Wikipedia

List of crewed spacecraft

This is a list of all crewed spacecraft types that have flown into space, including sub-orbital flights above 80 km, space stations that have been visited by at least one crew, and spacecraft currently planned to operate with crews in the future.[1] It does not contain spacecraft that have only flown un-crewed and have retired from service, even if they were designed for crewed flight, such as Buran, or crewed flights by spacecraft below 80 km. There is some debate concerning the height at which space is reached (the Karman Line), the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) recognise 100 km, NASA, and the USAF recognise this as 50 miles (approx 80 km) – this article chooses the latter, to include the widest possible definition.[2]

Apollo 11 Lunar Module Eagle was the first crewed spacecraft to land on the Moon (July 20, 1969).

Since the first crewed spaceflight of Vostok 1 in 1961 there have been 13 types of spacecraft that have made crewed flights into space – nine American, three Russian, and one Chinese. There are currently five operational crewed spacecraft, which form the first part of the list below; the eight retired spacecraft types are listed in the next section; and crewed spacecraft currently in development are listed last. Space stations are listed beneath each appropriate section, dates of operation reflect when the first and last crews visited, not when they were launched and deorbited. There are currently two space stations in orbit around Earth, the International Space Station and the Chinese Tiangong space station.

Crewed spacecraft are designed to support human life for the human spaceflight portion of the mission. Spacecraft for human spaceflight must have a human-rating certification as fit for purpose. Crewed spacecraft must have a breathable atmosphere, pressurised (usually between 345 mbar and 1 bar (1 atmosphere)); and be temperature-regulated (usually 20 to 24 °C (68 to 75 °F)). Crewed spacecraft include space capsules, spaceplanes, and space stations.

Currently operational crewed spacecraft

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Soyuz (1967)

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Main article: Soyuz (spacecraft)
 
Soyuz-TMA spacecraft

Russian three person Earth orbital spacecraft;[3] Early versions were operated by the Soviet Union and later versions by Russia after 1991. As of September 2023, Soyuz has made 150 crewed spaceflights, including two emergency sub-orbital flights, Soyuz 18a and Soyuz MS-10. There have been two accidental spacecraft losses resulting in the deaths of four cosmonauts, Soyuz 1 and Soyuz 11. Soyuz is the only spacecraft to have successfully saved the lives of a crew using the rocket launch escape system, when in 1983 Soyuz T-10-1 exploded on the launchpad. This spacecraft type has flown into space more times than any other spacecraft.[4]

Shenzhou (2003)

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Main article: Shenzhou (spacecraft)

Chinese three-person Earth orbital spacecraft. Shenzhou is China's first crewed spacecraft. On 15 October 2003, Yang Liwei was carried into space by Shenzhou 5 becoming China's first Taikonaut.[5] The spacecraft has gone on to fly crews to China's Tiangong-1 and Tiangong-2 space labs. Since Jun 2021, Shenzhou has been used as the vehicle to send crews to China's new modular Tiangong space station and back.[6] As of December 2023, Shenzhou has made 12 successful crewed spaceflights.

Crew Dragon (2020)

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Main article: SpaceX Dragon 2
 
Crew Dragon Endeavour docked with the International Space Station

United States four-person (initially seven) Earth orbital spacecraft designed by SpaceX to transport astronauts to the International Space Station under the NASA Commercial Crew Contract (CCDev). As of March 2024, Crew Dragon has made 13 crewed spaceflights. The first crewed flight, Crew Dragon Demo-2, launched on 30 May 2020 and returned to Earth on 2 August 2020. This was the first time an American spacecraft had sent astronauts to orbit since the final Space Shuttle flight in July 2011.[7] The first operational flight of the Crew Dragon launched on 15 November 2020 with SpaceX Crew-1.

New Shepard (2021)

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Main article: New Shepard
 
Commercial Astronaut Audrey Powers looks out the window during her flight on New Shepard

New Shepard is a six-person capsule for suborbital space tourism in the United States. It is launched by a reusable booster and can fly with or without crew. Uncrewed flights started in 2015. The first crewed test flight flew on 20 July 2021.[8] As of December 2023 there have been 24 flights, including six crewed flights carrying a total of 32 passengers into space.

Starliner (2024)

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Main article: Boeing Starliner
 
Starliner performing a pad abort test in 2019

United States five-person (initially seven) Earth orbital spacecraft designed to transport astronauts to the International Space Station under the NASA Commercial Crew Program. Following several technical problems on the first uncrewed test flight in December 2019, a second uncrewed test flight launched in May 2022. However, the following first crewed flight test (CFT) was delayed until June 2024 due to issues with the spacecraft's parachute system and the wiring harnesses.[9][10][needs update]

Currently operational space stations

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Main article: Space station

International Space Station (ISS) (1998)

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Main article: International Space Station
 
International Space Station

Multinational low Earth orbit modular space station. The International Space Station is a joint project among five participating space agencies: NASA, Roscosmos, JAXA, European Space Agency (ESA), and Canadian Space Agency (CSA).[11] Following the uncrewed initial assembly from 1998 to 2000, it has been continuously crewed since November 2000. As of 04 Mar 2024, ISS has been visited by 111 crewed spacecraft (68 Soyuz, 35 Space Shuttle, and 9 Crew Dragon). The ISS is the largest space station yet constructed. It is planned to operate until 2028, with a possible extension to 2030.[12]

Tiangong Space Station (2021)

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Main article: Tiangong space station

Chinese low Earth orbit modular space station. The Tianhe core module was launched on 29 April 2021. The first crewed flight Shenzhou 12 with 3 astronauts arrived at the station in June 2021. The space station has three modules: the Tianhe core module, and two Laboratory Cabin Modules. The Wentian module docked with the station on 24 July 2022, and the Mengtian module docked on 31 October 2022.

Former crewed spacecraft

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Vostok (1961–1963)

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Main article: Vostok (spacecraft)
 
Vostok spacecraft

Soviet single-person Earth orbital spacecraft 6 flights.[13] On 12 April 1961 Vostok 1 carried the first human into space, Cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin.[14] On 16 June 1963, Vostok 6 carried the first woman into space, Cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova.[15]

Mercury (1961–1963)

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Main article: Project Mercury

United States single-person Earth orbital spacecraft 6 flights (including 2 sub-orbital).[16] Mercury was the United States first crewed spacecraft. On 5 May 1961 Mercury-Redstone 3 carried the first American, Alan Shepard, into space on a sub-orbital flight. On 20 February 1962, Mercury-Atlas 6 carried the first American, John Glenn, into Earth orbit.[17]

X-15 (1962–1968)

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Main article: North American X-15
 
X-15

United States single seat, air-launched sub-orbital spaceplane; two X-15 flights above the 100 km Kármán line occurred in 1963, an additional 11 flights between 1962 and 1968 reached altitudes between 80 and 100 km which were recognised as spaceflights by U.S. authorities.[18]

Voskhod (1964–1965)

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Main article: Voskhod (spacecraft)

Soviet three person Vostok derivative made 2 flights.[19] On 18 March 1965, Alexei Leonov performed the first spacewalk in history, from Voskhod 2.[20]

Gemini (1965–1966)

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Main article: Project Gemini

United States two person Earth orbital spacecraft 10 flights.[21] On 3 June 1965, Ed White made America's first spacewalk, from Gemini 4.[22]

Apollo (1968–1975)

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Main article: Apollo (spacecraft)
 
Apollo 17 CSM orbiting the Moon

United States three-person lunar-capable spacecraft. 15 flights; including nine lunar missions (with six lunar landings). It was the Apollo spacecraft that enabled America to win the Space Race. In December 1968, Apollo 8 was the first crewed spacecraft to orbit the Moon. On 21 July 1969, Neil Armstrong, the Commander of Apollo 11, and Buzz Aldrin became the first humans to walk on the Moon.[23] The Apollo Spacecraft comprised:

Space Shuttle (1981–2011)

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Main article: Space Shuttle
 
Space Shuttle Challenger in orbit

United States eight person Earth orbital spacecraft; first orbit-capable spaceplane; first reusable orbital spacecraft. Largest cargo capacity to orbit. 135 spaceflights were made in six shuttles; Enterprise, Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour, of which two (Challenger and Columbia) were accidentally destroyed resulting in the deaths of 14 astronauts during missions STS-51-L and STS-107.[26]

SpaceShipOne (2004)

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Main article: SpaceShipOne

United States single pilot, air-launched sub-orbital spaceplane; three flights above the Kármán line occurred in 2004.

[27]

SpaceShipTwo (2018)

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Main article: SpaceShipTwo

United States eight person air-launched sub-orbital space plane operated by Virgin Galactic aimed at the space tourism market. On 31 October 2014 during a test flight, VSS Enterprise, the first SpaceShipTwo craft, broke up in flight and crashed in the Mojave Desert.[28][29][30][31] One pilot was killed.[32][33] The second SpaceShipTwo craft, VSS Unity, was completed in 2016 and used until its retirement in 2024.[34] On 13 December 2018, SpaceShipTwo flew to an altitude of 82.7 km, which is recognised as space by the FAA, NASA, and the USAF (although not the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale).[35] This was the first time an American spacecraft had sent astronauts to space since the final Space Shuttle flight in 2011. On 11 July 2021 a fourth test flight was made above 80 km with six crew aboard, including the company owner Richard Branson.[36] As of January 2024, SpaceShipTwo has made 12 successful crewed spaceflights. The last flight of VSS Unity took place on 8 June 2024, marking the spacecraft's retirement.

Former space stations

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Salyut (1971–1986)

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Main article: Salyut program

Soviet/Russian low Earth orbit space stations.[37] Salyut 1 (1 crew 1971), Salyut 4 (2 crews 1975), Salyut 6 (6 crews 1977-1981), and Salyut 7 (12 crews 1982-1986). All now de-orbited.[38]

Almaz (1974–1977)

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Main article: Almaz

Soviet military reconnaissance low Earth orbit space stations. Badged as Salyut 3 (1 crew 1974), and Salyut 5 (2 crews 1976-1977), as disinformation. Both now deorbited.[38]

Skylab (1973–1974)

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Main article: Skylab

United States low Earth orbit space station. First United States space station. Visited by 3 crews 1973-1974. It deorbited in 1979.[39]

Mir (1986–2000)

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Main article: Mir

Soviet/Russian low Earth orbit modular space station. The first modular space station in history. Twenty-eight crews 1986-2000. Mir was visited by 29 Soyuz and 7 Space Shuttle missions. Mir was deorbited in 2001.[40]

Single Module Tiangong Laboratories 1 & 2 (2012–2016)

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Main article: Tiangong program

Chinese low Earth orbit space laboratories. Tiangong 1 was China's first space station; launched in 2011, visited by two crews 2012-2013, deorbited in 2018. Tiangong 2 was launched in 2016, visited by one crew in 2016, deorbited in 2019. Both vehicles were single-module laboratories, precursors to the modular Tiangong space station, which has modules derived from Tiangong 1 and 2.

Crewed spacecraft in development

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Orion

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Main article: Orion (spacecraft)

A spacecraft capable of lunar missions with a crew of four, planned to be used as part of NASA's Artemis program. Consisting of two components – a Crew Module (CM) manufactured by Lockheed Martin, and a European Service Module (ESM) manufactured by Airbus Defence and Space – the spacecraft are designed to support crewed exploration beyond low Earth orbit. Orion is equipped with solar power, an automated docking system, and glass cockpit interfaces modeled after those used in the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, and can support a crew of six in low Earth orbit and a crew of four in lunar orbit, up to 21 days undocked and up to six months docked. A single AJ10 engine provides the spacecraft's primary propulsion, while eight R-4D-11 engines and six pods of custom reaction control system (RCS) engines developed by Airbus provide the spacecraft's secondary propulsion. Although compatible with other launch vehicles, Orion is primarily designed to launch atop the Space Launch System (SLS) rocket. The first mission on that flew a fully configured Orion spacecraft and service module was Artemis I. This flight, however, was not a crewed mission and served the purpose of testing the systems of the spacecraft in the environment it was designed for. The first crewed mission Artemis II is planned for 2024 and will slingshot around the Moon. The following crewed Artemis III flight is planned for 2025 and will be a lunar landing mission.

Starship

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Main article: SpaceX Starship

Planned to be a fully reusable interplanetary spacecraft capable of carrying 100 passengers or cargo. Primarily designed for Mars missions it is to be capable of landing on all rocky planets or moons in the Solar System except Venus.[41] For Earth launches Starship will need a two-stage configuration with the addition of a powerful first stage booster called Super-Heavy. Flights from all other planetary bodies will not require a first stage booster. Starship will require refuelling in Earth orbit to enable it to reach other Solar System destinations.[42][43] Uncrewed test flights commenced in 2020 from Boca Chica, Texas. A custom crewed lunar version of Starship—Starship HLS—was selected in 2021 from three companies that developed design proposals for NASA's Human Landing System for NASA's Artemis program, with a view to land one uncrewed mission plus one crewed mission on the Moon no earlier than 2025.[44][45] SpaceX plans at least six variants of Starship, two of them intended to carry crew: Cargo flights, crewed flights (except HLS), a fuel depot,[46] a tanker version, expendable starships, and HLS.

Gaganyaan

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Main article: Gaganyaan

A three-person Earth orbital spacecraft intended to be the first crewed spacecraft of the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme. Gaganyaan will be capable of operating at low Earth orbit for up to seven days. The upgraded version will be equipped with rendezvous and docking capabilities. Its first crewed flight is planned for 2024[47] and four Indian astronauts have begun flight training in Russia.[48]

Mengzhou

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Main article: Mengzhou (spacecraft)
See also: Lanyue (spacecraft)

The Mengzhou spacecraft, developed by the China Aerospace Science and Technology Corp. (CASC) is a six-person, partially reusable lunar-capable spacecraft, aiming to succeed the Shenzhou.

An uncrewed test flight took place on 5 May 2020, with a crewed flight to low earth orbit possible by 2027 using a two-stage variant of the under-development Long March 10 rocket.[49] Lunar missions by the new spacecraft are expected in the 2030s with an initial lunar mission possible by 2030.[49][50]

A new Chinese crewed lunar lander called Lanyue is also currently under-development by the China Academy of Space Technology.[49]

Dream Chaser

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Main article: Dream Chaser

United States seven-person Earth orbital space plane.[51] An uncrewed cargo version is scheduled to fly in space in 2024, and a crewed version is planned to fly by 2025.[52]

Orel

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Main article: Orel (spacecraft)

Russian four-person lunar-capable spacecraft to enable the retirement of Soyuz. The first crewed flight is planned for 2025.[53]

SpaceShip III

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Main article: SpaceShip III

American eight-person suborbital spaceplane for use in space tourism and tended research flights.

Crewed spacecraft (planned)

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  • The Chinese company Space Transportation is developing a winged rocket for suborbital space tourism. As of January 2022, the first flight is planned for 2024.[54]
  • Copenhagen Suborbitals Tycho Brahe Micro Spacecraft (MSC) – a non-profit, all-volunteer project that aims to launch the first crewed amateur spacecraft into suborbital space. The project is being financed entirely through crowd-funding. If successful, this project will also make Denmark one of the few countries in the world that has a form of independent crewed spaceflight capabilities.
  • Dynetics HLS, a planned NASA-contracted Human Landing System to be used on and around the Moon for NASA's Artemis program being developed by Dynetics and Sierra Nevada Corporation (SNC). Was not selected for HLS program.
  • Integrated Lander Vehicle – a planned NASA-contracted, Blue Origin lead, Human Landing System to be used on and around the Moon for NASA's Artemis program. Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman, and Draper Laboratory are also developing key features of the vehicle. Was not selected for HLS program.
  • Pegasus is a Japanese sub-orbital rocket plane currently being developed by PD AeroSpace.[55]
  • RSSC – a Russian reusable sub-orbital space complex, currently being developed by a private company KosmoKurs.[56][57]
  • Selena – NPO Aerospace Technologies (НПО «Авиационно-космические технологии»), suborbital space yacht.[58]
  • Susie – Smart Upper Stage for Innovative Exploration – a 2022 Arianespace proposal for a fully reusable five-person craft for use by ESA for low earth orbit.[59]

Space stations in development

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  • Gateway – A NASA driven, under construction, international crewed space station orbiting the Moon to be assembled by commercial launch vehicles from 2024.[60]
  • Russian Orbital Service Station is Russia's planned Next Generation space station, designed and intended to replace the Russian Orbital Segment of the International Space Station.
  • Axiom Station is a planned private space station by the company Axiom Space. The initial modules are planned to be launched and docked with the international segment of the ISS before breaking off and forming a new, free-flying space station before the ISS is deorbited in the late 2020s.
  • Starlab Space Station is an in-development, private space station being developed by the company Nanoracks in cooperation with Lockheed Martin. This free-flying space station was announced by the company on October 21, 2021, with a planned launch date of 2027.[61]
  • Orbital Reef Station is a planned, private space station currently in development by Blue Origin and Sierra Nevada Corporation. This modular space station is being designed for commercial and space tourism missions and uses. Preliminary plans were unveiled on October 25, 2021 with a planned launch in the late 2020s.[62][63]
  • Haven-1 is a space station being developed by Vast.
  • Bharatiya Antariksha Station- The Indian Orbital Space Station, officially called, Bharatiya Antariksha Station (lit. 'Indian Space Station'), is a planned modular space station to be constructed by India and operated by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). As of December 2023, the first module is expected to be launched in 2028 on an LVM3 launch vehicle, with the remaining modules to be launched by 2035.

Cancelled crewed spacecraft and space stations

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Mockup of Bigelow's Space Station
  • The X-20 Dyna-Soar was a United States Air Force spaceplane intended to be used for military missions. The program to develop the spaceplane began in 1957 and was cancelled in 1963.
  • MOL, crewed space station operated by the United States Armed Forces derived from the NASA's Gemini spacecraft.[64] Cancelled in 1969.
  • LK, crewed Lunar lander for the Soviet crewed lunar programs. Several LK landers were flown in space with no crew.[65] Cancelled in 1976 with the rest of the program.
  • CSTS, a proposed collaborative effort between the European Space Agency and Roscosmos. Originally designed as an answer to the Orion program of NASA, the project was eventually cancelled and most of the designs were incorporated into Russia's next generation crewed spacecraft: Orel (spacecraft).
  • OPSEK was a proposed successor to Russia's involvement in the International Space Station Programme.[66] Cancelled in 2017 by Roscosmos.
  • Altair, (also known as the "Lunar Surface Access Module" or "LSAM" for short) was the planned lunar lander component of the Constellation Program. It would've been launched on the Ares V cargo launch vehicle and it, alongside an Earth Departure Stage would've awaited an Orion Spacecraft to launch and rendezvous with the spacecraft before the EDS sends it and Orion to the Moon with a crew of 4 astronauts for a lunar landing mission. Cancelled in 2010 alongside the rest of the Constellation program.
  • Bigelow Commercial Space Station or Space Complex Alpha, was a proposed private space habitat scheduled for 2021 initial deployment although this was suspended indefinitely as a result of Bigelow temporarily laying off their entire staff due to the COVID-19 pandemic. A Bigelow test module is currently[when?] installed on the International Space Station.[67]

See also

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References

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Citations

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  2. ^ Meghan Bartels (23 May 2020). "Here's every spaceship that's ever carried an astronaut into orbit". Space.com. Retrieved 9 February 2022.
  3. ^ Gatland, pp.148-165
  4. ^ Hollingham, Richard (2 December 2014). "Soyuz: The Soviet space survivor". BBC.
  5. ^ "Shenzhou Manned Spacecraft Programme". Aerospace Technology. 16 June 2012. Retrieved 26 August 2018.
  6. ^ "China space station: Shenzhou-12 delivers first crew to Tianhe module". BBC News. 17 June 2021.
  7. ^ April 2020, Tariq Malik 17 (17 April 2020). "SpaceX, NASA target May 27 for 1st Crew Dragon test flight with astronauts". Space.com.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
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  12. ^ February 2018, Elizabeth Howell 08 (13 October 2021). "International Space Station: Facts, History & Tracking". Space.com.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ Gatland, pp. 109-115
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  17. ^ Loff, Sarah (6 April 2015). "About Project Mercury". NASA. Archived from the original on 3 February 2017. Retrieved 2 April 2018.   This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  18. ^ Long, Tony (19 July 2007). "July 19, 1963: Cracking the 100-Kilometer-High Barrier ... in a Plane". Wired. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
  19. ^ Gatland, pp. 131-113
  20. ^ "The First Spacewalk". BBC News. 2014.
  21. ^ Gatland, pp. 166-185, 266-275
  22. ^ "The First U.S. Spacewalk - Gemini 4". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. NASA. 14 May 2020. Retrieved 13 February 2021.   This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
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  30. ^ "Virgin Galactic's SpaceShipTwo Crashes During Flight Test". NBC News. 31 October 2014.
  31. ^ Durden, Rick (31 October 2014). "Virgin Galactic's SpaceShipTwo Crashes". AVweb. Retrieved 31 October 2014.
  32. ^ Klotz, Irene (3 November 2014). "SpaceShipTwo's Rocket Engine Did Not Cause Fatal Crash". Discovery News. Archived from the original on 16 December 2014. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
  33. ^ "Virgin Galactic's SpaceShipTwo rocket plane crashes". 31 October 2014.
  34. ^ Tariq Malik (9 September 2016). "Virgin Galactic's 1st VSS Unity Captive Carry Test Flight in Photos". Space.com. Retrieved 10 June 2024.
  35. ^ "Virgin Galactic launches SpaceShipTwo to the edge of space". the Guardian. 13 December 2018.
  36. ^ "Sir Richard Branson takes off on 'extraordinary' space flight". BBC News. 11 July 2021.
  37. ^ Gatland, pp. 229-246
  38. ^ a b "Space Station – The Station – Russian Space History". pbs.org!publisher=PBS.
  39. ^ "History of the NASA Skylab, America's first space station". phys.org.
  40. ^ "Mir Space Station". history.nasa.gov. NASA.   This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  41. ^ Lawler, Richard (20 November 2018). "SpaceX BFR has a new name: Starship". Engadget. Retrieved 21 November 2018.
  42. ^ Boyle, Alan (19 November 2018). "Goodbye, BFR ... hello, Starship: Elon Musk gives a classic name to his Mars spaceship". GeekWire. Retrieved 22 November 2018. Starship is the spaceship/upper stage and Super Heavy is the rocket booster needed to escape Earth's deep gravity well (not needed for other planets or moons).
  43. ^ "Starship". SpaceX. Archived from the original on 30 September 2019. Retrieved 2 October 2019.
  44. ^ Foust, Jeff (16 April 2021). "NASA selects SpaceX to develop crewed lunar lander". SpaceNews. Retrieved 18 August 2021.
  45. ^ Burghardt, Thomas (May 2020). "NASA Selects Blue Origin, Dynetics, and SpaceX Human Landers for Artemis". NASASpaceFlight.com. Retrieved 22 September 2020.
  46. ^ "NASA Releases Details on how Starship Will be Part of its Return to the Moon". 18 March 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
  47. ^ Singh, Surendra (17 February 2021). "Gaganyaan manned mission not before 2023: Minister". The Times of India. Retrieved 1 July 2021.
  48. ^ "4 astronauts for India's first manned mission to space 'Gaganyaan' identified". Mint. 1 January 2020. Retrieved 1 July 2021.
  49. ^ a b c Andrew Jones (17 July 2023). "China sets out preliminary crewed lunar landing plan". spacenews.com. Retrieved 24 July 2023.
  50. ^ "This Is China's New Spacecraft to Take Astronauts to the Moon (Photos)". Space.com. 2 October 2019.
  51. ^ Ferster, Warren (18 April 2011). "NASA Announces CCDev 2 Awards". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 2 February 2013. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
  52. ^ "Dream Chaser on Track for 2021 Cargo Mission, Crew Within 5 Years".
  53. ^ "Russian Space Agency commits billions of rubles more to 'Oryol' next-gen spacecraft". Space Daily.
  54. ^ "Chinese space plane company targets suborbital tourism, point-to-point travel by 2025". 27 January 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
  55. ^ Chandran, Nyshka (12 April 2017). "SpaceX doesn't scare Asia's space players". CNBC.
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  57. ^ "КосмоКурс – Главная". cosmocourse.com.
  58. ^ "Космическая "Селена": зачем в России хотят создать "суборбитальную яхту"". Репортёр. 13 April 2019.
  59. ^ "This Reusable Space Freighter Would 'Open the Door' to European Space Exploration". Gizmodo. 19 September 2022. Retrieved 24 September 2022.
  60. ^ Warner, Cheryl (13 February 2018). "NASA's Lunar Outpost will Extend Human Presence in Deep Space".   This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  61. ^ "Nanoracks announces plans for commercial space station – Spaceflight Now".
  62. ^ "Orbital Reef one pager" (PDF). Blue Origin. Retrieved 20 November 2022.
  63. ^ "Blue Origin and Sierra Space Developing Commercial Space Station" (PDF). Blue Origin. 25 October 2011. Retrieved 20 November 2022.
  64. ^ "MOL". astronautix.com. www.astronautix.com. Archived from the original on 20 August 2016.
  65. ^ "Lunar Module (LK)". russianspaceweb.com. Russian Space Web.
  66. ^ "Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex, OPSEK". russianspaceweb.com. Russian Space Web.
  67. ^ Mosher, Dave. "A new company plans to launch huge, inflatable spacecraft into orbit — and sell reservations to countries and tourists". Business Insider.

Sources

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  • Gatland, Kenneth (1976). Manned Spacecraft (2nd ed.). New York, NY: MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc. ISBN 0-02-542820-9.
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