Wikipedia

List of volcanic eruptions in Iceland

This is an incomplete list of volcanic eruptions in Iceland. Please see External links below for databases of Icelandic eruptions which include over 530 events.

For latest information about the current/ongoing series of eruptions near Grindavik on the Reykjanes peninsula - See 2023–2024 Sundhnúkur eruptions

Index map of eruptions, fissures, glaciers and notable sites

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List of volcanic eruptions in Iceland (Iceland)

Alphabetic index of eruptions, fissures and notable sites

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(Under construction.)

Index of
Eruption Related Images
(right hand column)
 
Iceland Mid-Atlantic Ridge map
 
Volcanic systems in Iceland.
(See Volcanic zones and systems)
 
Askja caldera in 1984.
See "Askja index"
 
Askja (and Víti, geothermal lake, in the foreground)
See "Askja index"
 
Askja 1875 - Ashfall drift from one of the largest ash eruptions in Icelandic history. Eruption from Víti and other craters began on 28 March and lasted for about eight hours. Heavy ash damage in the middle of East Iceland caused farms to be deserted, and East Fjord people moved to the West.
See "Askja index"
 
Bárðarbunga and Holuhraun 2014.
See Bárðarbunga index, Holuhraun index
 
Eldey, a remnant pluton on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. July 2010.
See Eldey index
 
Eldey, about 13 kilometres off the coast of the Reykjanes Peninsula, on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
See Eldey index
 
Eldfell volcano, August 2014. Island of Heimaey, Vestmannaeyjar (Westman Islands).
See Eldfell index, Vestmannaeyjar Islands index
 
Eldfell volcano. January 1973, Houses buried by ash.
See Eldfell index, Vestmannaeyjar Islands index
 
Eldfell volcano, January 1973. Water was pumped onto this lava flow to halt its advance down the street.
See Eldfell index, Vestmannaeyjar Islands index
 
Eldfell (right) and Helgafell (left) in 2006. The fissure from the 1973 eruption is visible running from the lower left to the center of the image.
See Eldfell index, Helgafell index, Vestmannaeyjar Islands index
 
Eldgjá fissure ("fire gorge").
See Eldgjá index
 
Canyon floor of Eldgjá.
See Eldgjá index
 
Esja mountain range.
See Esja index
 
Esja as seen from Perlan.
See Esja index
 
Esjufjöll north of Jökulsárlón as nunataks of Vatnajökull glacier.
See Esjufjöll index
 
Eyjafjallajökull eruption column in 2010.
See Eyjafjallajökull index
 
Eyjafjallajökull's largest outlet glacier - Gígjökull, covered in volcanic ash.
See Eyjafjallajökull index
 
Eyjafjallajökull and the aurora.
See Eyjafjallajökull index
 
Eyjafjallajökull taken from Route 1 in August 2009.
See Eyjafjallajökull index
 
Eyjafjallajökull eruption on 27 March 2010.
See Eyjafjallajökull index
 
People on the slopes of Fagradalsfjall, watching the Geldingadalir eruption 2021. See Fagradalsfjall index
 
Lava fountains of the Fagradalsfjall eruption, seen from Reykjavík on 9 May 2021.
See Fagradalsfjall index
 
Fagradalsfjall eruption on 16 July 2021.
See Fagradalsfjall index
 
Fagradalsfjall The new eruption fissures.
See Fagradalsfjall index
 
Fagradalsfjall, The new eruption fissures to the left, the older ones to the right, seen from a helicopter, view to the east.
See Fagradalsfjall index
 
Former location of Geirfuglasker among the Fuglasker islands.
See Geirfuglasker index
 
Gjálp 1996 eruption: Jökulhlaup over Skeiðarársandur, the piedmont glacier Skeiðarárjökull and Öræfajökull in the background.
See Gjálp index
 
Memorial of the 1996 Gjálp jökulhlaup on Skeiðarársandur, outlet glacier.
Svínafellsjökull in the background.
It took some time to fill the subglacial lake of Grímsvötn and break the ice wall.
See Gjálp index
 
Grímsey Island skyline, on the Arctic Circle.
See Grímsey index
 
Grímsnes. The volcanic crater Kerið in October, one of many craters within the volcanic system.
See Grímsnes index, Kerið index
 
Grímsnes. Kerið, a volcanic craters within the Grímsnes system.
See Grímsnes index, Kerið index
 
Kerið, volcanic crater on Grímsnes.
See Grímsnes index, Kerið index
 
Grímsnes. The volcanic crater Kerið frozen over in early April.
See Grímsnes index, Kerið index
 
Grímsvötn and the Vatnajökull glacier, July 1972. Including the Skaftá eruption of 1783, Grímsvötn is probably the most eruptive volcano system in Iceland. The Laki/Lakagígar lava field alone is estimated to have produced about 15 cubic kilometres (3.6 cu mi) of lava. Grímsvötn has probably had more than 30 eruptions in the last 400 years, and produced around 55 cubic kilometres (13 cu mi) over the last 10,000 years.[1] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ)) See Grímsvötn index, Vatnajökull index
 
Grimsvötn ash cloud. View of landscape during the 2011 eruption.
See Grímsvötn index
 
Grindavík 2023-2024 Eruptions
For individual eruptions:
- See Sundhnúkur eruptions images below,
- or follow Sundhnúkur index
 
Hekla and Þjórsá. Hekla has erupted at least 17 times in historical times, with total volume about 7 cubic kilometres (1.7 cu mi), but around 42 cubic kilometres (10 cu mi) since the last ice age.[1] See Hekla index
 
Detail of Abraham Ortelius' 1585 map showing Hekla in eruption. The Latin text translates as "The Hekla, perpetually condemned to storms and snow, vomits stones under terrible noise".
See Hekla index
 
Helgafell a small mountain on the Snæfellsnes Peninsula.
See Helgafell (on Snæfellsnes Peninsula) index
 
The cone of the dormant Helgafell volcano seen from Heimaey harbor, Island of Heimaey, Vestmannaeyjar (Westman Islands).
See Helgafell (on Heimaey) index, Vestmannaeyjar index
 
Hengill, 2004.
See Hengill index
 
Hengill - A hot spring at the base of the Hengladalir valleys,
See Hengill index
 
Herðubreið, viewed from the southeast.
See Herðubreið index
 
The Holuhraun lava field, on 4 September 2014, during the 2014 eruption.
See Holuhraun index
 
Holuhraun - Lava fountains of the fissure eruption on 13 September 2014.
See Holuhraun index
 
Hvannadalshnúkur, part of the summit crater of Oraefajokull volcano, the highest peak in Iceland, part of the Oraefajokull-Vatnajokull National Park.
See the Hvannadalshnúkur index
 
Hveravellir - blue hot spring.
See Hveravellir index
 
Hverfjall crater from the south. 2500 BP. 1km diameter.
See Hverfjall index
 
Jólnir on 22 August 1966, two weeks after volcanic activity ceased. By the end of September 1966 it disappeared due to wave erosion.
See Jólnir index
 
Katla, 1918. It has erupted 17 times in historical times, and Eldgjá seems to be part of the same system. The total volume of volcanic eruptions from Katla over the last 10,000 years is very similar to Grímsvötn.[1] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ)) See Katla index
 
Keilir with the smaller Keilirbörn hills in winter.
(See "Keilir index")
 
Valley in the Kerlingarfjöll area with geothermal activity. Part of a large tuya volcano system with hot springs.
(See "Kerlingarfjöll index")
 
Kolbeinsey - Eroded remnants of the island in 2020. First measured in 1616, the island was 700 metres (2,300 ft) from north to south and 100 m (330 ft) east to west.
(See Kolbeinsey index)
 
Krafla - Lava flow during a rift eruption in 1984. (See Krafla index)
 
Aerial view of Krafla (mountain) and Krafla caldera with Leirhnjúkur in 2008.
(See Krafla index)
 
Krafla volcanic area.
(See Krafla index)
 
Lava ropes at Krafla, June 2007.
(See Krafla index)
 
Sulfur deposits at Krafla, June 2007.
(See Krafla index)
 
A general view of Krafla, June 2007.
(See Krafla index)
 
Krafla - Mudpots at Hverir geothermal area, Námafjall, August 2008.
(See Krafla index)
 
Lava at Krafla.
(See Krafla index)
 
Boiling mudpools at Krafla.
(See Krafla index)
 
Small lake in Krafla.
(See Krafla index)
 
Kverkfjöll.
(See Kverkfjöll index)
 
Laki, (Lakagígar), 1783-84 Phreatomagmatic, Strombolian, and Hawaiian eruptions. Estimated six million deaths world-wide - the deadliest volcanic eruption in historical times.
(See Laki index, Lakagígar index)
 
Centre of the Lakagígar fissure in the Laki mountain.
(See "Laki index", "Lakagígar index")
 
Laki in July 2012.
(See "Laki index", "Lakagígar index")
 
Lakagigar July 2004.
(See "Laki index", "Lakagígar index")
 
Landmannalaugar
(See "Landmannalaugar index")
 
Ljósufjöll, Grábrók crater.
(See below "Ljósufjöll index")
 
Mývatn, a shallow lake, near Höfði Nature Park and Krafla volcano. The Mývatn fires were a series of fires at Krafla that raged from 1724 to 1729.
(See Mývatn index, Mývatn fires index, Krafla fires index)
 
Snæfell (1,833 m (6,014 ft)) viewed from Kárahnjúkar.
The tallest stratovolcano in Iceland is located in the Vatnajökull National Park.
(See Snæfell (Múlaþing) index)
 
Snæfellsjökull in the morning.
(See Snæfellsjökull index)
 
Snæfellsjökull volcano.
(See Snæfellsjökull index)
 
Sundhnúkur 1st eruption, taken by the Icelandic Meteorological Office on 18 December 2023. Near Grindavik on the Reykjanes peninsula.
(See Sundhnúkur index, Sundhnúkur 2023.12.18 )
 
Sundhnúkur first eruption, 2023, photographed by the Icelandic Coast Guard. Grindavík is visible at the right background.
(See Sundhnúkur index, Sundhnúkur 2023.12.18 )
 
Sundhnúkur second eruption, 14 January 2024, near Grindavik on the Reykjanes peninsula.
(See Sundhnúkur index, Sundhnúkur 2024.01.14 )
 
Sundhnúkur third eruption, 8 February 2024, near Grindavik on the Reykjanes peninsula.
(See Sundhnúkur index, Sundhnúkur 2024.02.08 )
 
Surtsey, sixteen days after the onset of the eruption.
(See Surtsey index, Vestmannaeyjar index)
 
The island of Surtsey in 1999.
(See Surtsey index, Vestmannaeyjar index)
 
Þórólfsfell, Thórólfsfell, basaltic tuya seen from the south across Markarfljót.
(See Thórólfsfell index, Þórólfsfell index)
 
Thrihnukagigur volcano - Inside the magma chamber. The only volcano in the world where visitors can take an elevator into the magma chamber. The magma that would normally fill the chamber and become sealed is believed to have drained away, revealing the rift beneath the surface.
(See Thríhnákagígur index)
 
Looking up the volcanic throat of Thrihnukagigur, an open volcanic conduit, from the former magma chamber.
(See Thríhnákagígur index)
 
Þingvellir. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge passes across the Thingvellir National Park. The continental drift between the North American and Eurasian Plates can be clearly seen in the cracks or faults and rifts which traverse the region. The largest, Almannagjá, is a significant canyon.
See Þingvellir index
 
Þingvellir National Park rift valley.
See Þingvellir index
 
Þingvellir, Snorkeling in the Silfra canyon.
See Þingvellir index
 
Þingvellir (Thingvellir), Scuba diver in the Silfra canyon.
See Þingvellir index
 
Þingvellir (Thingvellir), Silfra Fissure. Rocks and boulders that have piled up in the fissure due to earthquakes.
See Þingvellir index
 
Tindfjallajökull, a 5-km-wide caldera was formed 54,000 years ago
(See Tindfjallajökull index)
 
Tjörnes peninsula - Fossil bearing sedimentary rock, 23–2.6 million years old.
(See Tjörnes Peninsula index)
 
Torfajökull a rhyolitic stratovolcano, caldera (central volcano) and complex of subglacial volcanoes, located north of Mýrdalsjökull. The last eruption (1477), consisted of the largest area of silicic extrusive rocks in Iceland.
(See Torfajökull index)
 
Trölladyngja shield volcano. (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ)).
(See Trölladyngja index)
 
Tungnafellsjökull, volcano and glacier. (Part of the Mid-Iceland Belt (MIB)).
(See Tungnafellsjökull index)
 
Iceland from space. Vatnajökull is the largest white area to the lower right. The glacier embraces seven identified subglacial volcanoes. (See Vatnajökull index and also  : Bárðarbunga index, Esjufjöll index, Grímsvötn index, Herðubreið index, Holuhraun index, Kverkfjöll index, Laki index, Loki-Fögrufjöll index, Öræfajökull index and Thordarhyrna index.)
 
Vatnajökull Glacier.
(See Vatnajökull index)

 
Veiðivötn, Grænavatn ("green lake").
(See Veiðivötn index)

There are about 32 volcanic systems in Iceland. Volcanic system means a volcano-tectonic fissure system and – very often a bigger volcano, a so-called central volcano which in most cases is a stratovolcano and may contain a caldera.[2][3]

Askja

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- Askja; An active volcano in the central highlands. A complex of nested calderas within the Dyngjufjöll mountains. The Askja system includes, for example, the Herðubreið tabular volcano, the Herðubreiðartögl palagonite ridge and the shield volcanoes Kollóttadyngja, Flatadyngja and Svartadyngja. (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ)).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Askja 11,000, Askja 1874, Askja 1875-January, Askja 1875-February, Askja 1875-March, Askja 1876, Askja 1921, Askja 1922, Askja 1923, Askja 1926, Askja 1929, Askja 1961.

Bárðarbunga

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- Bárðarbunga; An active stratovolcano located under the Vatnajökull glacier. The second highest mountain in Iceland, 2,009 metres (6,591 ft) above sea level, and part of a volcanic system that is approximately 200 kilometres (120 mi) long and 25 kilometres (16 mi) wide. Historically there are large eruptions every 250–600 years. Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Bárðarbunga ca.6600-6700 BC, Bárðarbunga 877, Bárðarbunga 1477, Bárðarbunga 1701-1864, Bárðarbunga 1910, Bárðarbunga 1996, Bárðarbunga 2010, Bárðarbunga 2014-15.[4]

Brennisteinsfjöll

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- Brennisteinsfjöll; A minor system on the Reykjanes Peninsula in the southwest. crater rows and small shield volcanoes. Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Brennisteinsfjöll 5200BP, Brennisteinsfjöll 1340, Brennisteinsfjöll 1341

Dyngjufjöll

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- Dyngjufjöll, a volcanic mountain range in the northeast of Iceland. It belongs to the Askja volcanic system or the volcanic system, (sometimes called the (Dyngjufjöll volcanic system), and is part of the Vatnajökull National Park. The central volcano of basalt and rhyolite has its own system of crevices and fissures, which last erupted in 1961. (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ)).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Dyngjufjöll 1961,

Eldey

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- Eldey a small island about 13 kilometres off the coast of the Reykjanes Peninsula in south west. The Eldey and Geirfuglasker volcanic systems together form the 35–40 km (20 to 25 mile) long Eldey system on the mid-Atlantic ridge. There is not a central volcano.[5]

See Chronology of Eruptions below:[example needed]

Eldfell

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- Eldfell, a volcanic cone on the island of Heimaey. It formed in a volcanic eruption which began without warning on the eastern side of Heimaey, in the Westman Islands, on 23 January 1973. The eruption caused a major crisis for the island and led to its temporary evacuation. Volcanic ash fell over most of the island, destroying around 400 homes, and a lava flow threatened to close off the harbour, the island's main income source via its fishing fleet. An operation was mounted to cool the advancing lava flow by pumping sea water onto it, which was successful in preventing the loss of the harbour. Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ).

See Eruptive Chronology below: Eldfell 1973

Eldgjá

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- Eldgjá, a volcano and a canyon that is part of the Katla volcano; a segment of a 40 kilometres (25 mi) chain of volcanic craters and fissure vents that extends northeast away from Katla. Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Eldgjá 934 or 939

Esja / Esjan

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- Esja, (Esjan), a 914 m (2,999 ft) mountain situated in the south-west of Iceland, about ten kilometres north of Iceland's capital city Reykjavík. Esja is not a single mountain, but a volcanic mountain range, made from basalt and tuff. Esja was built up at the end of the Pleistocene with the beginning of the Ice Age. During the warm periods lava flowed, and in the cold periods ridges of tuff were built up under the glacier. The western part of the mountain range is the oldest (about 3.2 million years) and the eastern part is the youngest (about 1.8 million years).[6] Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Ezjá 3,200,000, Ezjá 1,800,000

Esjufjöll

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- Esjufjöll, subglacial volcano at the SE part of the Vatnajökull icecap. A strict nature reserve.[7] The volcanic system consists of the Snaehetta central volcano with a large caldera. Most of the volcano, including the 40 km2 caldera, is covered by the icecap. On the other hand, are parts of the SE flank exposed in NW-SE-trending ridges.[8] Most of the exposed rocks are mildly alkaline basalts, but there are also small amounts of rhyolitic rocks.[8] Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) (or Oræfi Volcanic Belt.[9][10])

See Chronology of Eruptions below:[example needed]

Eyjafjallajökull

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- Eyjafjallajökull, (E15),[11] An ice cap covers the caldera, erupts relatively frequently since the Last Glacial Period, most recently in 2010 disrupting international travel.[12][13] Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Eyjafjallajökull 1612, Eyjafjallajökull 1821-23, Eyjafjallajökull 2010 March, Eyjafjallajökull 2010 April

Fagradalsfjall

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- Fagradalsfjall; is an active tuya volcano formed in the Last Glacial Period on the Reykjanes Peninsula,[14][15] around 40 kilometres (25 mi) from Reykjavík.[16] Fagradalsfjall is also the name for the wider volcanic system covering an area 5 kilometres (3 mi) wide and 16 kilometres (10 mi) long between the Svartsengi and Krýsuvík systems.[17] No volcanic eruption had occurred for 815 years on the Reykjanes Peninsula until 19 March 2021. Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Fagradalsfjall 2021, Fagradalsfjall 2022, Fagradalsfjall 2023

Festarfjall

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- Festarfjall, an exposed tuya mountain on the south coast of the Reykjanes Peninsula near the Fagradalsfjall volcanic system and Grindavík. The flat topped volcano formed under the ice-sheet in the Last Glacial Period on the Reykjanes Peninsula,[14] It has been bisected vertically by coastal erosion, to expose its inner structure, including lava layers and an intrusive magma dyke. It may have been formed during two separate glacial periods.[14] Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ). [example needed]

Fremrinámur

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- Fremrinámur, A volcanic system on the basalt plateau, at the junction of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the Greenland–Iceland–Faeroe Ridge.[18] (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ)).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Fremrinámur 800 BC.

Geirfuglasker

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For the other Icelandic island named Geirfuglasker, see Geirfuglasker (Vestmannaeyjar).

- Geirfuglasker ("Great Auk Rock") was a small islet near Reykjanes, Iceland, a volcanic rock with steep sides except for two landing places. It submerged beneath the waves in 1830, due to a volcanic eruption. Later a new Geirfuglasker appeared on the site.[19] (Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ)).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Geirfuglasker 1830.

Gjálp

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Gjálp is a hyaloclastite ridge (tindar) under the Vatnajökull glacier shield. It originated in an eruption series in 1996 which is probably part of the Grímsvötn volcanic system,[20][21]

It was the first modern technical monitoring and analysis of a subglacial eruption under a thick ice cover with a resulting jökulhlaup.[22][23] The volume of meltwater was around 4 km3.[24] The Vatnajökull glacier is part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Gjálp 1938, Gjálp 1996.

Grensdalur

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- Grensdalur; is a volcano that was active during Pleistocene. Part of the South Iceland Seismic Zone (SISZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Grensdalur 2,500,000

Grímsey

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- Grímsey, is a small Icelandic island, 40 kilometres (20 nautical miles) off the north coast of the main island of Iceland, where it straddles the Arctic Circle.[25] (However, due to long-term oscillations in the Earth's axis, the Arctic Circle is shifting northward by about 14.5 metres (48 ft) per year (varying substantially from year to year due to the complexity of the movement). As of 2020, the place where the line crosses the island is close to the northern tip and by the middle of the 21st century it will pass north of Grimsey altogether.) Part of the Kolbeinsey Ridge (KR).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: [example needed]

Grímsnes

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- Grímsnes, is a fissure or crater row volcanic system. Part of the South Iceland Seismic Zone (SISZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Grímsnes 3500 BC.

Kerið

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- Kerið is a volcanic crater lake located in the Grímsnes area in south Iceland, along the Golden Circle. It is one of several crater lakes in the area, known as the Western Volcanic Zone, created as the land moved over a localized hotspot, but it has the most visually recognizable caldera still intact. The caldera, like the other volcanic rock in the area, is composed of a red (rather than black) volcanic rock, and is approximately 55 m (180 ft) deep, 170 m (560 ft) wide, and 270 m (890 ft) across. Kerið's caldera is one of the three most recognisable volcanic craters because at approximately 6,500 years old, it is only half the age of most of the surrounding volcanic features. The other two are Seyðishólar and Kerhóll.

Although originally believed to have been formed by a volcanic explosion, studies of the Grímsnes region failed to find any supporting evidence. So it is now believed that Kerið was a cone volcano which erupted and emptied its magma reserve. Once the magma was depleted, the weight of the cone collapsed into the empty magma chamber. The current pool of water at the bottom of the crater is at the same level as the water table and is not caused by rainfall.[26]

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Kerið 6,500 BP.

Grímsvötn

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- Grímsvötn; an active volcano with a (partially subglacial) fissure system located in Vatnajökull National Park. Including the Skaftá eruption of 1783, Grímsvötn is probably the most eruptive volcano system in Iceland. The Laki/Lakagígar lava field alone is estimated to have produced about 15 cubic kilometres (3.6 cu mi) of lava. Grímsvötn has probably had more than 30 eruptions in the last 400 years, and produced around 55 cubic kilometres (13 cu mi) over the last 10,000 years.[1] Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Grímsvötn 8230 BC, Grímsvötn 753, Grímsvötn 781, Grímsvötn 1332, Grímsvötn 1341, Grímsvötn 1354, 1598, 1603, 1619, 1629, 1638, 1659, 1684-85, 1774, 1783-84, 1797, 1807, 1816, 1854, 1861, 1867, 1873, 1883, 1885, 1887, 1889, 1892, 1897, 1902-04, 1905-06, 1908-09, 1910, 1922, 1923, 1933, 1938, 1941, 1945, 1954, 1983, 1984, 1996, 1998, 20 04, 2011.

See also Grímsvötn Eruptive activity below

Hekla

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- Hekla; an active stratovolcano in the south. It is one of the most active volcanoes; over 20 eruptions since the year 1210.[27] During the Middle Ages it was known as the "Gateway to Hell". Part of a volcanic ridge, 40 km (25 mi) long. Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Hekla 5000 BC, Hekla 3900 BC, Hekla 2500 BC, Hekla 1000-900 BC, Hekla 800, 1104, 1158, 1206, 1222, 1300, 1341, 1389, 1440, 1510, 1554, 1597, 1636-37, 1693, 1725, 1766-68, 1845-46, 1878, 1913, 1947-48, 1970, 1980-81, 1991, Hekla 2000.

See also Hekla Eruptive activity below

Helgafell (on Snæfellsnes Peninsula)

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- Helgafell - small mountain on Snæfellsnes Peninsula. Part of the Snæfellsnes volcanic belt (SVB).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: [example needed]

Helgafell (on Heimaey island)

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- Helgafell (on Heimaey), formed from a secondary eruption on the Stórhöfði peninsula on the island Heimaey, Vestmannaeyjar (Westman Islands).[28][29] Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Stórhöfði peninsula 6,000 BP, Helgafell (on Heimaey) 3,000 BC

Hengill

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- Hengill, A volcanic table mountain the southwest, to the south of Þingvellir. The volcano is still active, evidenced by its numerous hot springs and fumaroles.[30] Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Hengill 1130 BC

Herðubreið

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- Herðubreið, is a tuya in northern part of Vatnajökull National Park, close to Askja volcano. It formed beneath the icesheet during the last glacial period.[31]

Hofsjökull

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- Hofsjökull, subglacial volcano is a shield type with caldera, formed during the Last Glacial Period. The Hofsjökull glacier is the third largest ice cap after Vatnajökull and Langjökull. The largest active volcano in the country, situated in the west of the Highlands [32][33]

See chronology below: Hofsjökull 2,500,000-11,000, Hofsjökull 2015

Holuhraun

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- Holuhraun, A lava field just north of the Vatnajökull ice cap, in the Icelandic Highlands, in Suður-Þingeyjarsýsla, Northeastern Region. The lava field was created by fissure eruptions.[34] (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ)).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Holuhraun 2014-15

Hrómundartindur

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- Hrómundartindur, is a mountain north of Hveragerði. [example needed]

Hvalbakur

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- Hvalbakur. a small, uninhabited island is the easternmost point of Iceland. Located in the Austurland region, 35 kilometres (22 mi) offshore, it is 200 metres (660 ft) long and up to 100 metres (330 ft) wide, with its highest point 5 metres (16 ft) above sea level. It appears on maps from 1761[35]

See Chronology of Eruptions below: [example needed]

Hvannadalshnúkur

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- Hvannadalshnúkur, a pyramidal peak on the northwestern rim of the summit crater of the Öræfajökull volcano in Vatnajökull National Park, Iceland. Its summit is the highest point in the country.

Hveravellir

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- Hveravellir, is a geothermal field of the Oddnýjarhnjúkur-Langjökull subglacial volcanic system in the north of Langjökull glacier. Part of the West volcanic zone (WVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Hveravellir 5,800 BC, Hveravellir 1000 BC

Hverfjall

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- Hverfjall, (Hverfell) is a tephra cone or Phreatomagmatic eruption in northern Iceland. The eruption was in the southern part of the Krafla fissure swarm.[36] (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ)).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Hverfjall 500 BC

Iceland hotspot

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- Iceland hotspot; a hotspot which is partly responsible for the high volcanic activity which has formed the Iceland Plateau and the island of Iceland. Iceland's location astride the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where the Eurasian and North American Plates are moving apart, is partly responsible for this intense volcanic activity, but an additional cause is necessary to explain why Iceland is a substantial island while the rest of the ridge mostly consists of seamounts, with peaks below sea level.

As well as being a region of higher temperature than the surrounding mantle, the hotspot is believed to have a higher concentration of water. The presence of water in magma reduces the melting temperature, which may also play a role in enhancing Icelandic volcanism.

Ingólfsfjall

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- Ingólfsfjall; A tuya in the vicinity of Hveragerði originating from subglacial eruptions and consisting mostly of basalt and palagonite.[37] Part of the South Iceland Seismic Zone (SISZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Ingólfsfjall 400,000

Jólnir

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- Jólnir, was a volcanic island off the south coast between December, 1965 and July, 1966. A vent of Surtsey, along with Syrtlingur and Surtla. Over the following eight months it appeared and disappeared several times, as wave erosion and volcanic activity alternated in dominance, until oceanic erosion led to its final disappearance.[38][39] Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Jólnir 1963

Katla

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- Katla; Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Katla 10,000, Katla 1000 BC, Katla 751, Katla 822, Katla 920, Katla 934, Katla 1000, Katla 1179 , Katla 1245, Katla 1311, Katla 1357, Katla 1416, 1480, 1580, 1612, 1625, 1660, 1693, 1721, 1755, 1821, 1860, 1918, 1955.

See also Katla Eruptive activity below

Keilir

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- Keilir (mountain), is a Pleistocene subglacial mound or perhaps a conical tuya[40] on Reykjanes Peninsula.[41] Part of Krýsuvík volcanic system,[42] and Reykjanesfólkvangur and about 17 miles southwest of Reykjavík. Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Keilir 2,500,000-11,000

Kerlingarfjöll

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- Kerlingarfjöll, a mountain range in the Highlands of Iceland near the Kjölur highland road. Part of a large tuya volcano system with hot springs and rivulets, as well as red volcanic rhyolite stone.

See Chronology of Eruptions below: [example needed]

Kolbeinsey

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- Kolbeinsey, is a small basalt islet, devoid of vegetation, in the Greenland Sea located 105 kilometres (55 nautical miles) off the northern coast of Iceland, 74 km (40 nmi) north-northwest of the island of Grímsey. It is the northernmost point of Iceland and lies north of the Arctic Circle.[43] Kolbeinsey is subject to rapid wave erosion and is expected to disappear in the near future. Erosion rate data from 1994 suggested that this would happen around 2020.[44] As of April 2021, two small skerries remained visible at low tide.[45][46]

Kolbeinsey is the only sub-aerial expression of this portion of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It formed during the late-Pleistocene (from circa 2.58 million to 11,700 years ago.) (or Holocene). Dredged glass shards indicate submarine eruptive activity during the late-Pleistocene until at least 11,800 radiocarbon years ago.[47] Part of the Kolbeinsey Ridge (KR).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: [example needed]

Kolbeinsey Ridge

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- Kolbeinsey Ridge, is a segment of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge located in the Arctic Ocean. It is bounded to the south by the Tjörnes Fracture Zone, which connects the submarine ridge to the on-shore Northern Volcanic Zone rifting center in eastern Iceland.[48] The volcanic islands Kolbeinsey and Grímsey lie along the ridge. Part of the Kolbeinsey Ridge (KR).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: [example needed]

Kollóttadyngja

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- Kollóttadyngja, A shield volcano[49] in the Ódáðahraun lava-field. The summit crater contains a bowl about 150 metres in diameter with a depth of about 60–70 metres. Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: [example needed]

Krafla

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- Krafla, a volcanic caldera of about 10 km in diameter with a 90 km long fissure zone. It is located in the north of Iceland in the Mývatn region and is situated on the Iceland hotspot atop the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which forms the divergent boundary between the North American Plate and the Eurasian Plate. Its highest peak reaches up to 818 m and it is 2 km in depth. There have been 29 reported eruptions in recorded history. Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Krafla 500BC, Krafla 900, Krafla 1724-29, Krafla 1746, Krafla fires 1975, Krafla fires 1977 April, Krafla fires 1977 September, Krafla fires 1980 March, Krafla fires 1980 July, Krafla fires 1980 October, Krafla fires 1981 January, Krafla fires 1981 November, Krafla fires 1984

Krakatindur

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- Krakatindur, a volcano in the county of Rangárvallasýsla, located east of Hekla, it is part of the Nýjahraun lava field. It is 858 meters high and last erupted in 1878.[50][51][52] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ)).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Krakatindur 1878

Krýsuvík

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- Krýsuvík, The volcanic system is a fissure swarm, situated on the divergent tectonic plate boundary of the Reykjanes peninsula is a fissure system without a central volcano.[53][54] Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Krýsuvík 100,000, Krýsuvík 1151-1188

Kverkfjöll

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- Kverkfjöll, a mountain range situated on the north-eastern border of the Vatnajökull glacier, between the Vatnajökull glacier and the Dyngjufjöll mountains. Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Kverkfjöll 1655, Kverkfjöll 1711-12, Kverkfjöll 1729, Kverkfjöll 1929

Laki / Lakagígar

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- Laki. Lakagigar is a volcanic fissure that bisects Laki mountain in the western part of Vatnajökull National Park. Lakagígar is part of the Grímsvötn volcanic system. The pollution from the 1783 eruption led to the deaths of over 50% of Iceland's livestock, and the destruction of the vast majority of crops. The resulting famine then killed approximately a quarter of the island's human population.[55] The eight-month emission of sulfuric aerosols resulted in one of the most important climatic and socially significant natural events of the last millennium.[56][57] triggering up to 6 million deaths worldwide. Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Laki 1783-84

Landmannalaugar

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- Landmannalaugar; a lava field in the Fjallabak Nature Reserve in the Highlands, on the edge of the Laugahraun lava field.[58] This lava field was formed by an eruption in approximately 1477.[59] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ)).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Landmannalaugar 1477

Langjökull

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- Langjökull, (long glacier) is the second largest ice cap in Iceland, (953 km2), after Vatnajökull. It is situated in the west of the interior or Highlands of Iceland and can be seen clearly from Haukadalur. The volume is 195 km3 and up to 580 m (1,900 ft) thick. The highest point (Baldjökull) is about 1,450 m (4,760 ft) above sea level. The largest recorded surface area was in 1840.[60] Part of the West volcanic zone (WVZ). Associated volcanoes: Hveravellir, Prestahnúkur

Ljósufjöll

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- Ljósufjöll, is a fissure vent system and central volcano on the Snæfellsnes Peninsula. The eruption in 960±10 CE is the only one on the peninsula in recorded history.[61] Part of the Snæfellsnes volcanic belt (SVB)).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Ljósufjöll 960

Loki-Fögrufjöll

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- Loki-Fögrufjöll, a subglacial volcano under the Vatnajökull glacier, within the Bárðarbunga fissure system. It is independent of Bárðarbunga itself. Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Loki-Fögrufjöll 1910, Loki-Fögrufjöll 1986, Loki-Fögrufjöll 1991, Loki-Fögrufjöll 2006, Loki-Fögrufjöll 2008, Loki-Fögrufjöll 2011.

Lýsuhóll

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- Lýsuhóll?, (also known as Lysukard or Helgrindur), is the smallest volcano in Iceland. It is centrally located on Snaefellsnes Peninsula. It includes a chain of small, basaltic cinder cones. Part of the Snæfellsnes volcanic belt (SVB).

The last eruption of Lysuhóll is not dated.[62]

Mývatn (fires)

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- The Mývatn fires were a series of fires at Krafla that raged from 1724 to 1729. Lava flowed into Mývatn and the explosive crater Víti at Krafla was formed.

See Chronology of Eruptions below:[example needed]

Nýey

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- Nýey, was a small, uninhabited island that formed in 1783 due to an underwater eruption in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge southwest of Reykjanes, Iceland. It disappeared within a year.[63][64][65] Note: The tiny skerry called Eldeyjarboði may be its remnants.[citation needed] (Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ)).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Nýey 1783,

Öræfajökull

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- Öræfajökull, An ice-covered active volcano, it lies within the Vatnajökull National Park. (Part of the Öræfajökull volcanic belt (OVB)).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Öræfajökull 1357, Öræfajökull 1727

Prestahnúkur

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- Prestahnúkur, is a volcano in the Central Highlands, a part of the Langjökull glacier. It consists of rhyolite and has a small magma chamber. (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Prestahnúkur 3350 BCE (?),

Reykjanes

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- Reykjanes, The "Reykjanes Volcanic System" is one of the volcanic systems on Reykjanes Peninsula, and consists of (volcanic and tectonic) fissures and faults directed mostly NE-SW. It is part of Reykjanes Volcanic Belt like the 3-6 (depending on author) other volcanic systems on Reykjanes Peninsula.[66][67][68][69] No volcanic eruption had occurred for 815 years on the Peninsula until 19 March 2021 when a fissure vent appeared in Geldingadalir to the south of Fagradalsfjall mountain.[70][71] Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ). See Fagradalsfjall in index.

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Reykjanes peninsula 1206, Fagradalsfjall 2021, Fagradalsfjall 2022, Fagradalsfjall 2023

Reykjaneshryggur

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- Reykjaneshryggur,[example needed]

Snæfell

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Snæfell, at 1,833 m (6,014 ft) high, is the tallest subaerial stratovolcano in Iceland. Located in the north-east part of Vatnajökull National Park, it has been dormant in the Holocene, but is known to have had repose times of over 100,000 years between eruptions. (Part of the Öræfajökull volcanic belt (OVB)).

See Chronology of Eruptions below:

Snæfellsjökull

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- Snæfellsjökull The 700,000-year-old stratovolcano, the only large central volcano on the Snæfellsnes Peninsula, has many pyroclastic cones on its flanks, plus upper-flank craters and lower-flank basaltic lava flows. Several holocene eruptions have originated from the summit crater and have produced felsic material.[72][73] (Part of the Snæfellsnes volcanic belt (SVB))

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Snæfellsjökull 700,000, Snæfellsjökull circa 50-350 CE

Stóra-Eldborg undir Geitahlíð

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- Stóra-Eldborg undir Geitahlíð.

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Stóra-Eldborg undir Geitahlíð 400BC

Sundhnúkur

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Current/ongoing event - See 2023–2024 Sundhnúkur eruptions

- Sundhnúkur eruptions, near Grindavik on the Reykjanes peninsula. Eruptions from 18 December 2023. No volcanic eruption had occurred for 815 years on the Reykjanes Peninsula until 19 March 2021, - See Fagradalsfjall index) Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Sundhnúkur 2023, Sundhnúkur 2023.12.18, Sundhnúkur 2024.01.14, Sundhnúkur 2024.02.08, Sundhnúkur 2024.03.16,Sundhnúkur 2024.05.29, Sundhnúkur 2024.08.22

Surtsey

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- Surtsey, A volcanic island located in the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago off the southern coast. It was formed in a volcanic eruption which began 130 metres (430 feet) below sea level, and reached the surface on 14 November 1963. The eruption lasted until 5 June 1967, when the island reached its maximum size of 2.7 km2 (1.0 sq mi).[74] The most recent survey (2007) shows the island's maximum elevation at 155 m (509 ft) above sea level.[75] Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Surtsey 1963

Theistareykjarbunga

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- Theistareykjarbunga (Þeistareykjarbunga); Part of the North volcanic zone (EVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Theistareykjarbunga 9500 BC, Theistareykjarbunga 6800 BC, Theistareykjarbunga 900 BC

Þingvellir / Thingvellir

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- Þingvellir / Thingvellir. Notable for its tectonic and volcanic environment in a rift valley.[76] The Mid-Atlantic Ridge passes across the Thingvellir National Park. The continental drift between the North American and Eurasian Plates can be clearly seen in the cracks or faults and rifts which traverse the region. The largest, Almannagjá, is a significant canyon. Earthquakes are frequent in the area.[77]

Þjórsá Lava / Thjórsá Lava

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- Þjórsá Lava.

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Þjórsá Lava 6700BC, Thjórsá Lava 6700BC

Thordarhyrna

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- Þórðarhyrna, Thordarhyrna, is one of seven[78] subglacial volcanoes beneath the Vatnajokull glacier in Iceland. There is a mechanical interaction between Thordarhyrna and Grimsvötn, despite these volcanoes being relatively far apart,[79] Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Thórðarhyrna 3550 BC ± 500, Thórðarhyrna 1887-1889, Thórðarhyrna 1902-1904, Thórðarhyrna 1910

Thórólfsfell

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- Thórólfsfell, Þórólfsfell, a basaltic tuya in southern Iceland, east of Fljótshlíð. The upper section is made up of pillow lavas and is 574 metres above sea level. Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: [example needed]

Þrándarjökull / Thrándarjökull

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- Þrándarjökull, (Thrándarjökull), a small glacier in eastern Iceland, 20 kilometres (12 mi) from Vatnajökull glacier. It has an elevation of 1,236 metres (4,055 ft). Part of the Öræfajökull volcanic belt (ÖVB).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: [example needed]

Thríhnúkagígur

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- Thrihnukagigur (Thríhnákagígur), (Three Peaks Crater) is a dormant volcano in the volcanic system of Brennisteinsfjöll near Reykjavík, Iceland.[80] Covering a 3,270 square metres (35,200 sq ft) area and a depth of 213 meters (699 ft),[81] it has not erupted in the past 4000 years.[82] It opened for tourism in 2012, the only volcano in the world where visitors can take an elevator into the magma chamber. The magma that would normally fill the chamber and become sealed is believed to have drained away, revealing the rift beneath the surface.[83] Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Thríhnákagígur 4,000 BP

Tindfjallajökull

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- Tindfjallajökull is a stratovolcano in the south of Iceland.[72] It has erupted rocks of basaltic to rhyolitic composition, and a 5-km-wide caldera was formed during the eruption of the 54,000-year-old Thórsmörk Ignimbrite. It is capped by a glacier of 19 km2.[84] Its highest peak is Ýmir.

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Tindfjallajökull 54,000

Tjörnes Fracture Zone

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- Tjörnes, Fracture Zone is a submarine volcano situated northeast of Iceland, between the fjords of Öxarfjörður and Skjálfandi. It is a series of underwater fissure vents that last erupted from 1867 to 1868. The Tjörnes Fracture Zone (TFZ) connects the North Volcanic Zone to the Kolbeinsey Ridge (KR), which is part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It contains its own volcanic systems, which are smaller than those in the Mid-Iceland Belt. It is one of two major and active transform faults zones striking west-northwest in northern and southern Iceland.[85] The Tjörnes and Reykjanes Fracture Zones are found striking about 75°N to 80°W.[86]

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Tjörnes Fracture Zone 1867-68

Tjörnes Peninsula (non-volcanic)

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- Tjörnes, is a peninsula situated at the northeast of Iceland, between the fjords of Öxarfjörður and Skjálfandi. Sedimentary rock known for its rich fossil record from 23 to 2.6 million years ago. (i.e. non-volcanic rock from the Miocene and Pliocene eras.)[87][88]

Torfajökull

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- Torfajökull. a rhyolitic stratovolcano, caldera (central volcano) and complex of subglacial volcanoes, located north of Mýrdalsjökull. The 1477 eruption created the largest area of silicic extrusive rocks in Iceland. The 870 eruption, a combined bimodal eruption (rhyolite-basalt) with additional engagement of the Bárðarbunga-Veiðivötn volcanic system, has left a thin layer of easily recognized mixed tephra all over Iceland (Landnámslag).[89] This layer makes it possible to determine the exact dates of many archeological finds by so-called tephrochronology, like in the Reykjavík 871±2 museum.

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Torfajökull 870, Torfajökull 1477

Trölladyngja

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- Trölladyngja, Situated in the Ódáðahraun lava field, it is the biggest Icelandic shield volcano, with a height of 1,468 metres (4,816 ft) [90] and rising almost 600 metres above the surrounding desert and lava fields. It is about 10 kilometres in diameter. Its oblong crater is about 1,200 to 1,500 metres in length, 500 metres broad, and about 100 metres deep. Most of its lava fields have flowed in a northerly direction, with one branch of it reaching the valley of Bárðardalur, a distance of roughly 100 km. (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ))

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Trölladyngja 1151, Trölladyngja 1961, (Note : there are claims (Trölladyngja) that the last eruption was 5,000 years ago.[citation needed])

Tungnafellsjökull

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- Tungnafellsjökull, a glacier and volcano in Iceland. It has an elevation of 1,523 metres (4,997 ft) and is located northwest of Vatnajökull glacier. (Part of the Mid-Iceland Belt (MIB))

See Chronology of Eruptions below: [example needed]

Vatnafjöll

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- Vatnafjöll, a basaltic fissure vent system. It is part of the same system as Hekla. More than two dozen eruptions have occurred at Vatnafjöll during the Holocene Epoch.[91] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ))

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Vatnafjöll 800

Vatnajökull

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- Vatnajökull; ("Glacier of Lakes", "Vatna Glacier") is the largest and most voluminous ice cap in Iceland.[92] It is in the south-east of the island, covering approximately 10% of the country.[93] The Vatnajökull glacier embraces seven identified subglacial volcanoes, of which the best-known are Grímsvötn, Bárðarbunga, and Öraefajökull. (See Grímsvötn index, Bárðarbunga index, Herðubreið index, Holuhraun index, Kverkfjöll index, Laki index, Loki-Fögrufjöll index, Öræfajökull index and Thordarhyrna index.) Vatnajökull glacier is part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Vatnajökull 900, Vatnajökull 905, Vatnajökull 940, Vatnajökull 1060, Vatnajökull 1160, Vatnajökull 1332, Vatnajökull 1477, 1480, 1655, 1681, 1702, 1706, 1716, 1717, 1725, 1766, 1823, 1872, 1876, 1985, 1996

Vatnaöldur

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- Vatnaöldur.

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Vatnaöldur 870;

Veiðivötn

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- Veiðivötn; Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Veiðivötn 6700BC;; Veiðivötn 1200BC; Veiðivötn 940, Veiðivötn 1477.

See: Veiðivötn image in Gallery.

Vestmannaeyjar

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- Vestmannaeyjar, Westman Islands, an archipelago off the south coast. Largest island is Heimaey.[94] Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Stórhöfði peninsula 6,000 BP, Helgafell (volcano) 3,000 BC, Surtsey 1963, Jólnir 1963, Eldfell 1973

Viðey

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- Viðey, (caldera,[citation needed]) at Reykjavík. About two million years ago during the Pleistocene, Viðey was an active volcano with a massive caldera.[95] The remains of the caldera are much larger than the modern island itself, with the island near the caldera's center. The rest of the caldera underlies a large part of what is now Kollafjörður.[96] The underwater eruption that formed Viðey island stopped circa 9,000 years ago. (Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ))

See Chronology of Eruptions below: Viðey 2,600,000-9,000

Westfjords

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- Westfjords, a large peninsula in northwestern Iceland. (A remnant of the North Atlantic Igneous Province).

See Chronology of Eruptions below: [example needed][citation needed]

Chronological list of eruptions

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Prehistoric eruptions

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Dates are approximate. Please see individual articles that may have more date detail.

  • 16,000,000 years ago - the oldest known rock in Iceland was formed in a lava eruption. The age of the basaltic strata from west to east is 16–10 million years.[97][98] (See Geology of Iceland - Origins)

  • 2,600,000-9,000 years ago - Viðey About two million years ago during the Pleistocene, Viðey was an active volcano with a massive caldera.[95] The remains of this caldera are much larger than the modern island itself, with the island near the caldera's center. The rest of the caldera underlies a large part of what is now Kollafjörður.[96] The underwater eruption that formed Viðey island stopped circa 9,000 years ago. (Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ))

  • 2,500,000-11,000 years ago - Hofsjökull, subglacial volcano is a shield type with caldera. The third largest ice cap after Vatnajökull and Langjökull and the largest active volcano in the country, situated in the west of the Highlands [32][102][103]

  • Circa 10,600 years ago - Katla. It is thought that Katla is the source of more than 6 to 7 cubic kilometers (1.4 to 1.7 cu mi) of tephra[106][107][108][109] 'Vedde Ash' found at a number of sites including Vedde in Norway, Denmark, Scotland and North Atlantic cores.[110]

  • 6700 BC. - the "Great Þjórsá Lava flow", the largest known effusive eruption in Iceland in the last 10,000 years, originated from the Veiðivötn (is:Veiðivötn) ( area.[114] The Þjórsá lava field is up to 1,000 km2 (390 sq mi) in area and flowed over 100 km (62 mi) to the sea and forms the coast between Þjórsá and Ölfusá.[115][116] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ)) Note: Bárðarbunga 6600 BC is also described as "about 8,600 years ago, with a total volume of 21[4] to 30 cubic kilometres and covering approximately 950 square kilometres."[117]

  • Circa 5,800 BC - Hveravellir? The Kjalhraun (hraun means "lava field") lava field is about 7,800 years old.[118]

  • 5000 BC - Hekla (H5). The first acidic eruption in Hekla. The ash layer H5 is found in soil in the central highlands and in many parts of the North. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ))

  • 3350 BCE (?) - Prestahnúkur, volcano in the west of the Highlands of Iceland to the west of Langjökull glacier. (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ).

  • 3500 BC - Grímsnes, VEI 3. The Grímsneshraun lava-fields in the area cover a total of 54 km2 (21 sq mi). The total volume of lava produced in the lava flows of Grímsnes has been estimated at 1.2 cubic kilometres (0.29 cu mi). (Part of the South Iceland Seismic Zone (SISZ))

  • 4,000 BP - Thríhnákagígur, an eruption in the volcanic system of Brennisteinsfjöll covered an area of 3,270 square metres (35,200 sq ft) to a depth of 213 meters (699 ft),[80][81][82] It is the only volcano in the world where visitors can take an elevator into the magma chamber. The magma that would normally fill the chamber and become sealed is believed to have drained away, revealing the rift beneath the surface. Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ).

  • 1200 BC - Veiðivatnasvæði, Búrfellshraun flowed from a series of craters near Veiðivötn (is:Veiðivötn), on the one hand to Þórisós and on the other hand down with Tungná and Þjórsá all the way down to Landsveit

  • 400 BC Stóra-Eldborg undir Geitahlíð (Eldborgir) erupted, and the lava flowed 2,5 km to the sea.[134][135]
  • 300 BC Mývatn, large fissure eruption pouring out basaltic lava. The lava flowed down the valley Laxárdalur to the lowland plain of Aðaldalur where it entered the Arctic Ocean about 50 km (31 mi) away from Mývatn. The crater row that was formed on top of the eruptive fissure is called Þrengslaborgir (or Lúdentsborgir). (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ))

Common era (CE), Anno Domini (AD)

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  • Note. The Volcanic winter of 536 was the most severe and protracted episode of climatic cooling in the Northern Hemisphere in the last 2,000 years.[139] The source of the eruption remains to be found. Icelandic volcanos were proposed.[93][140] However, the cryptotephras dated exactly to AD 536 are geochemically distinct from Icelandic tephra,[141] and the shards in the Swiss glacier have large age uncertainty.[93]

  • Katla 751-763 ± 2 Hrafnkatla (AT-8 or E2) series of eruptions including large eruptions in 757 and 763 ± 2 with total tephra volume greater than 4,500 km3 (1,100 cu mi)[142]

9th century

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Dates are approximate. (Note: First Norse settlers arrived in 870/874.) Please see individual articles that may have more date detail.

  • 822 - Katla. An effusive eruption with large jökulhlaup dated within 6 months between late 822 to early 823 CE by tree ring data.[143][142]

10th century

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  • Circa 1000 - Hveravellir. A volcanic system in the Arnarvatnsheiði. The craters of this system produced the lava field Hallmundarhraun which extends some 50 kilometres (31 mi) westward into the valley of the Hvítá.[154]

11th century

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12th century

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13th century

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14th century

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  • 1311 - Katla. Darkness in the Eastfjords and ash fall in many parts of the country. Major lava flow, probably on Mýrdalssandur, but sources are unclear and contradictory. Crop and hay failure the following year with associated casualties. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ))

  • 1389-1390 - in and around Hekla, eruption number 7. Norðurhraun lava flows, Skarð, Tjaldastaðir and maybe more farms are subsumed.[155] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ))

15th century

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16th century

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  • 1554 - Vondubjallar southwest of Hekla. The eruption lasted for 6 weeks in the spring. Red bells formed and from them flowed Pálssteinshraun. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ))

  • 1597 - Hekla, eruption number 9. From 3 January into the summer. Volcanic eruptions were widespread but caused little living space, although mainly in Mýrdalur. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ))

17th century

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  • 1625 - Katla, 2-14 September. Large eruption with heavy ash fall to the east. Twenty-five farms were deserted. Þorsteinn Magnússon, abbot of Þykkvabær, wrote a report on the eruption, the first of its kind in Iceland. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ))

  • 1693 - Hekla, eruption number 11 began on 13 February and lasted until the autumn. Heavy ash fall to the northwest at the beginning of the eruption which caused great and permanent damage in the surrounding areas. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ))

18th century

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  • 1701-1864 Bárðarbunga. Studies of tephra layers have shown that a number of eruptions occurred beneath the glacier, probably in the north-east of the crater or in Bárðarbunga. There have also been smaller eruptions in an ice-free area of Dyngjuháls [ˈtiɲcʏˌhauls] to the north-east. Eruptions appear to follow a cycle: there were several eruptions in the glacier between 1701 and 1740 and since 1780. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ))

  • 1755-56 - Katla. The eruption began on 17 October and lasted until mid-February. A large amount of ash, about 1.5 km3 (0.36 cu mi), reached the northeast and caused great damage in Skaftártunga, Álftaveri and Síða. A big lava flow on Mýrdalssandur, mostly west of Hafursey. Lightning killed two people. About 50 farms were deserted, most of them only temporarily. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ))

  • 1783-84 Laki / Lakagigar. ( Skaftáreldar, Grímsvötn, Þórðarhyrna, sometimes referred to in Icelandic as the Skaftáreldur, Skaftá Fires)[160] Lava flowed along Skaftá river valley and Hverfisfljót, down into the lowlands and covered about 580 km2 (220 sq mi) (including a gorge thought to have been 200 metres (660 ft) deep).[161] The eruption has been estimated to have killed over six million people globally. Ash fall and poisoning caused hay failure leading to a famine that killed about 25% of the island's population[55] and resulted in a drop in global temperatures, as sulfur dioxide was spewed into the Northern Hemisphere. This caused crop failures in Europe and may have caused droughts in India.[162] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ))

19th century

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  • 1845-46 - Hekla, eruption number 13 began on 2 September and lasted for about seven months. Heavy ash fall to the southeast and a lava flow in Ytri-Rangá. Lava flowed west and northwest, about 25 km2 (9.7 sq mi), so the farm of Næfurholt had to be relocated. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ))

  • 1867-68 - Tjörnes Fracture Zone.[85]

  • 1875 March - Askja One of the largest ash eruptions in Icelandic history began on 28 March and lasted for about eight hours. Eruption from Víti and other craters. Heavy damage from ash fall in the middle of East Iceland and many farms were deserted. Many East Fjord people moved to the West as a result. Öskjuvatn was formed and it grew steadily. Eruptions occurred for several months. (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ))

20th century

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  • 1910 - Grímsvötn. Ashfall was observed in the east of the country from June to November. This eruption has been assigned by some to Thórðarhyrna which has geological interactions with Grímsvötn,[164][165] although not in official databases[166][167] It may also be linked to the Loki-Fögrufjöll eruption of the same year. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ))

  • 1910 Loki-Fögrufjöll The last confirmed eruption was in 1910 when tephra was erupted. (Part of the Bárðarbunga fissure system. 1910 was the last known eruption of Bárðarbunga before the 2014 eruptions.)[168][169] It may also be linked to the Grímsvötn eruption of the same year.(Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ))

  • 1929 - Kverkfjöll. A fire was seen for a long time during the summer.

  • 1947-48 - Hekla, eruption number 14 began on 29 March with an explosion. First eruption in Hekla in over 100 years. The plume reached a height of 30 km (19 mi) ash fall to the south over Fljótshlíð and Eyjafjöll. Heklugjá opened lengthwise, about 0.8 km3 (0.19 cu mi) of lava flowed, mostly to the west and southwest from Axlargígur. One Icelandic geologist died while doing research at the eruption.[171] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ))

  • 1963- 67 - Vestmannaeyjar : Surtsey rose from the sea on 14 November in an underwater eruption southwest of Geirfuglasker. Later, the islands Syrtlingur and Jólnir were formed but soon disappeared again.

  • 1970 - Hekla, eruption number 15 began on 5 May in the southwestern part of Heklugjár and in Skjólkvíar north of the mountain. Considerable ash fall to NNV, all the way north to Húnavatnssýslur. In the mountain itself the activity stopped after a few days but in Skjólkvíar it erupted for about 2 months. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ))

  • 1973 - Eldfell, Westman Islands, VEI 3. A 1600 m long eruption fissure opens east of the town Vestamnnaeyar on the island Heimaey on 23 January. About a third of the town was buried under lava, over 400 properties were destroyed. The lava front was cooled by pumping seawater on it, it saved the important harbour entrance. A volcano formed and Heimaey expanded to the east.[173]

  • 1980-81 - Hekla, eruption number 16 began on 17 August and lasted until the 20th. Ash spread to the north, lava flowed mostly to the west and north. The eruption resumed on 9 April of the following year and ended on 16 April. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ))

  • ? 1985 - Final ridge under Vatnajökull. Possible eruption. small earthquakes and sigg boilers in the glacier.

  • 1991 - Hekla, eruption number 17 began on 17 January in the southern part of Heklugjár but soon subsided. One crater east of the mountain was active until 17 March. A considerable amount of lava flowed on the south side of the mountain, but there was little ash fall. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ))

  • 1996 - 1996 eruption of Gjálp (Gjálpargosið / Bárðarbunga). An eruption began on 30 September in a 4–5 km (2.5–3.1 mi) fissure under Vatnajökull between Bárðarbunga and Grímsvötn and lasted until 13 October. The seismic activity indicated a magma flow from Bárðarbunga. Melting water flowed to Grímsvötn and filled the subglacial lake to highest level ever recorded. The long-awaited jökulhlaup then submerged Skeiðarársandur on 5 November, damaging several bridges. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ))

21st century

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  • 2010 - Eyjafjallajökull. The VEI 4 eruption began in Eyjafjallajökull on 14 April. It caused major disruption to air travel in Northwestern Europe and across the North Atlantic, not seen before. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ))

  • 2014-15 Bárðarbunga. (main article - Bárðarbunga). In August 2014, a swarm of around 1,600 earthquakes in 48 hours, with magnitudes up to 4.5MW,[177][178] was followed on 23 August by the USGS Aviation Color Codes being raised from orange to red, indicating an eruption in progress.[179] The following day, the aviation risk was lowered from red to orange and the statement that there was an eruption in progress was retracted.[180] However, later aerial observations of glacial depressions southeast of the volcano suggested that the now-retracted report of an eruption had been correct and that a short eruption did occur under the ice, but the lack of further melting indicated that this eruption had now ceased. Then, a new fissure eruption breached the surface between Bárðarbunga and Askja, in the Holuhraun lava field, in the early hours of 29 August.[181] This was followed by a second fissure eruption in the Holuhraun area, along the same volcanic fissure, which started shortly after 4 am on 31 August.[182] Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ))

  • 2023-2024 - Sundhnúkur eruptions, Reykjanes Peninsula, near Grindavik,
(Main article : 2023–2024 Sundhnúkur eruptions)
 
Map of volcanic systems on the Reykjanes Peninsula. Grindavík is at the southern end of the Eldvörp-Svartsengi system (marked here as 2)
A series of lava fissure eruptions began on 18 December 2023 at the Sundhnúkur crater chain (63°52′45″N 22°23′14″W / 63.87917°N 22.38722°W / 63.87917; -22.38722) north of the town of Grindavík. No volcanic eruptions had occurred for 815 years on the Reykjanes Peninsula until 19 March 2021. (See Fagradalsfjall 2021) Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ).

- Sundhnúkur first eruption - began on 18 December 2023, around 22:00, at the Sundhnúkur crater chain and ended 3 days later on December 21.[184][185][186] See (Main article : December 2023 eruption)

- Sundhnúkur second eruption - began in the early hours of 14 January 2024 (around 7:57 UTC) and ended on 16 January. It resulted in damage by lava to the outskirts of Grindavík.[187][186][188][189] See (Main article : January 2024 eruption)

- Sundhnúkur third eruption - began on 8 February 2024 (around 6:07 UTC), about a kilometre north of Grindavík, in the same area as the December eruption.[186] See (Main article : February 2024 eruption)

- Sundhnúkur fourth eruption - began on 16 March 2024 (at 20:23 UTC) in the same area as the February eruption.[186] See (Main article : March 2024 eruption)

- Sundhnúkur fifth eruption - began on 29 May 2024 (at 12:45 UTC) and lasted until 22 June, being the largest in the Sundhnúkur series to date.[186] See (Main article : May 2024 eruption)

- Sundhnúkur sixth eruption - began on 22 August 2024 (at 21:25 UTC) and finished 6 September.[186] See (Main article : August 2024 eruption)

- Sundhnúkur seventh eruption - began on 20 November 2024 (at 23:14 UTC).[190] See (Main article : November 2024 eruption)

Volcanic zones and systems

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(For a detail description of the volcanic zones. See : Geological deformation of Iceland)

 
Volcanism in Iceland. The Volcanic zones and the dotted circle approximating to the hotspot.
 
Topographic map showing the Iceland Plateau (light blue oval area) encircling Iceland in the Atlantic Ocean.

Iceland has several major volcanic zones surrounding the Iceland hotspot:

East volcanic zone (EVZ)

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Main article: East volcanic zone of Iceland

The East Volcanic Zone (EVZ), the central volcanoes Vonarskarð and Hágöngur, belong to the same volcanic system.[191] The southern propagating rift region of the EVZ with more tendency yo explosive eruption characteristics is known as the Southern Iceland Volcanic Zone (SIVZ).[62]

Includes: Bárðarbunga, Bláhnjúkur, Brennisteinsalda, Eldgjá, Eyjafjallajökull, Gjálp, Grímsvötn, central volcano Hágöngur (is: Hágöngur), Hekla, Katla, Lakagigar, Laki, Þjórsá Lava, Þórólfsfell, Surtsey, Thordarhyrna (Þórðarhyrna), Tindfjallajökull, Torfajökull, Vatnafjöll, several volcanoes in Vatnajökull, Vatnaöldur, Vestmannaeyjar (Westman Islands), central volcano Vonarskarð.

Kolbeinsey Ridge (KR)

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Main article: Kolbeinsey Ridge

The Kolbeinsey Ridge is a segment of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge located to the north of Iceland in the Arctic Ocean. It is bounded to the south by the Tjörnes Fracture Zone, which connects the submarine ridge to the on-shore Northern Volcanic Zone rifting center in eastern Iceland.[48] The volcanic islands Kolbeinsey and Grímsey lie along the Kolbeinsey Ridge.

Mid-Iceland Belt (MIB)

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Main article: Mid-Iceland belt

The Mid-Iceland belt (MIB) connects the East, West and North volcanic zones, across central Iceland.

North volcanic zone (NVZ)

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Main article: North volcanic zone of Iceland

North of Iceland, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge is called Kolbeinsey Ridge (KR) and is connected to the North Volcanic Zone via the Tjörnes Fracture Zone (TFZ).

Includes: Askja, Dimmuborgir, Fremrinámur, Herðubreið, Hverfjall, Kollóttadyngja, Krafla, Kverkfjöll, many volcanoes in the Mývatn district, Rauðhólar, Theistareykjarbunga, Trölladyngja

Öræfajökull volcanic belt (ÖVB)

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The Öræfajökull volcanic belt (ÖVB, also Öræfi volcanic belt) is an intraplate volcanic belt, connected to the Eurasian plate.[192][193]

Includes: Öræfajökull

Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ)

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The Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ or Reykjanes volcanic belt, RVB) contains multiple fissure vent orientated volcanic systems including one with a similar name. It is the continuation of the Reykjanes Ridge (RR) (the Mid-Atlantic Ridge south of Iceland and intersects to its north-east at Hengill with the WVZ and the South Iceland seismic zone (SISZ, also known as the Reykjanes fracture zone, RFZ).

Includes: Bláfjöll, Brennisteinsfjöll, Búrfell (Hafnarfjörður), Eldborg í Bláfjöllum, Eldvörp–Svartsengi, Fagradalsfjall, Heiðin há, Helgafell (Hafnarfjörður), Hengill (also listed under WVZ), Keilir, Krýsuvík (volcanic system), Krýsuvík fires, Leitin, Rauðhólar (Reykjavík), Reykjanes volcanic system, Stóra-Eldborg undir Geitahlíð, Svartsengi Power Station, Sveifluháls, Vífilsfell, Þorbjörn (mountain)

Snæfellsnes volcanic belt (SVB)

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The Snæfellsnes volcanic belt (SVB) is an intraplate volcanic belt, connected to the North American plate.[192]

It is proposed that the east–west line from the Grímsvötn volcano in the Mid-Iceland Belt (MIB) to the SVB shows the movement of the North American Plate over the Iceland hotspot.[194]

Includes: Snæfellsjökull and smaller volcanoes on Snæfellsnes, plus Helgafell.

South Iceland Seismic Zone (SISZ)

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Main article: South Iceland seismic zone

The South Iceland Seismic Zone (SISZ) is a fracture zone, which connects the East and West Volcanic Zones. It contains its own volcanic systems, smaller than those in the Mid-Iceland Belt. The SISZ is a set of major and active transform faults striking west-northwest in southwestern Iceland, being one of two large fracture zones, associated with such transform faults, striking about 75°N to 80°W, the other being the Tjörnes Fracture Zone.[85][86]

Includes: The towns of Selfoss, Vík, Hvolsvöllur and probably Þingvellir the old meeting place of the Alþing.

Tjörnes Fracture Zone (TFZ)

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Main article: Tjörnes Fracture Zone

The Tjörnes Fracture Zone (TFZ) connects the North Volcanic Zone to the Kolbeinsey Ridge (KR), which is part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It contains its own volcanic systems, which are smaller than those in the Mid-Iceland Belt.

It is one of two major and active transform faults zones striking west-northwest in northern and southern Iceland.[85] The Tjörnes and Reykjanes Fracture Zones are found striking about 75°N to 80°W.[86]

West volcanic zone (WVZ)

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Main article: West volcanic zone of Iceland

Includes: Geitlandsjökull, Geysir, Hengill (also listed under RFZ), Hlöðufell, Hveravellir, Skjaldbreiður, Stóra-Björnsfell, Þórisjökull.[195]

Eruptive activity

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Grímsvötn eruptivity

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Grímsvötn, including the Skaftá eruption of 1783, is probably the most eruptive volcano system. The Lakagígar lava field alone is estimated to have produced about 15 cubic kilometres (3.6 cu mi) of lava. Grímsvötn has probably had more than 30 eruptions in the last 400 years, and produced around 55 cubic kilometres (13 cu mi) over the last 10,000 years.[1] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ)) See Grímsvötn index above.

Katla eruptivity

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Katla has erupted 17 times in historical times, and Eldgjá seems to be part of the same system. The total volume of volcanic eruptions from Katla over the last 10,000 years is very similar to Grímsvötn.[1] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ)). See Katla index above.

Hekla eruptivity

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Hekla has erupted at least 17 times in historical times, with total volume about 7 cubic kilometres (1.7 cu mi), but around 42 cubic kilometres (10 cu mi) since the last ice age.[1] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ)). See Hekla index above.

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f g Visindavefur, Science Web, Which volcano has erupted the most? By Sigurður Steinþórsson, Professor Emeritus
  2. ^ [1] Archived 2017-02-04 at the Wayback Machine Brennisteinsfjöll. Detailed description. In: Catalogue of Icelandic Volcanoes. Retrieved 27 July 2020
  3. ^ Þorleifur Einarsson: Geology of Iceland. Rocks and landscape. Reykjavík 1991, pp.61–63
  4. ^ a b "Bárdarbunga". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2009-06-18.
  5. ^ Icelandic Met Office Volcanoes - Eldey
  6. ^ a b c d e Hvernig myndaðist Esjan? Vísindavefurinn, 9 December 2008 (in Icelandic)
  7. ^ Stjórnunar- og verndaráætlun Vatnajökulsþjóðgarðs, 2. útgáfa, 2013. p. 12. [2] Archived 2021-04-17 at the Wayback Machine
  8. ^ a b "Esjufjöll". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
  9. ^ T. Thordarson, G. Larsen:Volcanism in Iceland in historical time. Volcano types, eruption types and eruption history. (2007)
  10. ^ See eg.: Thor Thordarson, Armann Hoskuldsson: Classic geology in Europe 3. Iceland. Harpenden 2002, p. 14
  11. ^ Schleicher, N.; Kramar, U.; Dietze, V.; Kaminski, U.; Norra, S. (2012). "Geochemical characterization of single atmospheric particles from the Eyjafjallajökull volcano eruption event collected at ground-based sampling sites in Germany". Atmospheric Environment. 48: 113. Bibcode:2012AtmEn..48..113S. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.05.034.
  12. ^ Thordarson, T.; Larsen, G. (2007). "Increasing signs of activity at Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland: Eruptions". Journal of Geodynamics. 43 (1): 118–152. Bibcode:2007JGeo...43..118T. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.454.7455. doi:10.1016/j.jog.2006.09.005. Archived from the original on 2010-04-19.
  13. ^ "Iceland's volcanic ash halts flights in northern Europe". BBC News. 15 April 2010.
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  15. ^ "Global Volcanism Program | Krýsuvík-Trölladyngja". Archived from the original on 18 March 2021. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
  16. ^ ""Small" volcanic eruption in Iceland lights up night sky near Reykjavik". France 24. 20 March 2021. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
  17. ^ Sæmundsson, Kristján; Sigurgeirsson, Magnús Á. (25 June 2018). "Hvað getið þið sagt mér um eldstöðvakerfið sem kennt er við Fagradalsfjall?". Vísindavefurinn. Archived from the original on 14 July 2021. Retrieved 14 July 2021.
  18. ^ a b "Geology". Archived from the original on May 1, 2012. Retrieved June 7, 2012.
  19. ^ Gaskell, Jeremy (2000). Who killed the Great Auk?. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198564783.
  20. ^ a b Snæbjörn Guðmundsson: Vegavísir um jarðfræði Íslands. Reykjavík 2015, p. 280-281
  21. ^ See also GVP: Grimsvotn. Eruptive history. Retrieved 29 August 2020.
  22. ^ Gudmundsson, Magnús T.; Sigmundsson, Freysteinn; Björnsson, Helgi; Högnadóttir, Thórdís (2004). "The 1996 eruption at Gjálp, Vatnajökull ice cap, Iceland: efficiency of heat transfer, ice deformation and subglacial water pressure". Bulletin of Volcanology. 66 (1): 46–65. Bibcode:2004BVol...66...46G. doi:10.1007/s00445-003-0295-9.
  23. ^ See also: Hugh Tuffen, D.W. McGarvie, etal.: Will subglacial rhyolite eruptions be explosive or intrusive? Some insights from analytical models. Annals of Glaciology, in press. Lancaster University. (2006) Retrieved 30 August 2020.
  24. ^ M.T. Gudmundsson, G. Larsen, Á. Höskuldsson and Á.G. Gylfason: Volcanic hazards in Iceland. Jökull no. 58 (2008) (PDF) Retrieved 8 August 2020.
  25. ^ STATISTICS ICELAND: Population by locality, age and sex 1 January 2011–2018[permanent dead link‍], Px.hagstofa.is, accessed 18 January 2019
  26. ^ a b Information board next to Kerið Crater
  27. ^ a b "Hekla". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 7 July 2008.
  28. ^ a b "visitvestmannislands.is". Archived from the original on 2017-09-12. Retrieved 2021-06-12.
  29. ^ a b c US Geological Survey
  30. ^ "Hengill". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
  31. ^ Teitsson, Ingvar. "Herðubreið - Drottning íslenskra fjalla". International year of mountains 2002. Icelandic Environment Association. Archived from the original on 2005-02-21. Retrieved 2011-10-19. Archive.org
  32. ^ a b Thordarson & Hoskuldsson, p. 72
  33. ^ National Land Survey of Iceland (2001). "National Land Survey of Iceland – Geographical information". Archived from the original on 2010-04-06. Retrieved 2008-08-14./
  34. ^ "Holuhraun". Nordic Adventure Travel. Archived from the original on 2014-08-30. Retrieved 2014-08-29.
  35. ^ Insvlae Islandiae delineatio (Map). Nuremberg: Homanns. 1761. Retrieved 2018-12-25.
  36. ^ The Hverfjall fissure eruption Archived 2011-07-28 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 29 October 2008
  37. ^ Íslandshandbókin. Náttúra, saga og sérkenni. Reykjavík 1989, p.805
  38. ^ Brief description from Dartmouth Archived 2020-02-23 at the Wayback Machine, (at the end of the report)
  39. ^ The Surtsey Research Society, The Surtsey Eruption 1963-1967
  40. ^ G.B.M.Pedersen, P. Grosse: Morphometry of subaerial shield volcanoes and glaciovolcanoes from Reykjanes Peninsula, Iceland: Effects of eruption environment. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 282, (2014), 115-133. See also for maps therein.
  41. ^ Íslandshandbókin. Náttúra, saga og sérkenni. Reykjavík 1989, p.53
  42. ^ See eg. maps herein: Ermias Yohannes Berhane: Geochemical interpretation of thermal water and gas samples from Krýsuvík, Iceland and Alid, Eritrea. The United Nations University. Report No. 18, 2004.
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  44. ^ Sæmundsson, Kristján; Hjartarson, Árni (1994). "Geology and erosion of Kolbeinsey". In Gísli Viggóson (ed.). Proceedings of the Hornafjörlur International Costal Symposium. Orkustofnun (National Energy Authority of Iceland). pp. 443–451. Archived from the original on 9 January 2006. Retrieved 11 April 2008.
  45. ^ "Annasamt og eftirminnilegt ár að baki". Landhelgisgæsla Íslands (in Icelandic). 3 January 2022. Archived from the original on 10 August 2022. Retrieved 10 August 2022.
  46. ^ Fontaine, Andie Sophia (28 April 2021). "VIDEO: Kolbeinsey, Iceland's Northernmost Island, Is Hanging In There". The Reykjavík Grapevine. Archived from the original on 28 April 2021. Retrieved 10 August 2022.
  47. ^ "Kolbeinsey Ridge". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
  48. ^ a b G. L. Johnson; J. R. Southall; P. W. Young; P. R. Vogt (10 October 1972). "Origin and structure of the Iceland Plateau and Kolbeinsey Ridge". Journal of Geophysical Research. 77 (29): 5688–5696. Bibcode:1972JGR....77.5688J. doi:10.1029/JB077I029P05688. ISSN 0148-0227. Wikidata Q97487827.
  49. ^ Thordarson, Thorvaldur (January 2008). "Postglacial volcanism in Iceland" (PDF). Jökull. 58: 197–228. doi:10.33799/jokull2008.58.197. S2CID 53446884.
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  54. ^ [3] Thorvaldur Thordarson and Ármann Höskuldsson: Postglacial volcanism in Iceland, Jökull no. 58, 2008. Retrieved 2 August 2020. (System no. 2 on the maps and tables)
  55. ^ a b Gunnar Karlsson (2000), Iceland's 1100 Years, p. 181
  56. ^ Brayshay and Grattan, 1999; Demarée and Ogilvie, 2001
  57. ^ "The Summer of acid rain". The Economist. December 19, 2007. Retrieved October 21, 2012.
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