevalent among technicians and mechanics (51.6%), service and sale workers (51.4%), and simple laborers (49.3%). For females, smoking was most prevalent among service and sales workers (10.8%), simple laborers (8.2%), and agriculture, forestry, fishing workers (5.0%).[13] While “rural” regions showed the highest smoking rates among males, “other urban city” showed the highest smoking rates among females.[23]

The highest adolescent smoking rates were found to be among those of either lower household economic status or lower perceived academic records. Furthermore, smoking use was higher among students attending vocational high schools (31.6% males, 14.8% females) compared with those attending general high schools (18.2% males, 4.7% females).[13]

Gender differences

edit

South Korea has a significant gender difference in its smoking rates. While its male smoking rate is the highest of all countries in the OECD, its female smoking rate is the lowest.[23] However, the female smoking rate is thought to be underestimated due to social desirability response bias in the self-reported surveys, where participants did not want to indicate smoking activity to family members or neighbor during the survey, as well as the negative stigmas associated with smoking among women.[23] Compared with the reported rates, the actual rates, which were measured using urinary cotinine concentration (UCC) methods, were shown to be about two times higher. This is because female smoking is viewed very negatively and socially condemned. The stigmas behind female smoking may even contribute to the reporting differences between married and other (e.g. divorced, unmarried, widowed, etc.) women who may not feel as restricted by social pressures to hide their smoking statuses.[11] Unmarried women have a higher smoking rate.[11] It is important for smoke-free policies to specifically address hidden female smoking activity in order to prevent the possibly increasing prevalence rates among women.

There are also adolescent gender differences in smoking initiation factors. Whereas stress was strongly correlated with smoking initiation for male adolescents, family income was a strong factor for female adolescents. For both male and female adolescents, attachment to friends, smoking friends, stigma, and self-control were common factors for smoking initiation.[24]

Military service

edit

Reports suggest that persistently high rates of smoking in the military contribute to the high incidence of male smoking and negate the efficacy of anti-smoking measures. This is because as many men start smoking during their mandatory 2-year military service.[11] Smoking is largely framed as a social activity, and cigarettes are freely distributed.

Tobacco control

edit
 
No smoking sign at a Korean university

The South Korean government has enacted regulations like increasing the price or taxation of tobacco products, smoking bans, and limitations on tobacco advertisements in stores. For example, in 2016, graphical health warnings on all cigarette packages became mandatory.[11]

Tobacco control measures have shown to be effective in decreasing smoking prevalence rates. For example, in 1980, the smoking rates of men and women were 79.3% and 12.6%, respectively. Various laws, policies, and campaigns in the following decades were able to decrease smoking rates significantly (45.0% for men and 5.3% for women).[23] Although South Korea's tobacco control policies have improved in the past years, they can still be expanded on. For example, the cigarette costs can still be increased further, tobacco advertisements can be regulated more, and workplace smoking bans can include smaller companies.[11] Challenges to addressing the high prevalence of smoking in South Korea include the low cost of cigarettes, social factors, inadequate anti-smoking measures, and the rise of new tobacco products.[11]

The sociocultural and economical context of South Korea should be considered when thinking about the trends in smoking prevalence and behavior. Significant economic growth and market liberalization have allowed transnational tobacco companies to advertise and sell their products to South Korea's market, often targeting populations like women and young adults.[11]

Tobacco control policies need to be comprehensive in order to optimize efficacy and sustainability. A study inquired smokers in Korea about the price increase that would be needed in order for them to attempt quitting.[25] Overall, the median price to quit was $5.31, which is more than 2.3 times the typical current price of $2.27. Those who responded with a higher price to quit tended to also have less worries about the negative health effects of smoking and smoked more cigarettes per day.[25] Furthermore, the survey found that the price to quit and prevalence of smoking were lower among those exposed to non-tax tobacco control policies compared with those who were not. Therefore, these results suggest that tax tobacco control policies need to be accompanied by non-tax tobacco control policies.

Historical timeline

edit
Year Event Significance
1976 Tobacco Monopoly Act[16] Added cigarette warning labels that stated that cigarette use should be limited for health reasons
1988 Tobacco Business Act[16][26] Added stronger cigarette warning labels

Yet, overall purpose was to ensure the development of the tobacco industry through advising the production and distribution of tobacco

Korean tobacco industry opened to global tobacco market
1995 National Health Promotion Act[16][27] Overall purpose was to provide citizens with accurate knowledge about health so that they can live healthy lives

Restricted indoor smoking and the advertisement, promotion, and sponsorship of smoking

Banned cigarette sales to minors

Distributed information on adverse health effects of smoking through campaign

2003 Signing of the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO FCTC)[28]
2004 Large cigarette pack tax increase[16]
2005 Ratification of the WHO FCTC[28] Included more policies in its 1995 National Health Promotion Act, including more smoke-free areas, cigarette package warnings, restrictions on advertisements[13]
Establishment of Nationwide Smoking Cessation Program in 253 health centers Providing nicotine replacement therapy and counseling services at no cost[16]
2006 Revision of the 1995 National Health Promotion Act Greater emphasis on addressing the socioeconomic inequalities in smoking prevalence[16]
Introduction of the National Quitline Service Offering services 13 hours/day on weekdays, 9 hours/day on weekends, and free counseling sessions for registered users for one year[28] 3,368 (19%) of the 17,752 smokers who participated in at least one telephone counseling session did not smoke for 6 months after their designated quit date.[28]
2010-2011 Local governments allowed to restrict outdoor smoking[16]

Some public places completely ban outdoor smoking[16]

2015 National Health Insurance Service includes tobacco cessation consultation and cessation drug fees in its services nationwide[28]

Smoke-free policies

edit

Between 2005 and 2010, the support for smoking bans increased. The number of smokers who supported total smoking bans in the indoor areas of workplaces doubled from 17.7% in 2005 to 34.4% in 2010.[21] Furthermore, support for total smoke-free restaurants or bars doubled. Not only in public places but the percentage of smokers who implemented smoking bans in their private homes also significantly increased. Despite this increase, still 50% of Korean smokers reported smoking in their homes.[21]

Exposure to secondhand smoke (SHS) is also an issue that calls for smoke-free policies. A study found that 17.8% of Korean men and women are exposed to SHS in indoor workplace areas while 21.1% are exposed in public indoor areas.[21] The dangers associated with secondhand smoke are well known among Korean smokers. The more they were aware of the harms of SHS, the more they were likely to support a total smoking ban in workplaces.[21]

South Korea enforced strict smoking bans in public places since July 2013, with fines of ₩100,000 won on any spotted smoker and up to ₩5 million won on shop owners not following the law. It is illegal to smoke in all bars and restaurants, cafes, internet cafes, government buildings, kindergartens, schools, universities, hospitals, youth facilities, libraries, children's playgrounds, private academies, subway or train stations and their platforms and underground pathways, large buildings, theaters, department stores or shopping malls, large hotels and highway rest areas. The strict bans came into force gradually beginning with a ban on places larger than 150 square meters in 2012, extended to 100 square meters in 2014, with a full-fledged complete nationwide ban on 1 January 2015.[29]

Since 1 January 2015, South Korea has completely banned smoking on all bars, restaurants and cafes regardless of size, including any smoking rooms. Any spotted smoker must pay fines of 100,000 won and up to 5 million won on shop owners not obeying the law.[29] Anyone can report a smoker via calling or sending a text message to a government hotline (in the case of Seoul, the number is 120) with their location address and authorities will raid the reported place, of which a picture of the offending smoker will be taken and fined 100,000 won. Disguised authorities also secretly check random places at random times for offending smokers. Furthermore, tobacco prices have nearly doubled to an average of ₩4,500 KRW, and it is illegal to advertise misleading claims such as "light", "mild", "low tar" or "pure" on cigarette packs.[30][31]

From December 2016, warning photos such as rotten teeth and black lungs will be mandatory on all cigarette packs.[32]

Eight out of ten teenagers were found to think they should not smoke by looking at cigarette pack warning pictures. According to the Center for Disease Control, 83.1% of teenagers who know cigarette warning pictures responded that they thought smoking cigarettes should not be allowed to smoke. The health authorities have announced that they will replace the cigarette warning label in December and will include a picture symbolizing 'carcinogenicity' in cigarette-type electronic cigarette packs.[33]

Discussion is under way at the National Assembly to pass a law that will raise the prices every year pegged to inflation.[34] The government will pass a law in 2015 to completely ban any form of advertising of cigarettes in convenience stores and make it illegal for tobacco companies to sponsor cultural or sport events.[35]

Nationwide

edit

Smoking is illegal and strictly prohibited in the following premises:

  • Office, multi-use or factory buildings larger than 1,000 square meters in floor area (of which offices, conference rooms, auditorium and lobby must be smoke-free).
  • Institutions larger than 1,000 square meters in floor area (of which classrooms, waiting rooms and lounges must be smoke-free).
  • Shopping malls, department stores and underground malls (of which any shop selling goods must be smoke-free).
  • Hotels and resorts (of which the lobby must be smoke-free).
  • Universities (of which lecture rooms, lounges, auditoria, cafeteria and conference hall must be smoke-free).
  • Indoor sports facilities such as basketball and volleyball courts which can seat more than 1,000 people (of which the seats and pathways must be smoke-free).
  • Social welfare facilities (of which the living and working rooms, lounge, cafeteria and conference hall must be smoke-free).
  • Airports, bus terminals and train stations (of which waiting rooms, domestic flights, cabins, inside trains, subway car and its platform and underground stations and underground pathways must be smoke-free).
  • Any vehicle that can seat more than 16 people.
  • Public baths (of which changing rooms and bathing rooms must be smoke-free).
  • Game arcades, comic book renting shops and internet cafes.
  • Bars, restaurants, cafes, fast food restaurants and bakeries, regardless of size.
  • Baseball or football/soccer stadiums which can seat more than 1,000 people (of which the seats and pathways must be smoke-free).
  • Kindergartens, primary and secondary schools.
  • Hospitals and health centers.
  • Nurseries.
  • Taxis.[36]

Seoul

edit

In addition to the nationwide ban laws, Seoul designates the following areas must be smoke-free and any spotted smoker must pay a fine of 100,000 won:[citation needed]

Other regions

edit

In addition to the nationwide ban laws, several cities designate the following areas must be smoke-free:

Public campaigns

edit

Although public campaigns have been used in South Korea, further evaluation is needed to assess their effectiveness.[54] The public campaigns included mass media campaigns on television and radio, advertisements on public transportation, online education, and self-help leaflets in health centers. The most effective form of campaign is one that reaches a large population and conveys negative health messages highlighting the harms of tobacco use.[55]

Marketing

edit

In South Korea, regulations on tobacco advertising differ depending on the form of communication. For instance, while tobacco advertisements on television and radio are banned, they are allowed in magazines and in retail stores.[16] Tobacco sponsorship is restricted only for events strictly for women and children.

Other interventions

edit

Quitlines have been reported to be effective as a smoking cessation tool with the widespread use of mobile technology in South Korea.[11] The "quit bus" provides smoking cessation services for socially marginalized smokers such as women.[56]

Incentives for smoking cessation

edit

People who have successfully quit smoking will receive 50,000 to 150,000 KRW as a financial incentive from the government. A 12-week medical help program for quitting is provided at a heavily subsidized cost of 5,000KRW upon the first treatment, reduced to 3,000KRW thereafter. Smoking cessation aids such as bupropion, varenicline and nicotine patches are handed out for free at any participating medical center nationwide. Anyone in need of consulting smoking cessation can dial a hotline and consult a doctor or specialist.[57]

Residents of Seoul's Seocho District will receive a 5 million KRW cash prize if they have successfully quit smoking.[58]

Effects of smoking

edit

Health effects

edit

Tobacco smoking is considered to be the leading cause of preventable death and disability worldwide.[59] Although there is rising awareness of the health effects of tobacco, the prevalent smoking environment in South Korea continues to place a significant burden of avoidable deaths.[60] Smoking-attributable mortality was 58,155 deaths in 2012 with 49,704 (34.7%) being adult males and 8,451 (7.2%) being adult females. 41.1% and 5.1% of all male and female cancer, respectively, and 33.4% and 5.4% of all male and female cardiovascular diseases were attributed to smoking.[61] Furthermore, the prevalence of the major smoking-related diseases (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), hypertension, cardiovascular disease) was found to be higher in former and current smokers compared to non-smoker. COPD had a significant association with current and former smoking in both male and female smokers after controlling for other variables.[59]

A study found that exposure to parental smoking, including passive smoking, substantially increased the prevalence of respiratory and allergic symptoms in children.[62] Passive smoking includes both secondhand smoke and third-hand smoke, which is a type of tobacco smoke that remains in the environment or is absorbed by objects like fabrics or carpets and can be inhaled. As parental smoking gradually decreased during the study, children’t symptoms also decreased. Although no direct relationship could be established, the study notes that the children's decreased exposure to passive smoking may have contributed to the decline in symptoms.[62]

Economic effects

edit

Smoking has a significant economic impact in South Korea. One study aimed to find the estimated annual economic impact of smoking using two approaches: the disease specific approach and all causes approach.[63] The disease specific approach examined the direct and indirect costs of treating four major disease groups (cardiovascular, respiratory, gastrointestinal diseases, and cancer) caused by smoking. They did this by estimating the relative risks of smoking, accounted for by physician visits, hospital admission, and death with other variables (e.g. age, body mass index, alcohol consumption) adjusted for. This approach showed the total economic costs attributed to smoking in 1998 to be $2269.42 million - $2956.75 million, translated to 0.59-0.78% of the average gross domestic product (GDP) from 1997 to 1999. The all causes approach examined the differences in direct and indirect costs between smokers and non-smokers for all conditions, regardless of disease type. This approach estimated the total economic costs attributed to smoking in 1998 to be $3,154.75 million - $4,580.25 million, translated to 0.82-1.19% of the GDP.[63]

See also

edit
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Smoking in South Korea.

References

edit
  1. ^ Chang, Youngs; Kang, Hee-Yeon; Lim, Dohee; Cho, Hong-Jun; Khang, Young-Ho (2019-09-18). "Long-term trends in smoking prevalence and its socioeconomic inequalities in Korea, 1992–2016". International Journal for Equity in Health. 18 (1): 148. doi:10.1186/s12939-019-1051-x. ISSN 1475-9276. PMC 6751588. PMID 31533732.
  2. ^ "10년만의 담뱃값 2000원 인상.."흡연률 29%로 낮추겠다"". newstomato.com.
  3. ^ a b "National Tobacco Control Center | At a Glance: Tobacco Control in Korea | Prevalence of tobacco use". nosmk.khepi.or.kr. Retrieved 2024-07-15.
  4. ^ "Cigarette sales in Korea fall for 1st time in 4 years in 2023". The Korea Times. 2024-01-31. Retrieved 2024-07-15.
  5. ^ Kim, Suyong; Kim, Gilyong (2022). "The Prevalence of Smoking and Its Implications for Tobacco Control Polices in South Korea". 한국보건사회연구원 (in Korean). Retrieved 2024-07-15.
  6. ^ a b Sihn, K. H.; Seo, H. G. (June 2001). "[The introduction of tobacco and the diffusion of smoking culture in Korea]". Ui Sahak. 10 (1): 23–59. ISSN 1225-505X. PMID 12219758.
  7. ^ a b Lankov, Andrei (2014-01-10). North of the DMZ: Essays on Daily Life in North Korea. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-5141-8.
  8. ^ "우리역사넷". contents.history.go.kr. Retrieved 2024-01-21.
  9. ^ "Everyday Life in Joseon-Era Korea: Economy and Society", Everyday Life in Joseon-Era Korea, Brill, p. 249, 2014-01-09, ISBN 978-90-04-26115-0, retrieved 2024-01-21
  10. ^ "호랑이 담배 피던 시절은 과연 언제일까". JoongAng Ilbo (in Korean). 2014-05-26. Retrieved 2024-01-21.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Gunter, Rebekah; Szeto, Edwin; Jeong, Se-Hoon; Suh, Sooyeon (Aly); Waters, Andrew J. (January 2020). "Cigarette Smoking in South Korea: A Narrative Review". Korean Journal of Family Medicine. 41 (1): 3–13. doi:10.4082/kjfm.18.0015. ISSN 2005-6443. PMC 6987030. PMID 31189304.
  12. ^ "Health risks - Daily smokers - OECD Data". oecd.org.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Choi, Sunhye; Kim, Yoonjung; Park, Suyeon; Lee, Jihye; Oh, Kyungwon (2014-10-28). "Trends in cigarette smoking among adolescents and adults in South Korea". Epidemiology and Health. 36: e2014023. doi:10.4178/epih/e2014023. ISSN 2092-7193. PMC 4371385. PMID 25358464.
  14. ^ Kim, Youngmee; Cho, Won-Kyung (2018-10-02). "Effects of smoking on disease risk among South Korean adults". Tobacco Induced Diseases. 16 (October): 45. doi:10.18332/tid/94472. ISSN 1617-9625. PMC 6659552. PMID 31516443.
  15. ^ Kim, Yoonjung; Choi, Sunhye; Chun, Chaemin; Park, Suyeon; Khang, Young-Ho; Oh, Kyungwon (2016-08-01). "Data Resource Profile: The Korea Youth Risk Behavior Web-based Survey (KYRBS)". International Journal of Epidemiology. 45 (4): 1076–1076e. doi:10.1093/ije/dyw070. ISSN 0300-5771. PMID 27380796.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Cho, Hong-Jun (May 2014). "The Status and Future Challenges of Tobacco Control Policy in Korea". Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health. 47 (3): 129–135. doi:10.3961/jpmph.2014.47.3.129. ISSN 1975-8375. PMC 4050209. PMID 24921015.
  17. ^ a b Cho, Hong-Jun; Dutra, Lauren M; Glantz, Stanton A (August 2018). "Differences in Adolescent E-cigarette and Cigarette Prevalence in Two Policy Environments: South Korea and the United States". Nicotine & Tobacco Research. 20 (8): 949–953. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntx198. ISSN 1462-2203. PMC 6037057. PMID 29059418.
  18. ^ a b Cho, Young Gyu (July 2019). "Electronic and Conventional Cigarette Use and Drinking Behaviors in Korean Adolescents". Korean Journal of Family Medicine. 40 (4): 201–203. doi:10.4082/kjfm.40.4E. ISSN 2005-6443. PMC 6669395. PMID 31344993.
  19. ^ Kim, Minji (2018-07-01). "Philip Morris International introduces new heat-not-burn product, IQOS, in South Korea". Tobacco Control. 27 (e1): e76–e78. doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2017-053965. ISSN 0964-4563. PMC 5966325. PMID 29170165.
  20. ^ "ELECTRO MART". m.electromart.kr. Retrieved 2020-03-08.
  21. ^ a b c d e f Park, Eunja; Cho, Sung-il; Seo, Hong Gwan; Kim, Yeol; Jung, Hyun-Suk; Driezen, Pete; Ouimet, Janine; Quah, Anne C. K.; Fong, Geoffrey T. (2019-08-01). "Attitudes of Korean smokers towards smoke-free public places: findings from the longitudinal ITC Korea Survey, 2005–2010". BMJ Open. 9 (8): e025298. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-025298. ISSN 2044-6055. PMC 6701818. PMID 31401589.
  22. ^ Turnbull, James (2010-06-06). "The Gender Politics of Smoking in South Korea: Part 1". koreabridge.
  23. ^ a b c d e Park, Myung Bae; Kim, Chun-Bae; Nam, Eun Woo; Hong, Kyeong Soo (2014-12-12). "Does South Korea have hidden female smokers: discrepancies in smoking rates between self-reports and urinary cotinine level". BMC Women's Health. 14: 156. doi:10.1186/s12905-014-0156-z. ISSN 1472-6874. PMC 4319222. PMID 25495192.
  24. ^ Chun, JongSerl; Chung, Ick-Joong (February 2013). "Gender differences in factors influencing smoking, drinking, and their co-occurrence among adolescents in South Korea". Nicotine & Tobacco Research. 15 (2): 542–551. doi:10.1093/ntr/nts181. ISSN 1469-994X. PMID 23072870.
  25. ^ a b Park, Eun-Ja; Park, Susan; Cho, Sung-il; Kim, Yeol; Seo, Hong Gwan; Driezen, Pete; Quah, Anne C. K.; Fong, Geoffrey T. (2015-07-01). "What cigarette price is required for smokers to attempt to quit smoking? Findings from the ITC Korea Waves 2 and 3 Survey". Tobacco Control. 24 (Suppl 3): iii48–iii55. doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2015-052232. ISSN 0964-4563. PMID 26101044. S2CID 21338929.
  26. ^ "South Korea Details | Tobacco Control Laws". www.tobaccocontrollaws.org. Retrieved 2020-03-07.
  27. ^ Park, Kiljun; Kim, Dae Soon; Park, Dong-Jin; Lee, Seon Kui (2004). "Tobacco control in Korea". Medicine and Law. 23 (4): 759–780. ISSN 0723-1393. PMID 15685915.
  28. ^ a b c d e "WHO | WHO report on the global tobacco epidemic 2019". WHO. Retrieved 2020-03-07.
  29. ^ a b KIM BONG-MOON, New Year brings in smoking ban January 1, 2015
  30. ^ "South Korea seeks near-doubling of cigarette price - BBC News". bbc.com. 11 September 2014.
  31. ^ Newsis,. "새해 첫달 모든 음식점 금연 등 212개 법령 시행:: 공감언론 뉴시스통신사 ::". newsis.com.
  32. ^ (in Korean) 담뱃갑 경고그림 의무화, 13년만에 국회 통과 조세일보 2015/06
  33. ^ 주, 홍철 (2018-06-01). "Smoking cigarette warning picture, prevention of smoking in 83% of youth". 금강일보. Retrieved 2018-06-01.
  34. ^ (in Korean) 여권,물가 오른 만큼 담뱃값 올리겠다…흡연 억제 목적 Archived 2015-01-07 at the Wayback Machine 2015-01-04
  35. ^ "편의점 內 '담배 광고' 금지… 올 상반기 法개정". The Chosun Ilbo. 12 January 2015.
  36. ^ "No smoking in taxi". The Korea Times. 4 November 2013.
  37. ^ "지하철 입구 주변서 흡연하면 10만 원 과태료 문다". Maeil Business Newspaper. 18 January 2016.
  38. ^ a b "한국아이닷컴!". hankooki.com. Archived from the original on 2014-04-29.
  39. ^ "서초구, 금연거리 연장 통해 금연구역 5500여 개소 늘어". Asia Business Daily. 31 December 2014.
  40. ^ MoneyToday (9 April 2014). "서울 송파구, 잠실역 사거리 금연구역 확대". mt.co.kr.
  41. ^ a b "국회대로·여의도공원·영등포역 금연거리로". Seoul Shinmun. 14 March 2014.
  42. ^ "서울 강남구, 금연구역 흡연시 과태료 부과". YTN. 21 August 2013.
  43. ^ "양천구 금연교육 교실로". Seoul Shinmun.
  44. ^ "대학가 금연거리 실효성 논란 - 한국대학신문". unn.net. 13 January 2014.
  45. ^ Newsis,. "성북구, 가로변버스정류소 금연구역 지정:: 공감언론 뉴시스통신사 ::". newsis.com.
  46. ^ "[수도권]경기도의회 "아파트 복도-계단도 금연구역으로"". The Dong-a Ilbo. 23 February 2015.
  47. ^ "월미도 문화의 거리 '금연거리 말뿐'". itimes.co.kr. 10 April 2014.
  48. ^ "안산시 공공장소 금연 홍보 캠페인 전개". Aju Business Daily. 4 March 2014.
  49. ^ "성남시, 금연구역 433곳 추가 지정". 3 January 2014.
  50. ^ www.hkbs.co.kr (28 April 2014). "5월 1일 개장을 앞둔 부산시민공원 금연구역 지정". hkbs.co.kr.
  51. ^ "8월부터 금연단속원 합법화 - 매일신문".
  52. ^ "대전일보 :: 대전 유성구 금연거리 조성". daejonilbo.com. 17 March 2014.
  53. ^ "군포, 중심상업지역 주요 보도 금연구역 지정". anewsa.com. 3 February 2015.
  54. ^ Seo, H. G., Cheong, Y. S., Myung, S. K., Kim, Y., Lee, W. B., & Fong, G. T. (2008). Smoking-related Characteristics in Korean Adult Smokers: Findings from the 2005 International Tobacco Control Policy Evaluation Survey-Korea. Journal of the Korean Academy of Family Medicine, 29(11), 844-853.
  55. ^ Durkin, Sarah; Brennan, Emily; Wakefield, Melanie (2012-03-01). "Mass media campaigns to promote smoking cessation among adults: an integrative review". Tobacco Control. 21 (2): 127–138. doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2011-050345. ISSN 0964-4563. PMID 22345235.
  56. ^ World Health Organization. (2019). WHO report on the global tobacco epidemic 2019: Offer help to quit tobacco use.
  57. ^ "대통령 한마디에…복지부 "금연 성공땐 인센티브 5만~10만원"". news1.kr. 16 January 2015.
  58. ^ "[르포]담뱃값 인상 20일째…'한 대에 무너져요'". asiae.co.kr. 19 January 2015.
  59. ^ a b Kim, Youngmee; Cho, Won-Kyung (2018-10-02). "Effects of smoking on disease risk among South Korean adults". Tobacco Induced Diseases. 16 (October): 45. doi:10.18332/tid/94472. ISSN 1617-9625. PMC 6659552. PMID 31516443.
  60. ^ "Tobacco in South Korea". euromonitor. August 2010.
  61. ^ Jung, K. J., Yun, Y. D., Baek, S. J., Jee, S. H., & Kim, I. S. (2013). Smoking-attributable mortality among Korean adults, 2012. J Korea Soc Health Inform Stat, 38(2), 36-48.
  62. ^ a b Jung, Jae Woo; Ju, Young Su; Kang, Hye Ryun (2012). "Association between parental smoking behavior and children's respiratory morbidity: 5-year study in an urban city of South Korea". Pediatric Pulmonology. 47 (4): 338–345. doi:10.1002/ppul.21556. ISSN 1099-0496. PMID 22006579. S2CID 28659451.
  63. ^ a b Kang, H. Y., Kim, H. J., Park, T. K., Jee, S. H., Nam, C. M., & Park, H. W. (2003). Economic burden of smoking in Korea. Tobacco Control, 12(1), 37-44.
edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wiki.x.io/w/index.php?title=Smoking_in_South_Korea&oldid=1257959632"