The Lushuihu (simplified Chinese: 卢水胡; traditional Chinese: 盧水胡; pinyin: Lúshuǐhú; Wade–Giles: Lu-shui-hu; lit. 'Lu River Barbarians') were an ethnic group that lived in ancient China. They are most known for founding the Northern Liang dynasty during the Sixteen Kingdoms period, and for their role in Gai Wu's rebellion against the Northern Wei dynasty that led to the first of the Four Buddhist Persecutions in China. While classified as a branch of the "Xiongnu" in more recent historiographies, early records treat the Lushuihu as a distinct group, and their exact origin is still debated by scholars today.
Origins and theories
editThe word "Hu" (胡) is often translated to English as "barbarian" and was a term used in ancient times to refer to non-Han Chinese people living north or west of the Central Plains, and the Lushuihu resided in an area known as the "Lushui" (盧水) or "Lu River". Due to the wide distribution of the Lushuihu population, there are three locations generally believed to be where the Lu River flowed; Huangzhong in Qinghai, Zhangye in Gansu, or the ancient commanderies of Anding and Beidi in Ningxia.[1]
Modern Chinese scholars have come up with several theories regarding the Lushuihu. Chen Yinke believed that "Lushuihu" was simply a generic term for non-Han ethnic groups that were living around the Lu River.[2] However, Zhou Yiliang suggested that the Lushuihu were specifically descendants of the Lesser Yuezhi, as after the Yuezhi were defeated by the Xiongnu empire in the 2nd-century BC, the Lesser Yuezhi branch moved to the areas of Xiping (西平; around present-day Xining, Qinghai) and Zhangye where they intermingled with the Qiang people.[3] While Tang Changru agreed with Zhou's theory, he pointed out that the ancestors of the Lushuihu were once a part of the Xiongnu empire, and that it would not be wrong to refer to them as a branch of the Xiongnu based on the customs of the time.[4]
History
editHan dynasty to Sixteen Kingdoms
editThe Lushuihu first appeared in history in around 57 BC, when they were recorded attacking the Shaohe Qiang (烧何羌) people near modern-day Huangzhong, Qinghai. By 30 AD, they were already vassals of the Han dynasty as evidenced by bamboo inscriptions found in Gansu, likely around the time when the Han official, Dou Rong was governing the Hexi Corridor.[1] They notably served as auxiliaries for his son, Dou Gu in his campaign against the Northern Xiongnu in 73 AD.
While a subject of the Chinese court, the Lushuihu were also known to occasionally rebel. In 77 AD, they joined the Qiang leader, Miwu in rebellion, and rebelled again in 86. The Lushuihu later came under the rule of the Cao Wei dynasty, and in 222, led by their leaders Zhiyuanduo (治元多) and Yijiianjiqie (伊健妓妾), they rebelled in the Hexi Corridor but was defeated by Wei forces. After the Wei was succeeded by the Western Jin dynasty, the Lushuihu colluded with the Xiongnu chief, Hao Duyuan (郝度元) and the Malan Qiang (馬蘭羌) people to rebel in 296, which escalated into Qi Wannian's rebellion and devastated the Guanzhong region.
Apart from the imperial family of the Northern Liang, there were several recorded Lushuihu leaders during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Specifically, these Lushuihu people were from the Peng (彭) clan of Anding Commandery and the Hao (郝) clan of Xingcheng (杏城, in modern Yan'an, Shaanxi).
Northern Liang and Gaochang (397–460)
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The Juqu clan was a Lushuihu family from Linsong Commandery (臨松郡) in modern-day Zhangye, Gansu. Their ancestors once served under the Xiongnu empire holding the title of "Juqu" of the Right of Xiongnu (匈奴左沮渠), and so they adopted it as their family name.[5] The Juqu then submitted to the Han dynasty, and centuries later, they entered the service of the Di-led Later Liang dynasty. In 397, after the Liang's disastrous campaign against the Western Qin dynasty, two of their members were falsely accused and executed. The cousins, Juqu Mengxun and Juqu Nancheng, rebelled in response, and they backed the Administrator of Jiankang, Duan Ye, who was Han Chinese, as their leader. While Duan Ye is recognized as the first ruler of the Northern Liang dynasty, the Juqu held considerable power over his reign. In 401, Juqu Mengxun seized the throne after killing Juqu Nancheng and Duan Ye, and the Juqu ruled Northern Liang for the majority of its existence.
The Northern Liang gained full control over the Hexi Corridor after destroying their rival Western Liang in 421. However, as the Northern Wei dynasty encroached on their borders, they submitted as vassals to the Wei and their southern counterpart, the Liu Song dynasty. The Juqu had access to trade with the Western Regions, and they engaged in a cultural exchange with the Song by trading literature. They were ultimately conquered by Wei in 439, but remnants of the Juqu continued to resist before fleeing and occupying the oasis city of Gaochang in 442, where they remained until their destruction to the Rouran Khaganate in 460.
The Juqu had a strong interest in Buddhism, with Juqu Mengxun appointing a monk, Dharmakṣema, as a trusted political advisor and translator of Buddhist literature. It was under them that the first Buddhist cave shrines began appearing in Gansu, the most famous of them being Tiantishan (天梯山石窟; "Celestial Ladder Mountain") in Wuwei and Wenshushan (文殊山石窟; "Manjushri's Mountain") in Zhangye. The earliest decorated Mogao Caves, caves 268, 272 and 275, were also built and decorated by the Northern Liang between 419 and 439.[6][7]
Gai Wu's Rebellion and decline
editThe last ruler of Northern Liang, Juqu Mujian and 30,000 of his subjects were relocated near the Northern Wei capital, Pingcheng. In the years following the Liang's demise, a series of Lushuihu rebellions would break out in Wei. In 444, Mujian's brother, Juqu Bing (沮渠秉) plotted a rebellion but was discovered and executed. In 445, a Lushuihu from Xingcheng, Hao Wen (郝溫) revolted and was defeated, but later that year, another Xingcheng Lushuihu, Gai Wu staged an even bigger rebellion. With support from the various "Hu" people, Gai Wu's followers reached 100,000 and spread throughout the Guanzhong, lasting until late the following year. Buddhist monks in Chang'an were accused of conspiring with Gai Wu, which led to their execution in the First Buddhist Persecution. Shortly after Gai Wu's defeat in 446, a Lushuihu from Anding, Liu Chao (劉超) also rebelled but was quickly suppressed.[8]
In 447, the Wei had many members of the Juqu clan, including Juqu Mujian put to death, and by 460, the Juqu in Wei and Gaochang were wiped out. During the reign of Emperor Wencheng of Northern Wei (452–465), more than 800 tribes of the Lushuihu in Xingcheng submitted to Wei. However, during the reign of Emperor Xianwen of Northern Wei (465–471), a rebellion broke out in Xingcheng led by Gai Pingding (蓋平定) that was eventually put down. From here on after, the Lushuihu ceased to be mentioned in history, as they presumably assimilated into the rest of Chinese society.
References
edit- ^ a b Zhao, Xiangqun; Jia, Xiaojun (August 2019). "〈卷 七 民族篇 第三节 卢水胡事迹〉". 《五凉史》 (in Chinese). Beijing: Social Sciences Literature Press. ISBN 978-7-5201-5216-7.
- ^ Wan, Shengnan (April 2007). 《陈寅恪魏晋南北朝史讲演录》 (in Chinese). Guizhou: Guizhou People's Publishing House. pp. 96–98. ISBN 9787221073693.
- ^ Zhou, Yiliang (June 1997). "〈北朝的民族問題與民族政策〉". 《魏晋南北朝史论集》 (in Chinese). Beijing: Beijing University Press. ISBN 9787301031919.
- ^ Tang, Changru (December 2010). "〈魏晋杂胡考 二 卢水胡〉". 《魏晋南北朝史论丛》 (in Chinese). Commercial Press. ISBN 9787100074513.
- ^ Xiong, Victor (2017). Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 315. ISBN 9781442276161 – via Google Books.
- ^ Bell, Alexander Peter (2000). Didactic Narration: Jataka Iconography in Dunhuang with a Catalogue of Jataka Representations in China. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 107. ISBN 978-3-8258-5134-7.
- ^ Whitfield, Roderick; Whitfield, Susan; Agnew, Neville (15 September 2015). Cave Temples of Mogao at Dunhuang: Art History on the Silk Road: Second Edition. Getty Publications. p. 55. ISBN 978-1-60606-445-0.
- ^ Liu, Shufen (2002). "Ethnicity and the Suppression of Buddhism in Fifth-century North China: The Background and Significance of the Gaiwu Rebellion". Asia Major. 15 (1): 1–21. ISSN 0004-4482.