Wikipedia

Muhajir (Pakistan)

(Redirected from Muhajir (Urdu-speaking people))
This article is about the social group in Pakistan. For other uses, see Muhajir (disambiguation).

The Muhajir people (also spelled Mahajir and Mohajir) (Urdu: مہاجر, lit. 'Immigrant') are Muslim immigrants of various ethnic groups and regional origins, and their descendants, who migrated from various regions of India after the 1947 independence to settle in the newly independent state of Pakistan.[10][11] The community includes those immigrants' descendants, most of whom are settled in Karachi and other major urban centres of Pakistan.[12]

Muhajirs
مہاجر
Photo from The Manchester Guardian of a group of Muslim migrants boarding a Pakistan-bound train in Delhi amidst the partition of India, c. 1947–1953
Total population
c. 15 million
Regions with significant populations
 Pakistan14,703,744 (2017 census)[1][a]
 Bangladesh300,000[2][b]
 United Kingdom269,000[3]
 United States188,983[4]
 United Arab Emirates80,000[citation needed]
 Canada74,405[5]
 Australia69,131[6]
 Saudi Arabia53,000[7]
Languages
Religion
Islam (majority)[8]
Christianity (minority)[9]
This article contains Urdu text. Without proper rendering support, you may see unjoined letters running left to right or other symbols instead of Urdu script.

The total population of the Muhajir people worldwide is estimated to be around 15 million, and the overwhelming majority of this figure (14.7 million) is located in Pakistan, according to the 2017 Pakistani census. Though the official controversial 2017 census of Karachi, which has historically hosted the country's largest Muhajir population, has been challenged by most of Sindh's political parties.

Etymology

The Urdu term muhājir (Urdu: مہاجر) comes from the Arabic muhājir (Arabic: مهاجر), meaning an "immigrant",[13][14][15] or "emigrant".[16] This term is associated in early Islamic history to the migration of Muslims and connotes ‘separation, migration, flight, specifically the flight of the Prophet from Mecca to Medina’.[17][18] This term was popularized in Pakistan by the 1951 census, although its earliest uses date back to Partition.[19]

Demographics

Origins

Most of the muhajirs who settled in the Sindh province of Pakistan came from the present-day Indian states of Central Provinces, Berar, Bombay, United Provinces, Haryana, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Bihar and Delhi, while others were from princely states of Jammu and Kashmir, Rajasthan, Hyderabad, Baroda, Kutch, and the Rajputana Agency.[20][21][22]

Population

Muhajirs, worldwide, have a population of over 15 million.[23] Muhajirs are mostly settled in Pakistan and currently are the fifth-largest ethnic group of Pakistan, with a population of around 14.7-30 million.[24] Although the population figures of the Muhajir dominated city of Karachi, have faced many controversies mainly due to the controversial 2017 census of Pakistan. The population figure has been rejected by most major political parties of Sindh including MQM-P,[25] PSP,[26] and PPP.[27][28] Estimates of Muhajir nationalist organizations range from 22 million[29] to around 30 million.[30]

Historically, muhajirs have constituted above 7% population of West Pakistan (3.5% in Pakistan as a whole).[31]

Languages

Being a multi-linguistic group of people, the Muhajirs speak different languages natively depending on their ethnicity and ancestral history.[32][33][34][35]

Urdu

Main article: Urdu-speaking people

Most Muhajirs speak Urdu, the third-largest Urdu-speaking population in the world.[23] In Sindh, those that speak Urdu as first language mostly migrated from Delhi, United Provinces, Hyderabad Deccan, Bombay, Ajmer, Bhopal, Bihar, Karnal including from other regions with other native tongues who eventually assimilated into the community amid nation building.[20] [36][37][38][39]

In Punjab, although most migrants were of East Punjab origin and Punjabi speaking, a sizable number of natively Urdu speaking communities also migrated to its urban centres mainly from Delhi, Rohtak, Hisar, Karnal, Alwar, Bharatpur, Jodhpur, Mewat and UP.[40]

Gujarati

There is a large community of Gujarati Muhajirs mainly settled in the Pakistani province of Sindh. Estimates say there are 3,500,000 speakers of the Gujarati language in Karachi.[41] Although the Gujaratis speak their own language, they tend to identify with the Urdu-speakers [42] This group includes Muhammad Ali Jinnah,[43] Abdul Sattar Edhi,[44] Javed Miandad,[45] Abdul Razzak Yaqoob,[46] I. I. Chundrigar,[47][48] and Ahmed Dawood.[49]

Others

Non-Urdu speaking Muslim peoples from what is now the Republic of India, such as Marathi, Konkani,[50] 60,000 Rajasthanis[51] who speak the Marwari dialect of Rajasthani language[52] and several-thousand Malabari Muslims from Kerala in South India, are considered Muhajirs.[53] These ethno-linguistic groups are being assimilated in the Urdu-speaking community.[54]

Many dialects related to Urdu such as Khariboli, and Haryanvi (Rangari dialect) or other languages like Awadhi, Mewati, Bhojpuri and Sadri are also spoken by the Muhajirs.[55]

Geographic distribution

In Pakistan

 
Distribution of muhajirs in Pakistan as per 2017 census

There are an estimated 14.7 million Urdu speakers presumably mostly of Muhajir origin in Pakistan.[24] Most of them are settled in the towns and cities of Pakistan mainly those of Urban Sindh, such as Karachi, Hyderabad, Mirpur Khas and Sukkur. Muhajir pockets are also found in other metropolises of Pakistan such as Islamabad and Lahore.[56]

Percent of Urdu speakers by administrative unit
Administrative units of Pakistan Population %
  Balochistan 12,335,129 [57][58] 0.81%[59]
  Islamabad Capital Territory 2,003,368[60] 12.23%[59]
  Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 35,501,964[61] 0.9%[59]
  Punjab 110,012,442[62] 4.87%[59]
  Sindh 47,854,510[63] 18.2%[64]
  Pakistan 232,675,212[65] 7.08%[64]

In Bangladesh

A large number of Urdu-speaking Muslims from Bihar went to East Pakistan after the independence of India and Pakistan.[66] After the formation of Bangladesh in 1971, the Biharis maintained their loyalty to Pakistan and wanted to leave Bangladesh for Pakistan.[67] The majority of these people still await repatriation, however. About 178,000 have been repatriated.[68] In 2015, the Pakistani government stated that the remaining 'Stranded Pakistanis' are not its responsibility but rather the responsibility of Bangladesh.[69] Nearly 300,000 Biharis are currently settled in the urban areas of Bangladesh.[70][71][72] These muhajirs are settled mainly in Shahjahan Pur, Kamla Pur, Motijheel, Purana Pultan, Nawabpur road, Nawab Bari, Thatheri Bazar, Moulvi Bazar, Armani Tola, Islam Pur, Azim Pur, Saddar Ghat, Eskatan, Dhanmandi, Dhakeshwari, Neel Khet.[73] In 2003, these Muhajirs were granted nationality and the right to vote.[74][75]

History

Main article: History of Muhajirs

Mughal Empire and British India

Main articles: Mughal Empire and Indian Rebellion of 1857
 
Shah Alam II (reigned 1759–1806) seated on a golden throne in Delhi.

The ancestors of the present day muhajirs started gaining political and cultural influence during the reign of the mughal emperor, Shah Alam II, who gave Urdu the status of literary language,[76] and replaced Persian as the language of the Muslim elite.[77][78]

Prior to the Indian Rebellion of 1857, British territories in South Asia were controlled by the East India Company.[79] The company maintained the fiction of running the territories on behalf of the Urdu-speaking Mughal empire.[80] The defeat of Mutineers in 1857 -1858 led to the abolition of the Mughal empire and the British government taking direct control of the Indian territories.[81] In the immediate aftermath of the rebellion, upper-class Muslims, the ancestors of present-day Muhajirs, were targeted by the British, as some of the leadership for the war came from this community based in areas around Delhi and what is now Uttar Pradesh; thousands of them and their families were shot, hanged, or blown away by cannons.[82] According to Mirza Ghalib, Urdu-speaking women were also targeted because the rebel soldiers sometimes disguised themselves as women.[83] This era left a great impact on the history, culture and ideologies of present-day Muhajirs, and due to the large number of muhajirs being descended from Mughals, and because of the impact of Mughals, they are sometimes referred to as "the grandchildren of Mughals".[84]

Partition of India

See also: Partition of India
 
The photo monument depicting a couple migrating from India to Pakistan with their household stuff and cattle during the Partition of India.

The Partition of India was the largest migration in human history.[85] Many Muslims migrating from India to Pakistan were killed by Hindus and Sikhs, while many Hindus and Sikhs were killed by Muslims.[86] After the independence of Pakistan, a significant number of Muslims emigrated or were out-migrated from the territory that became the Dominion of India and later the Republic of India.[87] In the aftermath of partition, a huge population exchange occurred between the two newly formed states.[87] In the riots which preceded the partition, between 200,000 and 2,000,000 people were killed in the retributive genocide.[88][89] UNHCR estimates 14 million Hindus, Sikhs, and Muslims were displaced during the partition; it was the largest mass migration in human history.[90][91][92]

First immigration wave (August–November 1947)

 
Muslim refugees in the Tomb of Humayun, 1947
 
Muslim refugees boarding a train in September 1947, similar to those involved in the massacre, with the intent of fleeing India

There were three predominant stages of Muslim migration from India to West Pakistan. The first stage lasted from August–November 1947. In this stage of migration the Muslim immigrants originated from East Punjab, Delhi, the four adjacent districts of U.P., and the princely states of Alwar and Bharatpur which are now part of the present-day Indian state of Rajasthan.[93] The violence affecting these areas during partition precipitated an exodus of Muslims from these areas to Pakistan.[93] Punjabi Muslims from East Punjab crossed to West Punjab and settled in a culturally and linguistically similar environment.[94]

The migration to Sindh was of a different nature to that in Punjab, as the migrants to Sindh were ethnically heterogenous and were linguistically different from the locals.[95] The migrants were also more educated than the native, and predominantly rural Sindhi Muslims who had been less educated and less prosperous than the former Sindhi Hindu residents, suffered as a result.[96] The migrants, who were urban, also tended to regard the local Sindhis as "backwards" and subservient to landowners.[97]

Prior to the partition, the majority of urban Sindh's population had been Hindu,[98] but after the independence of Pakistan in 1947, the majority of Sindh's Hindus migrated to India,[94] although a substantial number of Hindus did remain in Sindh.[99] 1.1 million Muslims from Uttar Pradesh, Bombay Presidency, Delhi, and Rajasthan settled in their place; half in Karachi and the rest across Sindh's other cities.[100][94] By the 1951 census, the migrants constituted 57 percent of the population of Karachi, 65 percent in Hyderabad, and 55 percent in Sukkur.[101] As Karachi was the capital of the new nation, educated urban migrants from Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bombay, Bihar, and Hyderabad Deccan preferred it as their site of settlement for better access to employment opportunities.[102] The migrants were compensated for their properties lost in India by being granted the evacuee property left behind by the departing Hindus.[97] A sizable community of Malayali Muslims (the Mappila), originally from Kerala in South India, also settled in Karachi.[103][104]

Second immigration wave (December 1947 – December 1971)

This film contrasts the old and new India and Pakistan, with emphasis on the Bangladesh and Kashmir disputes.

Many Muslim families from India continued migrating to Pakistan throughout the 1950s and even early 1960s. This second stage (December 1947 – December 1971) of the migration was from areas in the present-day Indian states of U.P., Delhi, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala. The main destination of these migrants was Karachi and the other urban centers of Sindh.[93]

In 1952, a joint passport system was introduced for travel purposes between the two countries which made it possible for Indian Muslims to legally move to Pakistan.[105] Pakistan still required educated and skilled workers to absorb into its economy at the time, due to relatively low levels of education (15.9 percent in 1961) in Pakistan.[106] As late as December 1971, the Pakistan High Commission in New Delhi was authorized to issue documents to educationally-qualified Indians to migrate to Pakistan.[107] The legal route was taken by unemployed but educated Indian Muslims seeking better fortunes, however poorer Muslims from India continued to go illegally via the Rajasthan-Sindh border until the 1965 India–Pakistan war when that route was shut.[108] After the conclusion of the 1965 war, most Muslims who wanted to go to Pakistan had to go there via the East Pakistani-India border. Once reaching Dhaka, most made their way to the final destination-Karachi.[93] However, not all managed to reach West Pakistan from East Pakistan.[93]

In 1959, the International Labour Organization (ILO) published a report stating that between the period of 1951–1956, around 650,000 Muslims from India relocated to West Pakistan.[109] However, Visaria (1969) raised doubts about the authenticity of the claims about Indian Muslim migration to Pakistan, since the 1961 Census of Pakistan did not corroborate these figures.[110] However, the 1961 Census of Pakistan did incorporate a statement suggesting that there had been a migration of 800,000 people from India to Pakistan throughout the previous decade.[111] Of those who had left for Pakistan, most never came back. The Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru conveyed distress about the continued migration of Indian Muslims to West Pakistan:

There has...since 1950 been a movement of some Muslims from India to Western Pakistan through Jodhpur–Sindh via Khokhropar. Normally, traffic between India and West Pakistan was controlled by the permit system. But these Muslims going via Khokhropar went without permits to West Pakistan. From January 1952 to the end of September, 53,209 Muslim emigrants went via Khokhropar....Most of these probably came from the U.P. In October 1952, up to the 14th, 6,808 went by this route. After that Pakistan became much stricter on allowing entry on the introduction of the passport system. From 15 October to the end of October, 1,247 went by this route. From 1 November, 1,203 went via Khokhropar.[112]

Indian Muslim migration to West Pakistan continued unabated despite the cessation of the permit system between the two countries and the introduction of the passport system between them.[93]

Third immigration wave (1973–1990s)

The third stage, which lasted between 1973 and the 1990s, was when migration levels of Indian Muslims to Pakistan was reduced to its lowest levels since 1947.[113] Indian Muslim migration to Pakistan had declined drastically by the 1970s, a trend noticed by the Pakistani authorities. In June 1995, Pakistan's interior minister, Naseerullah Babar, informed the National Assembly that between the period of 1973–1994, as many as 800,000 visitors came from India on valid travel documents, of which only 3,393 stayed.[93] In a related trend, intermarriages between Indian and Pakistani Muslims have declined sharply. According to a November 1995 statement of Riaz Khokhar, the Pakistani High Commissioner in New Delhi, the number of cross-border marriages has declined from 40,000 a year in the 1950s and 1960s to barely 300 annually.[114]

Politics

The Muhajirs have started many socio-political groups in Pakistan such as the Muttahida Qaumi Movement under Altaf Hussain in 1984, the All Pakistan Muslim League under Pervez Musharraf, and Jamaat e Islami under Abul A'la Maududi.[115][116]

British-era Khilafat Movement

Main article: Khilafat Movement
 
Maulana Shaukat Ali, a leader of the Khilafat Movement

During the last period of the Ottoman Empire, the empire was indebted and the community provided significant financial support to preserve the empire.[117] The members of the movement who are now Muhajirs and West Punjabis granted the money to preserve the Ottoman Empire but were unable to prevent its decline; it was the biggest political eminence in pre-Muhajir history.[118][119]

Pakistan Movement

Main article: Pakistan Movement

The Pakistan movement, to constitute a separate state comprising the Muslim-majority provinces, was supported by the Urdu-speaking Muslim elite and many notables of the Aligarh Movement.[120][121] It was initiated in the 19th century when Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, the grandson of the Khwaja Fakhruddin, the Vizier of Akbar Shah II,[122] expounded the cause of Muslim autonomy in Aligarh.[123] In its early years, Muslim nobles such as nawabs (aristocrats and landed gentry) supported the idea, but as the idea spread, it gained great support amongst the Muslim population and in particular the rising middle and upper classes.[124]

The Muslims launched the movement under the banner of the All India Muslim League and Delhi was its main centre. The headquarters of the All India Muslim League (the founding party of Pakistan) was based, since its creation in 1906, in Dhaka (present-day Bangladesh). The Muslim League won 90 percent of reserved Muslim seats in the 1946 elections and its demand for the creation of Pakistan received overwhelming popular support among Indian Muslims, especially in those provinces of British India such as U.P. where Muslims were a minority.[125][126][127]

1947–1958

The Muhajirs of Pakistan were largely settled in Sindh province, particularly in the province's capital, Karachi, where the Muhajirs were in a majority.[128] As a result of their domination of major Sindhi cities, there had been tensions between Muhajirs and the native Sindhis, and this has been a major factor in the shaping of Muhajir politics.[129] The Muhajirs, upon their arrival in Pakistan, soon joined the Punjabi-dominated ruling elite of the newborn country due to their high rates of education and urban background.[101] They possessed the required expertise for running Pakistan's nascent bureaucracy and economy.[130][128] Although the Muhajirs were, socially, urbane and liberal, they sided with the country's religious political parties such as Jamiat Ulema-i-Pakistan (JUP) because of their non affiliation with any particular ethnic group.[131]

Upon arrival in Pakistan, the Muhajirs did not assert themselves as a separate ethnic identity, being multi-ethnic themselves, but were at the forefront of trying to construct an Islamic Pakistani identity.[132] Muhajirs dominated the bureaucracy of Sindh in the early years of the Pakistani state, largely due to their higher levels of educational attainment.[101] Prior to the partition, Hindus dominated the professions of lawyers, teachers, and tradesmen in Sindh and the vacancies they left behind were filled up by the Muhajirs.[94]

Many upper class Muhajirs people had higher education and civil service experience from working for the British Raj and Muslim princely states.[133][134] Out of the 101 Muslims in India's civil service, 95 chose to leave India.[135] A third of those civil servants were West Punjabis and there were as many Muhajirs as Punjabis.[94] From 1947 to 1958, the Urdu-speaking Muhajirs held more jobs in the Government of Pakistan than their proportion in the country's population (3.3%). In 1951, of the 95 senior civil services jobs, 33 were held by the Urdu-speaking Muhajirs and 40 by Punjabis.[136] The Muhajirs also had a strong hold over the economy, 36 of the 42 largest private companies belonged to Muhajirs, mainly those from the Indian state of Gujarat.[94]

Gradually, as education became more widespread, Sindhis and Pashtuns, as well as other ethnic groups, started to take their fair share of the pool in the bureaucracy.[137] But even by the early 1960s, 34.5 percent of Pakistan's civil servants were those who had not been born in the territory comprising Pakistan in 1947. Most of them were born in the United provinces.[94]

1958–1970

On 27 October 1958, General Ayub Khan staged a coup and imposed martial law across Pakistan.[138] By the time of Pakistan's first military regime (Ayub Khan, 1958), the Muhajirs had already begun to lose their influence in the ruling elite, especially after he changed the federal capital of Karachi to Islamabad.[98][139][140] Ayub slowly began to pull non-muhajirs into the mainstream areas of the economy and politics, coupled with completely ousting Muhajirs from the ruling elite.[141] This caused the Muhajirs' to agitate against the Ayub dictatorship from the early 1960s onwards.[141] The relation was further deteriorated when the quota system, revived and expanded by the 1962 constitution, increased the number of seats in professional colleges for students from backward areas which was anathema to the middle-class literate Muhajirs.[142]

The percentage of Muhajirs in the civil service declined while the percentage of others increased. In the presidential election of 1965, the Muslim League split into two factions: the Muslim League (Fatima Jinnah) supported Fatima Jinnah, the younger sister of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, while the Convention Muslim League supported General Ayub Khan.[143] The Muhajirs at this time supported the Muslim League of Fatima Jinnah against Ayub Khan.[144] The rivalry reached a peak after the electoral fraud of the 1965 presidential election and a post-election triumphal march by Gohar Ayub Khan, the son of General Ayub Khan, set off ethnic clashes between Pashtuns and Muhajirs in Karachi on 4 January 1965.[141]

Four years later, on 24 March 1969, President Ayub Khan directed a letter to General Yahya Khan, inviting him to deal with the tense political situation in Pakistan.[145] On 26 March 1969, General Yahya appeared on national television and proclaimed martial law over the country.[146] Yahya subsequently abrogated the 1962 Constitution, dissolved parliament, and dismissed President Ayub's civilian officials.[147]

1970–1977

The 1970 Pakistani general election on 7 December 1970, saw the Awami League winning the elections.[148] The Muhajirs had voted for the Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan and Jamiat Ulema-e-Pakistan,[136][149] this popular support for these parties resulted in ethnic muhajirs winning all six NA seats and 18 PA seats in Karachi and Hyderabad.[150] Muhajirs had decisively lost their place in the ruling elite, but they were still an economic force to be reckoned with (especially in urban Sindh).[128] When Zulfikar Ali Bhutto became the country's head of state in December 1971, the Muhajirs feared that they would be further sidelined, this time by the economic and political resurgence of Sindhis under Bhutto.[128] From the 1970s and onwards, Bhutto implemented a series of policies in Sindh that the Urdu-speaking population viewed as an assault on their political and economic rights as well as cultural identity.[140]

The Pakistan People's Party government nationalized the financial industry, educational institutions, and industry.[151] The nationalization of Pakistan's educational institutions, financial institutions, and industry in 1972 by Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto of Pakistan People's Party impacted the Muhajirs hardest as their educational institutions, commerce, and industries were nationalized without any compensation.[152] Subsequently, the quota system introduced by Liaquat Ali Khan which allowed Muhajirs to take government jobs was reversed by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto preventing them from taking government jobs and other government institutions, by introducing urban rural quota divide in government job slots.[153] These policies also included the forceful retirement, dismissal or demotion of over 1,000 Urdu-speaking officers.[140]

In 1972, language riots broke out between Sindhis and Muhajirs after the passage of the "Teaching, Promotion, and use of Sindhi Language" bill in July 1972 by the Sindh Assembly; which declared Sindhi as the only official language of Sindh.[154] Due to the clashes, Prime Minister Bhutto compromised and announced that Urdu and Sindhi would both be official languages in Sindh.[155] The move had frustrated the Muhajirs as they did not speak the Sindhi language.[137]

1977–1988

In the 1977 Pakistani general election, Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan and Jamiat Ulema-e-Pakistan joined in a coalition named the Pakistan National Alliance.[156] Since the Muhajirs voted mostly for the Pakistan National Alliance,[98] they enthusiastically participated in the 1977 right-wing movement against the Bhutto regime which was caused by the alleged electoral fraud by Pakistan People's Party.[157][158] The movement was particularly strong among Karachi's middle and lower-middle-classes who clashed with state forces and political opponents in deadly gun battles and destroyed state-owned plants.[159][137] On 5 July 1977, Chief of Army Staff General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq led a coup d'état against Bhutto and imposed martial law, due to the rising unrest in the country.[160][161][162] A year after Zia's coup, Jamaat e Islami started losing support to the newly founded APMSO, which believed that Jamat Islami and Jamiat Ulema Pakistan were "playing the muhajirs false".[163] APMSO created several militant cells, such as Black Tigers and Nadeem Commandos, to counter the heavily armed Thunder squad of Islami Jamiat-e-Talaba.[164] On March 18, 1984, the senior members of APMSO launched the Mohajir Qaumi Movement (MQM) – an ethnic Muhajir party that was to serve as the senior partner of the APMSO.[165] On August 8, 1986, a day still celebrated by the party as the moment the MQM came to the fore as a political force, Altaf Hussain drew thousands of Muhajirs to a rally in Nishtar Park where he declared Muhajirs a fifth sub-nationality within Pakistan.[166] A year after the rally in Nishtar Park, MQM swept the local bodies’ election in Karachi and Hyderabad.[166]

1988–2016

 
Mass protest of Muhajirs in favour of MQM

After the 1988 General Elections, MQM, the largest Muhajir nationalist party to exist at the time (with more than 100,000 party workers),[167] emerged as the third-largest political party of Pakistan, in alliance with PPP.[168] Differences developed between the PPP and MQM after dozens were killed at an MQM congregation by Sindhi nationalists, and the alliance fell apart in the wake of ensuing violence.[169] The MQM lent its support to Nawaz Sharif's Islami Jamhoori Ittehad instead.[169] In June 1992, a massive ‘Operation Cleanup’ was launched to rid the city of terrorism but MQM was selectively targeted.[170] The Party's political offices were shut down as scores of its workers were killed in extra judicial murders and shootouts,[170] forcing to move its offices to London.[171] After the operation ended, MQM staged a comeback and a second crackdown against MQM was carried out during the tenure of Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto, in which many associated with the party were killed.[172] After the military takeover in 1999 by Pervez Musharraf,[173] the MQM backed Pervez Musharraf strongly till his resignation in 2008.[174] Even after Musharraf's fall from power, MQM continued to dominate Muhajir politics until 2016 when it broke up into four factions and collapsed.[175]

2016–present

Amid a fractured MQM, the populist leader Imran Khan's PTI started to dominate Karachi's politics with a multiethnic support base from all walks of life, including the Muhajirs mainly from upper-middle and middle class, while lower-middle class Muhajirs turned to Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan.[176] Despite tough opposition from PPP and TLP, PTI managed to bag the popular vote en masses during the 2018 Pakistani general elections, though with a lower voter turnout.[177] But in 2023, after the merger of the MQM factions, MQM staged a comeback into Muhajir politics. In 2023 Karachi local government elections MQM-P's boycott resulted in very low voter turnouts.[178]

Society

Economic status

A 2023 research conducted by Karachi University found that 9% of muhajirs were upper-class, while 17% were upper-middle class, 52% middle class, 13% lower middle and 9% lower class.[179] A 2019 study by Jinnah Postgraduate Medical Center found that Muhajir women have the highest employment rate and monthly income among all major ethnic groups of Pakistan.[180] And according to the 1951 census of Pakistan, less than 15 per cent of Muhajirs were unskilled labourers, with almost 61 percent classified as skilled workers and more than 5 percent belonging to professional and managerial backgrounds.[181] By settlements, 68.4% Muhajirs lived in planned areas and 88.9% have access to basic utilities.[182] They have been very successful in finance institutions, and have founded most of Pakistan's banking institutions including State Bank of Pakistan,[183] Habib Bank Limited,[184] United Bank Limited,[185] and Bank AL Habib.[186]

Sports

Until the 1970s, Karachi had been a historical centre for producing cricketers and hockey players for the Pakistan national cricket team and hockey team. Some of the notable cricketers of a Muhajir background during the era include Javed Miandad among many others.[187][188]

Health and genetics

In the ethnic groups of Pakistan, the lowest prevalence of metabolic syndrome was seen in Muhajirs (32.5%).[189] Muhajirs have a gene diversity of 0.6081, which is 0.001 less than the Pakistani average of 0.6091.[190] The overall prevalence of proteinuria in Muhajir children 3.6%.[191]

Notable people

Main article: List of Muhajir people

Culture

Main article: Muhajir culture

Muhajir culture is the culture that migrated mainly from North India after the independence of Pakistan in 1947 generally to Karachi. The Muhajir culture refers to the Pakistani variation of Indo-Islamic culture and part of the Culture of Karachi city in Pakistan.[192][193]

Cuisine

Main article: Muhajir cuisine
See also: Mughlai cuisine and Hyderabadi cuisine
 
Hyderabadi biryani

Muhajir cuisine refers to the cuisine of the muhajir people and is covered under both Indian and Pakistani cuisines, and is mostly found in the Pakistani city of Karachi.[194] Muhajirs, after arriving in Karachi, have revived their old culture,[195] including numerous desserts, savory dishes, and beverages. The Mughal and Indo-Iranian heritage played an influential role in the making of their cuisine and therefore compared to other Pakistani cuisines, Muhajir cuisine tends to use royal cuisine specific to the old royal dynasties of now defunct states in ancient India. Most dastarkhawans (dining tables) include chapati, rice, dal, vegetable, and meat curry. Special dishes include biryani,[196] qorma, kofta, seekh kabab, nihari, haleem, Nargisi koftay, roghani naan, naan, sheer-khurma (dessert), and chai (sweet, milky tea) are associated with Muhajir cuisine.[197][better source needed]

Traditional dress

Further information: Kurta, Pajamas, and Sari

The traditional clothing of Muhajirs is the traditional clothing worn by Muslims in North India, and it has both Muslim and South Asian influences. Both Muslim men and women wear the shalwar kameez.[198] Men also wear the sherwani, and it is believed to have been introduced to Pakistan by Muhajirs.[199] Muhajir women (mainly from Northern India) wear sari,[200] which is an un-stitched stretch of woven fabric arranged over the body like a robe.[201] The Gharara was also worn by Muhajir women, which originated from the Nawabs' attempt to imitate the British evening gown.[202]

Festivals

See also: Muhajir Cultural Day

Muhajirs celebrate many festivals which include religious, political, ethnic, and national festivals. Islamic festivals which are celebrated by Muhajirs include Eid-al-Fitr, Eid-al-Adha, and Ashoura.[203] Political celebrations include MQM Founding Day,[204] Death anniversary of Azeem Ahmad Tariq,[205] and APMSO Founding Day.[206] Muhajirs celebrate Muhajir Cultural Day as an ethnic and cultural festival.[207]

Contemporary issues

Persecution of Muhajirs ranges from mass killings, discrimination, enforced disappearances, torture, to political repression and suppression of freedom of speech. A MEMRI representative stated that the Muhajirs "have faced discrimination and attacks in linguistic conflicts involving Sindhi-speaking locals, while in Islamabad, the federal capital, the Muhajirs face discrimination in government jobs."[15] Attempts to address such grievances such as a demand for a separate province in Pakistan has been repeatedly denied by Pakistan authorities.[208]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ 7.08% of Pakistan's population
  2. ^ 0.18% of Bangladesh's population

References

  1. ^ Hasnain, Khalid (19 May 2021). "Pakistan's population is 207.68m, shows 2017 census result". DAWN.COM. Archived from the original on 17 October 2022. Retrieved 12 November 2022.
  2. ^ "Bangladesh: Urdu-Speaking "Biharis" Seek Recognition, Respect and Rights". International Republican Institute. 4 February 2021. Retrieved 26 September 2022.
  3. ^ "2011 Census - Office for National Statistics". www.ons.gov.uk. Retrieved 15 October 2022.
  4. ^ Najam, Adil (2006). Portrait of a giving community : philanthropy by the Pakistani-American diaspora. Harvard University. Global Equity Initiative. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Global Equity Initiative, Asia Center, Harvard University. ISBN 0-674-02366-8. OCLC 44648966.
  5. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (8 February 2017). "Census Profile, 2016 Census - Canada [Country] and Canada [Country]". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 15 October 2022.
  6. ^ "Find out how many people speak Urdu in your suburb". SBS Language. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
  7. ^ "Saudi Arabia (KSA) Population Statistics [Infographics]". 20 April 2022.
  8. ^ Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Refworld | EASO Country of Origin Information Report. Pakistan Country Overview". Refworld. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
  9. ^ "Pakistani Christians in search of a new homeland". 22 January 2014.
  10. ^ The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 1992. p. 264.
  11. ^ "Don't label me 'Mohajir'". tribune.com.pk. 11 February 2014. Archived from the original on 17 June 2015. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
  12. ^ "PAK32916 Research Response" (PDF). www.refworld.org. 20 February 2008.
  13. ^ "Urdu Word مہاجر – Mohajir Meaning in English is Immigrant". UrduPoint. Retrieved 21 November 2022.
  14. ^ "MQM to observe 'black day' over Khursheed Shah's 'Muhajir' comment". Dawn. 26 October 2014. Archived from the original on 24 December 2014. Retrieved 27 April 2015. Read 5th Paragraph
  15. ^ a b "Muhajirs in Pakistan". European Country of Origin Information Network. 5 July 2012. Archived from the original on 18 August 2016. Retrieved 27 April 2015.
  16. ^ "Muhajir – Meaning of Muhajir Name, Muhajir Origin and Astrology". www.babynamescube.com. Retrieved 5 January 2023.
  17. ^ "Hijrah | History, Definition, & Importance | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
  18. ^ "The Qur'anic Perspective on Immigrants: Prophet Muhammad's Migration and Its Implications in Our Modern Society | The Journal of Scriptural Reasoning". 24 October 2013. Retrieved 21 November 2022.
  19. ^ Laurent, Gayer (9 March 2008). "Projections internationales ou détours vers le local? Les diplomaties identitaires des sikhs (Inde) et des Mohajirs (Pakistan)". International Review of Sociology (in French). 18 (1) – via SocINDEX.
  20. ^ a b Mahapatra, B. P. (1989). Constitutional languages. Presses Université Laval. ISBN 978-2-7637-7186-1.
  21. ^ Aijazuddin Ahmad (2009). Geography of the South Asian Subcontinent: A Critical Approach. Concept Publishing Company. pp. 76–. ISBN 978-81-8069-568-1.
  22. ^ Bhavnani, Nandita. "Unwanted refugees: Sindhi Hindus in India and muhajirs in Sindh." South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies 39.4 (2016): 790-804.
  23. ^ a b Carl Skutsch (7 November 2013). Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities. Taylor & Francis. pp. 2234–. ISBN 978-1-135-19395-9.
  24. ^ a b "Pakistan", The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 2 November 2022, archived from the original on 15 January 2023, retrieved 13 November 2022
  25. ^ "Unified MQM-P holds first workers' convention". Dawn. 24 January 2023. Retrieved 25 January 2023.
  26. ^ "Mustafa Kamal challenges census 2017 results in SC". Daily Pakistan Global. 25 April 2018. Retrieved 20 November 2022.
  27. ^ Ghori, Habib Khan (3 November 2017). "Sindh Assembly refuses to accept census results". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 20 November 2022.
  28. ^ "Will not accept 2017 census figures, agree MQM-P, PPP after meeting". The Nation. 31 December 2020. Retrieved 20 November 2022.
  29. ^ Shah, Syed Mehtab (17 November 1997). "Ethnic tensions in Sindh and their possible solution". Contemporary South Asia. 6 (3): 259. doi:10.1080/09584939708719820. ISSN 0958-4935.
  30. ^ "Sindhis and Mohajirs". Minority Rights Group. 19 June 2015. Archived from the original on 20 November 2022. Retrieved 26 September 2022.
  31. ^ "Pakistanis demand that their government recognize Bengali as an official language, 1947-1952 | Global Nonviolent Action Database". nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
  32. ^ Stanley J. Tambiah (3 January 1997). Leveling Crowds Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia. University of California Press. p. 183. ISBN 9780520918191.
  33. ^ Khursheed Kamal Aziz (1993). The Pakistani Historian. the University of Michigan.
  34. ^ Mohammad Qadeer (2006). Pakistan – Social and Cultural Transformations in a Muslim Nation. Taylor & Francis. p. 73. ISBN 9781134186174.
  35. ^ Oskar Verkaaik, A people of migrants: ethnicity, state, and religion in Karachi, Amsterdam: VU University Press, 1994
  36. ^ Claire Alexander; Joya Chatterji; Annu Jalais (6 November 2015). The Bengal Diaspora: Rethinking Muslim migration. Routledge. pp. 96–. ISBN 978-1-317-33593-1.
  37. ^ "Muhajirs in historical perspective". The Nation. 7 November 2014. Retrieved 9 July 2024.
  38. ^ Ghosh, Papiya (21 March 2014). Partition and the South Asian Diaspora: Extending the Subcontinent. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-80966-1.
  39. ^ MyPluralist (18 December 2022). "How Urdu-Speaking Muhajir Domination Shaped Pakistan". MyPluralist. Retrieved 9 July 2024.
  40. ^ "The paradox of Mohajirism". The Express Tribune. 21 September 2015. Retrieved 9 July 2024.
  41. ^ Rehman, Zia (18 August 2015). "With a handful of subbers, two newspapers barely keeping Gujarati alive in Karachi". www.thenews.com.pk. Archived from the original on 28 November 2022. Retrieved 15 October 2022.
  42. ^ Lieven 2011, p. 310.
  43. ^ Walsh, Judith E. (2017). A Brief History of India. Infobase Publishing. p. 173. ISBN 978-1-4381-0825-4. son of a middle-class merchant of the Muslim Khoja community who had migrated to Sind from Gujarat
  44. ^ Boone, Jon (13 July 2016). "Abdul Sattar Edhi obituary". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 8 November 2020. Retrieved 7 December 2020.
  45. ^ Samiuddin, Osama (6 December 2017). "Javed Miandad and Pakistan's quest for izzat". ESPNcricinfo. Archived from the original on 11 February 2022. Retrieved 25 November 2022.
  46. ^ Reporter, The Newspaper's Staff (22 February 2014). "Founder of ARY Group passes away". DAWN.COM. Archived from the original on 6 December 2022. Retrieved 25 November 2022.
  47. ^ Biographical Encyclopedia of Pakistan. Biographical Research Institute, Pakistan. 1960.
  48. ^ Goradia, Prafull (2003). Muslim League's unfinished agenda. New Delhi: Contemporary Targett. p. 53. ISBN 9788175253766. Jinnah Wanted All Non-Muslims To Migrate To India And All Muslims To Inhabit Pakistan. The Book Is The Story Of This Unfulfilled Dream. While Pakistan Particularly, The Western Wing Went About Ethnic Cleansing, India Failed To Encourage`Hijrat
  49. ^ Batliwala 1995, p. 16.
  50. ^ Paracha, Nadeem F. (26 September 2014). "Visual Karachi: From Paris of Asia, to City of Lights, to Hell on Earth". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 6 November 2022.
  51. ^ The Gazetteer of West Pakistan: The Former Province of Sind Including Khairpur State. Gazetteer Cell, Board of Revenue. 1968.
  52. ^ Masica, Colin (1991), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2.
  53. ^ M R Narayan Swamy (5 October 2005). "Where Malayalees once held sway & Updates at". Daily News and Analysis. Retrieved 10 February 2014.
  54. ^ "Political and ethnic battles turn Karachi into Beirut of South Asia " Crescent". Merinews.com. Archived from the original on 30 November 2012. Retrieved 24 November 2012.
  55. ^ Stanley J. Tambiah (3 January 1997). Leveling Crowds Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia. University of California Press. p. 183. ISBN 9780520918191.
  56. ^ Zaidi, S. Akbar (1991). "Sindhi vs Mohajir in Pakistan: Contradiction, Conflict, Compromise". Economic and Political Weekly. 26 (20): 1295–1302. ISSN 0012-9976. JSTOR 4398031.
  57. ^ "DISTRICT WISE CENSUS RESULTS CENSUS 2017" (PDF). pbscensus.gov.pk. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 August 2017.
  58. ^ "Pak population increased by 46.9% between 1998 and 2011". The Times of India. 29 March 2012. Archived from the original on 29 January 2016.
  59. ^ a b c d Kiani, Khaleeq (28 May 2018). "CCI defers approval of census results until elections". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
  60. ^ "ICT District wise 2017" (PDF). www.pbs.gov.pk.
  61. ^ "KP District wise 2017" (PDF).
  62. ^ 2017 Census Archived 15 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine
  63. ^ "Sindh District wise Population 2017" (PDF). www.pbs.gov.pk. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
  64. ^ a b "SALIENT FEATURES OF FINAL RESULTS CENSUS-2017" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 August 2021. Retrieved 20 May 2021.
  65. ^ "Pakistan Population (2023) - Worldometer". www.worldometers.info. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
  66. ^ "The forgotten Biharis in East Pakistan". Daily Times. 25 December 2020. Retrieved 9 November 2022.
  67. ^ Chowdhury, Afsan (18 December 2010). "Biharis In 1971: Used & Left Behind By Pakistan Army". Retrieved 9 November 2022.
  68. ^ Rainer Hofmann; Ugo Caruso (2011). Minority Rights in South Asia. Peter Lang. pp. 101–. ISBN 978-3-631-60916-3.
  69. ^ "Stranded Pakistanis in Bangladesh not Pakistan's responsibility, FO tells SC". The Express Tribune. 30 March 2015. Archived from the original on 2 May 2015. Retrieved 26 April 2015.
  70. ^ "'Stranded Pakistanis' living in camps in Bangladesh – in pictures". The Guardian. 11 August 2014. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
  71. ^ Jaffrelot, Christophe (15 August 2015). The Pakistan Paradox: Instability and Resilience. Oxford University Press. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-19-061330-3.
  72. ^ Bangladesh: Stateless Biharis Grasp for a Resolution and Their Rights - Refugees international Archived 21 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  73. ^ Khan, Engr Imtiaz Alam (15 December 2019). "HISTORY: THE FALL OF DHAKA FROM BIHARI EYES". DAWN.COM. Archived from the original on 2 January 2023. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
  74. ^ Rahman, Waliur (6 May 2003). "Vote for 'stranded Pakistanis'". BBC. Archived from the original on 8 November 2022. Retrieved 16 January 2023.
  75. ^ Lynch, Maureen (23 March 2006). "Bangladesh: Stateless Biharis Grasp for a Resolution and Their Rights". Archived from the original on 18 July 2006. Retrieved 16 January 2023.
  76. ^ "14. A Long History of Urdu Literary Culture", Literary Cultures in History, University of California Press, p. 29, 2019, ISBN 978-0-19-565201-7
  77. ^ "14. A Long History of Urdu Literary Culture, Part 1: Naming and Placing a Literary Culture", Literary Cultures in History, University of California Press, pp. 805–863, 2019, doi:10.1525/9780520926738-019, ISBN 978-0-520-92673-8, S2CID 226765648, retrieved 18 January 2023
  78. ^ Matthews, David (20 July 2005). "Urdu". Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived from the original on 12 January 2023. Retrieved 18 January 2023.
  79. ^ Robins, Nick (2012), "A Skulking Power", The Corporation That Changed the World, How the East India Company Shaped the Modern Multinational, Pluto Press, pp. 171–198, doi:10.2307/j.ctt183pcr6.16, ISBN 978-0-7453-3195-9, JSTOR j.ctt183pcr6.16
  80. ^ Erikson, Emily (21 July 2014). Between Monopoly and Free Trade: The English East India Company, 1600–1757. Princeton.edu. ISBN 9780691159065. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
  81. ^ Nayar, Pramod K., ed. (2007). The Penguin 1857 reader. New Delhi: Penguin Books. p. 19. ISBN 9780143101994.
  82. ^ P. J. Marshall, ed. (1996). The Cambridge illustrated history of the British Empire. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43211-1. OCLC 32388316.
  83. ^ Nayar, Pramod K. (2007). The great uprising, India, 1857. New Delhi: Penguin Books. ISBN 9780143102380.
  84. ^ "Muhajirs and MQM: Grandchildren of the mighty Mughal Empire". Pakistan Defence. 5 August 2015. Archived from the original on 18 January 2023. Retrieved 18 January 2023.
  85. ^ "What Was The Largest Migration In History?". WorldAtlas. 4 June 2020. Archived from the original on 4 January 2023. Retrieved 4 January 2023.
  86. ^ Yasmin Khan (4 July 2017). The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan, New Edition. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300233643.
  87. ^ a b "When Muslims left Pakistan for India". The New Indian Express (Opinion). 14 August 2017. Archived from the original on 5 September 2018. Retrieved 19 August 2017.
  88. ^ Paul R. Brass (2003). "The partition of India and retributive genocide in the Punjab, 1946–47: means, methods, and purposes" (PDF). Journal of Genocide Research. p. 75 (5(1), 71–101). Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 April 2015. Retrieved 16 August 2014.
  89. ^ "20th-century international relations (politics) :: South Asia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 26 April 2015. Retrieved 16 August 2014.
  90. ^ "Rupture in South Asia" (PDF). UNHCR. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 March 2016. Retrieved 16 August 2014.
  91. ^ Crispin Bates (3 March 2011). "The Hidden Story of Partition and its Legacies". BBC. Archived from the original on 10 April 2015. Retrieved 16 August 2014.
  92. ^ Basu, Tanya (15 August 2014). "The Fading Memory of South Asia's Partition". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 19 March 2017. Retrieved 16 August 2014.
  93. ^ a b c d e f g Khalidi, Omar (Autumn 1998). "From Torrent to Trickle: Indian Muslim Migration to Pakistan, 1947–97". Islamic Studies. 37 (3). Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University, Islamabad: 339–52. JSTOR 20837002.
  94. ^ a b c d e f g Christophe Jaffrelot (16 June 2016). The Pakistan Paradox: Instability And Resilience. Random House Publishers India Pvt. Limited. pp. 100–. ISBN 978-81-8400-707-7.
  95. ^ Sodhar, Qasim; Panhwar, Bushra. "Migration to Sindh: It's effects on Political Economy & Demography of Sindh" (PDF).
  96. ^ Mehtab Ali Shah (15 November 1997). The Foreign Policy of Pakistan: Ethnic Impacts on Diplomacy 1971–1994. I.B. Tauris. pp. 47–. ISBN 978-1-86064-169-5.
  97. ^ a b Gyanesh Kudaisya; Tan Tai Yong (March 2004). The Aftermath of Partition in South Asia. Routledge. pp. 229–. ISBN 978-1-134-44048-1.
  98. ^ a b c Kamala Visweswaran (6 May 2011). Perspectives on Modern South Asia: A Reader in Culture, History, and Representation. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 96–. ISBN 978-1-4051-0062-5.
  99. ^ Mark-Anthony Falzon (2004). Cosmopolitan Connections: The Sindhi Diaspora, 1860–2000. BRILL. pp. 6–. ISBN 90-04-14008-5.
  100. ^ Javaid Rehman (13 April 2000). The Weaknesses in the International Protection of Minority Rights. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 215–. ISBN 90-411-1350-9.
  101. ^ a b c Tai Yong Tan; Gyanesh Kudaisya (2000). The Aftermath of Partition in South Asia. Routledge. p. 235. ISBN 0-415-17297-7. Sind province itself became a centre of Muhajir immigration, with 57 per cent of the population of Karachi [being Muhajirs] ... [They] 'were more educated than the province's original Muslim population' ... It was inevitable that a sense of competition and hostility between the two communities would develop. As the Muhajirs made their presence felt in the civil service the local Sindhis began to feel threatened ... In the early years of Pakistan, the Muhajirs dominated the commercial, administrative and service sector of the province ...the modern and urbanised Muhajirs ... quickly established themselves.
  102. ^ "A Brief History of Karachi". Newsline. Retrieved 21 November 2022.
  103. ^ "Where Malayalees once held sway". DNA India. Retrieved 12 November 2022.
  104. ^ Delage, R., 2014. Muslim Castes in India Archived 31 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine. India: Books Ideas.
  105. ^ "Did You Know That India & Pakistan Used To Have A Joint Passport? Here's How You Could Get It". ScoopWhoop. 2 July 2021. Retrieved 9 November 2022.
  106. ^ "Changes in Levels of Educational Attainment in Pakistan: 1951-1961 - PIDE - Pakistan Institute of Development Economics - -". pide.org.pk/. Retrieved 21 November 2022.
  107. ^ Khalidi 1998, p. 345.
  108. ^ "A Muhajir's Prayer". The Times of India. 22 July 2001. Retrieved 21 November 2022.
  109. ^ Khalidi 1998, p. 344.
  110. ^ Visaria, Pravin M. (1 August 1969). "Migration between India and Pakistan, 1951–61". Demography. 6 (3): 323–334. doi:10.2307/2060400. ISSN 0070-3370. JSTOR 2060400. PMID 21331852. S2CID 23272586.
  111. ^ Mehtab Karim. "Effects of Migration, Socioeconomic Status and Population Policy on Reproductive Behaviour" (PDF). Asia Research Centre. Working Paper 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 January 2016. Retrieved 15 January 2016.
  112. ^ Khalidi 1998, p. 343.
  113. ^ Khalidi 1998, p. 340.
  114. ^ Wright, Theodore (1993). "Intra-Provincial Marriages and National Integration in Pakistan". Contemporary South Asia – via JSTOR.
  115. ^ Cohen, Stephen P. (2011), "Pakistan: Arrival and Departure", The future of Pakistan, The Brookings Institution, p. 22, The avowedly secular Muttahida Qaumi Movement (MQM)...
  116. ^ Lyon, Peter (2008), "Mohajir Qaumi Mahaz", Conflict between India and Pakistan: An Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO, p. 115, Despite its ethnic-based politics, the MQM claims to be the only significant political force in Pakistan to stand up openly for secular values.
  117. ^ Ashraf, Md Umar (30 April 2020). "The Indian Subcontinent Red Crescent Society's Aid to the Ottoman State during the Balkan war in 1912". Heritage Times. Retrieved 6 November 2022.
  118. ^ The Khilafat Movement in India, 1919–1924 (PDF).
  119. ^ Mridula Mukherjee (8 September 2004). Peasants in India's Non-Violent Revolution: Practice and Theory. SAGE Publications India, 2004. ISBN 8132102894.
  120. ^ "Centralised state and ethnic discontent | Political Economy | thenews.com.pk". www.thenews.com.pk. Retrieved 2 February 2023.
  121. ^ Burki, Shahid Javed (1999) [First published in 1986]. Pakistan: Fifty Years of Nationhood (3rd ed.). Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-8133-3621-3. The university that [Sir Sayyid] founded in the town of Aligarh ... not only provided the Pakistan movement with its leadership but, later, also provided the new country of Pakistan with its first ruling elite ... Aligarh College made it possible for the Muslims to discover a new political identity: Being a Muslim came to have a political connotation-a connotation that was to lead this Indian Muslim community inexorably toward acceptance of the 'two-nation theory'
  122. ^ Graham, George Farquhar (1885). The Life and Work of Syed Ahmed Khan. Black wood. p. 2.
  123. ^ Mondal, Puja (4 January 2014). "Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and the Aligarh Movement". Your Article Library. Archived from the original on 2 May 2015. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
  124. ^ John R. McLane (July 1965). "The Decision to Partition Bengal in 1905". Indian Economic and Social History Review. 2 (3): 221–237. doi:10.1177/001946466400200302. S2CID 145706327.
  125. ^ Prof. M. Azam Chaudhary, The History of the Pakistan Movement, p. 368. Abdullah Brothers, Urdu Bazar Lahore.
  126. ^ Dhulipala, Venkat (2015). Creating a New Medina: State Power, Islam, and the Quest for Pakistan in Late Colonial North India. Cambridge University Press. p. 496. ISBN 978-1-316-25838-5. "The idea of Pakistan may have had its share of ambiguities, but its dismissal as a vague emotive symbol hardly illuminates the reasons as to why it received such overwhelmingly popular support among Indian Muslims, especially those in the 'minority provinces' of British India such as U.P."
  127. ^ Mohiuddin, Yasmin Niaz (2007). Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. ABC-CLIO. p. 70. ISBN 978-1-85109-801-9. In the elections of 1946, the Muslim League won 90 percent of the legislative seats reserved for Muslims. It was the power of the big zamindars in Punjab and Sindh behind the Muslim League candidates, and the powerful campaign among the poor peasants of Bengal on economic issues of rural indebtedness and zamindari abolition, that led to this massive landslide victory (Alavi 2002, 14). Even Congress, which had always denied the League's claim to be the only true representative of Indian Muslims had to concede the truth of that claim. The 1946 election was, in effect, a plebiscite among Muslims on Pakistan.
  128. ^ a b c d Nadeem F. Paracha (20 April 2014). "The evolution of Mohajir politics and identity". dawn.com. Archived from the original on 17 June 2015. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
  129. ^ "Sindhis and Mohajirs". Minority Rights Group. 19 June 2015. Retrieved 10 November 2022.
  130. ^ "Who are the Mohajirs and why do they fight the Pashtuns? – eNotes.com". eNotes. Retrieved 11 August 2022.
  131. ^ Kamala Visweswaran (6 May 2011). Perspectives on Modern South Asia: A Reader in Culture, History, and Representation. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 97–. ISBN 978-1-4051-0062-5. Archived from the original on 8 April 2017. Retrieved 24 March 2018.
  132. ^ Kalim Bahadur (1998). Democracy in Pakistan: Crises and Conflicts. Har-Anand Publications. pp. 292–. ISBN 978-81-241-0083-7. Archived from the original on 8 April 2017. Retrieved 8 April 2017.
  133. ^ Hanif, Siddiqui (4 February 2010). "Intra-ethnic fissures in ethnic movements: the rise of Mohajir identity politics in post-1971 Pakistan". Asian Ethnicity. 11 (1): 25–41. doi:10.1080/14631360903506752. S2CID 144719100.
  134. ^ Zakaria, Rafiq (2004). The Man who Divided India: An Insight Into Jinnah's Leadership and Its Aftermath, with a New Chapter on Musharraf's Do Or Die Leadership. Popular Prakashan. ISBN 978-81-7991-145-7.
  135. ^ "Muslim representation in India's civil service". The Express Tribune. 25 January 2014. Retrieved 25 November 2022.
  136. ^ a b Sareen, Sushant; Shah, Kriti M. "The Mohajir: Identity and politics in multiethnic Pakistan". ORF. Retrieved 6 August 2022.
  137. ^ a b c Veena Kukreja (24 February 2003). Contemporary Pakistan: Political Processes, Conflicts and Crises. SAGE Publications. pp. 145–. ISBN 978-0-7619-9683-5. Archived from the original on 8 April 2017. Retrieved 8 April 2017.
  138. ^ Aqil Shah (2014). Army and Democracy: Military Politics in Pakistan. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-72893-6.
  139. ^ Karen Isaksen Leonard (January 2007). Locating Home: India's Hyderabadis Abroad. Stanford University Press. pp. 37–. ISBN 978-0-8047-5442-2. Archived from the original on 8 April 2017. Retrieved 8 April 2017.
  140. ^ a b c "The Mohajir: Identity and politics in multiethnic Pakistan". ORF. Retrieved 28 January 2023.
  141. ^ a b c Veena Kukreja (24 February 2003). Contemporary Pakistan: Political Processes, Conflicts and Crises. SAGE Publications. pp. 144–. ISBN 978-0-7619-9683-5. Archived from the original on 8 April 2017. Retrieved 8 April 2017.
  142. ^ Rehman, J (24 July 1994). "Self-determination, state-building and the Muhajirs: An international legal perspective of the role of Indian muslim refugees in the constitutional development of Pakistan". Contemporary South Asia. 3 (2): 111–129. doi:10.1080/09584939408719734 – via Academic Search.
  143. ^ Paracha, Nadeem F. (26 January 2017). "The Muslim League: A factional history". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 10 November 2022.
  144. ^ "Presidential Election | Elections were held on January 2, 1965". Story Of Pakistan. 25 October 2013. Retrieved 21 November 2022.
  145. ^ "Pakistan – AYUB KHAN". www.countrystudies.us. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
  146. ^ Akbar, M. K. (1 January 1997). Pakistan from Jinnah to Sharif. Mittal Publications. p. 48. ISBN 978-81-7099-674-3.
  147. ^ Omar, Imtiaz (2002). Emergency powers and the courts in India and Pakistan. England: KLUWER LAW INTERNATIONAL. ISBN 904111775X. Archived from the original on 3 June 2016. Retrieved 15 November 2015.
  148. ^ Baxter, Craig (1971). "Pakistan Votes -- 1970". Asian Survey. 11 (3): 197–218. doi:10.2307/3024655. ISSN 0004-4687. JSTOR 3024655.
  149. ^ Baxter 1971.
  150. ^ Baxter 1971, p. 214.
  151. ^ Farazmand, Ali (1996). Public Enterprise Management: International Case Studies. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-28025-2.
  152. ^ Riazuddin, Riaz. "Pakistan: Financial Sector Assessment (1990–2000)". Economic Research Department of State Bank of Pakistan. State Bank of Pakistan. Archived from the original on 18 May 2014. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
  153. ^ Memon, Naseer (2 October 2016). "The Quota Controversy". The News PK. Retrieved 12 August 2022.
  154. ^ "1972 Riots was it a Language Issue – Matruka Sindh". Retrieved 10 November 2022.
  155. ^ InpaperMagazine, From (6 October 2012). "A leaf from history: Language frenzy in Sindh". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 10 November 2022.
  156. ^ "General Elections 1977 | Second general elections in the history of Pakistan". Story Of Pakistan. 1 June 2003. Retrieved 10 November 2022.
  157. ^ Paracha, Nadeem Farooq (25 March 2022). "Prosperous Rebels: The Curious Romance Between Lifestyle Liberals And Right-Wing Populists in South Asia". The Friday Times – Naya Daur. Retrieved 10 November 2022.
  158. ^ Times, William Borders (21 April 1977). "Protests Against Pakistan Regime Virtually Paralyze Karachi Port". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 10 November 2022.
  159. ^ "March 20, 1977, Forty Years Ago: Riots in Karachi". The Indian Express. 20 March 2017. Retrieved 11 February 2023.
  160. ^ Haqqani, Hussain (2005). Pakistan:Between Mosque and Military; §From Islamic Republic to Islamic State. United States: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (July 2005). pp. 395 pages. ISBN 978-0-87003-214-1.
  161. ^ "The Judicial Murder of Z.A Bhutto". Daily Times. 4 April 2018. Retrieved 11 August 2022.
  162. ^ Daniel, Carol (2 February 2022). "Why Zia Imposed Martial Law? (Correct answer)". Informasi Legal di Pakistan. Retrieved 11 August 2022.
  163. ^ Paracha, Nadeem F. (21 May 2009). "MQM: From revolt to redemption". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 4 February 2023.
  164. ^ Paracha, Nadeem F. (21 July 2011). "Militant liberal". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 4 February 2023.
  165. ^ Paracha, Nadeem F. (23 August 2012). "Born to run: The rise and leveling of the APMSO". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 4 February 2023.
  166. ^ a b Peshimam, Gibran (18 March 2009). "25 years of MQM: a critical analysis". The News. Archived from the original on 6 August 2009. Retrieved 4 February 2023.
  167. ^ "MIT to observe 'Mohajir cultural day' on 25th". DAWN.COM. 7 December 2017. Retrieved 28 January 2023.
  168. ^ Shukhat, Ayesha (17 February 2022). "The Muhajir Movement: A Political and Social Aspect". Modern Diplomacy. Retrieved 9 August 2022.
  169. ^ a b Dawn.com (25 May 2013). "Timeline: A history of MQM". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 9 November 2022.
  170. ^ a b Khurram, Shahjahan (18 March 2015). "A brief look at MQM's history". ARY NEWS. Retrieved 9 November 2022.
  171. ^ "MQM plans to move secretariat to Dubai". DAWN.COM. 5 September 2010. Retrieved 15 January 2023.
  172. ^ "Karachi Bloodbath: It is Mohajir Vs Pushtuns". Rediff. 20 September 2011. Archived from the original on 17 June 2015. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
  173. ^ "Pakistan: A Shia leads a Sunni army". Times of India Blog. 17 January 2023. Retrieved 25 January 2023.
  174. ^ migrate (21 January 2008). "Newsweek's Fareed Zakaria cites IRI Pakistan Poll". International Republican Institute. Retrieved 5 January 2023.
  175. ^ Chandran, Suba (22 August 2018). "The Fall of MQM". Pakistan Reader.
  176. ^ Paracha, Nadeem F. (30 January 2022). "SMOKERS' CORNER: IS KARACHI READY FOR CHANGE?". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 29 January 2023.
  177. ^ Zaidi, Syed Sheheryar Raza (25 January 2023). "'Mohajir problem'". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 29 January 2023.
  178. ^ Paracha, Nadeem F. (22 January 2023). "SMOKERS' CORNER: WHEN THE POLLING GOES AWRY". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 29 January 2023.
  179. ^ Nabbo, Habbo (6 February 2023). "Socio-economic Status of Muhajirs (2023)". Scribd. Retrieved 6 February 2023.
  180. ^ Ahsan, Mahnoor; Taj, Arsa; Mahr, Khalil; Aslam, Batool; Mubashir, Saima (2022). "Breast Cancer Among Different Ethnicities (A Single Institution Study)". Pakistan Armed Forces Medical Journal. 72 (2): 594–598. doi:10.51253/pafmj.v72i2.3578. ISSN 0030-9648. S2CID 254387050.
  181. ^ Lieven 2011, p. 311.
  182. ^ Siddiqi, Farhan Hanif (9 April 2009). "Discrimination is what ethnic groups make of it: subjective perceptions of peripherality among the Mohajirs of Pakistan". Nations & Nationalism. 25 (2): 697–717. doi:10.1111/nana.12460. S2CID 149902887.
  183. ^ "SBP to set up Zahid Husain chair: Higher studies". DAWN.COM. 9 November 2001. Retrieved 27 January 2023.
  184. ^ "History". www.hbl.com. Retrieved 21 June 2016.
  185. ^ "Agha Hasan Abedi passes away". Dawn Wire Service. 9 August 1995. Archived from the original on 8 September 2006. Retrieved 15 January 2017.
  186. ^ "History". House of Habib. Retrieved 27 January 2023.
  187. ^ Paracha, Nadeem F. (19 September 2013). "Pakistan cricket: A class, ethnic and sectarian history". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 29 January 2023.
  188. ^ Paracha, Nadeem F. (11 April 2021). "SMOKERS' CORNER: PAKISTAN CRICKET AND ITS ETHNICITIES". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 29 January 2023.
  189. ^ Faraz, Danish Alvi. "Ethnic differences in metabolic syndrome among South Asians of Pakistan". Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences. 27 (3).
  190. ^ Nuzhat, Akram; Farooqi, A; Shakeel, R (4 March 2014). "A model-based 'varimax' sampling strategy for a heterogeneous population". Annals of Human Biology. 41 (2): 116–126 – via Academic Search.
  191. ^ Jafar, Tazeen H; Levey, Andrew S; Schmid, Christopher H; Portman, Ronald; Khan, Abdul Qayum; Anas, Rabbani; Khan, Iqtidar; Hatcher, Juanita; Chaturvedi, Nish (25 October 2005). "Proteinuria in South Asian children: prevalence and determinants". Pediatric Nephrology. 20 (10): 1458–1465. doi:10.1007/s00467-005-1923-8. ISSN 0931-041X. PMID 15947988. S2CID 28880508 – via Academic Search.
  192. ^ Sareen, Kriti M. Shah and Sushant. "The Mohajir: Identity and politics in multiethnic Pakistan". ORF. Retrieved 5 September 2020.
  193. ^ "Heritage Sites of Karachi". DAILY NEWS e-paper. Retrieved 20 December 2010.[permanent dead link‍]
  194. ^ Tariq, Minahil (8 December 2014). "Different cultures of Pakistan: MUHAJIR CUISINE". Different cultures of Pakistan. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
  195. ^ Sen, Madhurima (24 March 2019). "Nostalgia in Intizar Hussain's 'The Sea Lies Ahead': Muhajirs as a Diasporic Community". Research Gate. Retrieved 9 February 2023.[dead link‍]
  196. ^ "Pakistani food debate: Team Biryani Vs Team Pulao, who will win?". gulfnews.com. 20 January 2022. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
  197. ^ Falah, Gulzar (2 May 2021). "Biryani, Lahori fish, pulao ... Pakistani cuisine and its presence in the UAE". Gulf News. Archived from the original on 12 July 2022. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
  198. ^ Raka Shome (2014). Diana and Beyond: White Femininity, National Identity, and Contemporary Media Culture. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780252096686.
  199. ^ Niraalee Shah (2021). Indian Etiquette: A Glimpse Into India's Culture. Notion Press. ISBN 9781638865544.
  200. ^ Boulanger, Chantal (1997). Saris: an illustrated guide to the Indian art of draping. Shakti Press International. p. 55. ISBN 9780966149616.
  201. ^ Jermsawatdi, Promsak (1979). Thai Art with Indian Influences. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 9788170170907.
  202. ^ H.r. Nevill (1884). The Lucknow Omnibus. p. 177.
  203. ^ "Karachi Festivals - Karachi Annual Events". www.karachi.com. Retrieved 9 August 2022.
  204. ^ "English Newspaper Coverage : 32nd foundation day of Mqm". www.mqm.org. Retrieved 9 August 2022.
  205. ^ "18th death anniversary of Azeem Ahmad Tariq today". Dunya News. 14 February 2008. Retrieved 9 August 2022.
  206. ^ "Mr. Altaf Hussain congratulates to all his loyalist comrades and the nation on 43rd foundation day of APMSO". www.mqm.org. Retrieved 9 August 2022.
  207. ^ "Muhajir Culture Day celebrated". The Express Tribune. 24 December 2021. Retrieved 9 August 2022.
  208. ^ "Altaf flays discrimination against Urdu-speaking Sindhis, wants separate province". The Express Tribune. 3 January 2014. Archived from the original on 3 April 2016. Retrieved 5 January 2023.

Sources

Further reading

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Muhajir people.
Retrieved from "https://en.wiki.x.io/w/index.php?title=Muhajir_(Pakistan)&oldid=1263435120"