Wikipedia

List of World Chess Championships

The World Chess Championship has taken various forms over time, including both match and tournament play. While the concept of a world champion of chess had already existed for decades, with several events considered by some to have established the world's foremost player, an event explicitly held to decide a world champion did not take place until 1886. World Championships were initially privately organized matches, with each requiring the consent of the incumbent champion to take place. After 1948, the International Chess Federation (FIDE) began organizing the Championship under its auspices. The championship was fixed to a three-year cycle, with each challenger decided by a Candidates Tournament. In 1993, the short-lived Professional Chess Association (PCA) split from FIDE, and as a result there were two competing World Championship titles between 1993 and 2006.

Emanuel Lasker and Wilhelm Steinitz both sitting down at a chessboard during a game. Steinitz has the White pieces, and Lasker has the Black pieces.
Emanuel Lasker (left) facing incumbent champion Wilhelm Steinitz (right) in Philadelphia during the 1894 World Chess Championship

Key

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Key to symbols and headers
Date The year the event took place, further disambiguated as needed
† Event was a tournament, as opposed to a match.
‡ Event resulted in a draw, with the champion retaining the title.
# Scheduled event did not take place.
✻ Event began, but was abandoned without any result.
Winner The winner of the event, or the champion otherwise retaining the title. Numerals denote the updated number of event wins or title defences by the champion.
Score The performance of the eventual champion. Segments such as tiebreaks are listed sequentially. Head-to-head tournament results are given in a footnote.
Runner-up The second-place finisher of the event, or the challenger for a match without a winner
Ref References and footnotes corresponding to the event

Predecessor events (before 1886)

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Chess was first introduced to Europe during the 9th century.[1] In the early modern era, following the solidification of the modern rules of chess, the game continued to carry consistent prestige and public interest.[2] While numerous players have been characterized as the game's strongest over the centuries, the idea of an international chess match or tournament did not occur until the 18th century,[3] and did not materialize until the 19th century.[4] While the following events did not have the title of World Champion at stake, they have been recognized—either at the time or in retrospect—as indicating the world's leading player.

Predecessor events prior to 1886
Date Location Winner Score Runner-up Format Ref
1834   London   Louis de La Bourdonnais 18‍–‍7
4‍–‍5
6½‍–‍5½
11½‍–‍6½
7½‍–‍4½
4‍–‍5 		  Alexander McDonnell Casual play [5]
1843   Paris   Howard Staunton 13‍–‍8   Pierre Saint-Amant First to 11 wins [6]
1851†   London   Adolf Anderssen 15‍–‍6[a]   Marmaduke Wyvill Single-elimination tournament with 16 players [7]
1858   Paris   Paul Morphy 8‍–‍3   Adolf Anderssen First to 7 wins [8]
1862†   London   Adolf Anderssen 11½‍–‍1½   Louis Paulsen Round-robin tournament with 14 players [9]
1866   London   Wilhelm Steinitz 8‍–‍6   Adolf Anderssen Best of 15 [10]
1883†   London   Johannes Zukertort 22‍–‍4   Wilhelm Steinitz Double round-robin tournament with 14 players [11]
  1. ^ 2½‍–‍½ Kieseritzky; 4‍–‍2 Szén; 4‍–‍1 Staunton; 4½‍–‍2½ Wyvill

Privately organized matches (1886–1946)

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With both Wilhelm Steinitz and Johannes Zukertort seen as plausible claimants, the two played a match for the first World Championship in 1886. While Steinitz would later claim that he had been the World Champion since the 1860s, no match before 1886 was played for any formal title.[12] From then until after World War II, championship matches were privately organized, and the champion was not formally obliged to face an opponent. An agreement had to be reached between the champion, the challenger, and the patrons sponsoring each match, which included providing the funds for the prize pool.[13] Lasker's 27-year reign as World Champion is the longest in the history of organized chess since 1886, but featured two separate 10-year spans during which he did not defend his title.

Privately organized matches (1886–1946)
Date Location Winner Score Runner-up Format Ref
1886   New York City (1–5), St. Louis (6–9), New Orleans (10–15)   Wilhelm Steinitz 12½‍–‍7½   Johannes Zukertort First to 10 wins [14]
1889   Havana   Wilhelm Steinitz (2) 10½‍–‍6½   Mikhail Chigorin Best of 20, tiebreak if required [15]
1890–1891   New York City   Wilhelm Steinitz (3) 10½‍–‍8½   Isidor Gunsberg [16]
1892   Havana   Wilhelm Steinitz (4) 10‍–‍10
2½‍–‍½ 		  Mikhail Chigorin [17]
1894   New York City (1–8), Philadelphia (9–11),   Montréal (12–19)   Emanuel Lasker 12‍–‍7   Wilhelm Steinitz First to 10 wins [18]
1896–1897   Moscow   Emanuel Lasker (2) 12½‍–‍4½   Wilhelm Steinitz [19]
1907   New York City (1–6, 15), Philadelphia (7–8), Washington, D.C. (9), Baltimore (10), Chicago (11), Memphis (12–14)   Emanuel Lasker (3) 11½‍–‍3½   Frank Marshall First to 8 wins [20]
1908   Düsseldorf (1–4), Munich (5–16)   Emanuel Lasker (4) 10½‍–‍5½   Siegbert Tarrasch [21]
Jan–Feb 1910‡   Vienna (1–5),
  Berlin (6–10) 		  Emanuel Lasker (5) 5‍–‍5   Carl Schlechter Best of 10 [22]
Nov–Dec 1910   Berlin   Emanuel Lasker (6) 9½‍–‍1½   Dawid Janowski First to 8 wins [23]
1921   Havana   José Raúl Capablanca 9‍–‍5   Emanuel Lasker Best of 24 [24]
1927   Buenos Aires   Alexander Alekhine 18½‍–‍15½   José Raúl Capablanca First to 6 wins [25]
1929   Wiesbaden (1–8, 24–25), Heidelberg (9–11), Berlin (12–17),
  The Hague (18–19, 23), Rotterdam (20), Amsterdam (21–22) 		  Alexander Alekhine (2) 15½‍–‍9½   Efim Bogoljubow First to both 6 wins and 15 points [26]
1934   12 cities[A]   Alexander Alekhine (3) 15½‍–‍10½   Efim Bogoljubow [27]
1935   12 cities[B]   Max Euwe 15½‍–‍14½   Alexander Alekhine [28]
1937   9 cities[C]   Alexander Alekhine (4) 15½‍–‍9½   Max Euwe [29]
Title vacant from 1946 to 1948, following the death of Alekhine.
  1. ^   Baden-Baden (1–3), Villingen (4–5), Freiburg (6–8), Pforzheim (9–10), Stuttgart (11–12), Munich (13–15), Bayreuth (16), Kissingen (17–18), Nuremberg (19–20), Karlsruhe (21), Mannheim (22–24), Berlin (25–26)
  2. ^   Amsterdam (1–3, 8–9, 12–13, 18, 20, 23, 25–26, 28–30), The Hague (4, 6, 11, 22, 27), Delft (5, 24), Utrecht (7), Gouda (10), Groningen (14), Baarn (15), 's-Hertogenbosch (16), Eindhoven (17), Zeist (19), Ermelo (21), Zandvoort (26). Game 26 began on one day in Zandvoort, and was finished on a later day in Amsterdam.
  3. ^   The Hague (1, 5, 9–10, 17–18, 25), Rotterdam (2, 7, 15–16, 23–24), Amsterdam (3–4, 12–13, 20–21), Haarlem (6), Leiden (8), Groningen (11), Zwolle (14), Eindhoven (19), Delft (22)

FIDE World Championships (1948–1990)

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From right to left: World Champion Anatoly Karpov, former World Champion and FIDE President Max Euwe, and Euwe's wife Caro Bergman. Photo taken in 1976.

In 1946, Alexander Alekhine died while still holding the title of World Chess Champion. The International Chess Federation (FIDE), which had been founded in 1924, had been attempting to directly participate in organizing the World Championship since at least 1935. By the late 1940s, around half of the plausible contenders for the World Championship were Soviet citizens, and in 1947, the Soviet Chess Federation joined FIDE after decades of declining to do so. FIDE based the 1948 World Chess Championship on the 1938 AVRO tournament that had been organized in part to select a challenger for Alekhine. The tournament ultimately featured five players, three of them Soviet citizens—including the winner, Mikhail Botvinnik. Botvinnik would go on to win or retain in four further championship matches. At the same time, FIDE established the rules for the championship going forward. It would be organized around a 3-year cycle, during which a series of Zonal and Interzonal tournaments would be held, with their highest-scoring performers invited to a Candidates Tournament. The winner of the this tournament would in turn play the champion in a match for the title. A defeated champion was entitled to a rematch the following year, after which the 3-year cycle would resume; Botvinnik benefited from this rule twice, in 1958 and 1961.[30]

With the exception of the American Bobby Fischer in 1972, Soviet citizens won every championship from 1948 until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. With the further exception of Viktor Korchnoi, who had defected from the USSR in 1976, each challenger was also a Soviet citizen. Following his victory, Fischer never played another game organized by FIDE. Disagreements between the two parties—including Fischer insisting on a format requiring the victor to get a certain number of wins, as opposed to the number of games in a match being fixed—led to his forfeiting the title in 1975. In the absence of a match, FIDE declared Anatoly Karpov, winner of the 1974 Candidates Tournament, to be the World Chess Champion by default.[31]

While the issue had played a role in Fischer's forfeit, FIDE ultimately did change the match format going forward, such that the first to win 6 games would be champion.[32] Under these rules, Karpov twice defended his title against Korchnoi. The next match—which began in September 1984 and featured the 21-year-old Garry Kasparov as Karpov's challenger—ultimately saw 48 games played over the span of five months, with neither player able to get to 6 wins. In an unprecedented step, FIDE president Florencio Campomanes stepped in and declared the match to have ended with no result. A new match, which would revert to having a set number of games, was to be played later in 1985. After nearly being knocked out early in 1984, Kasparov defeated Karpov in their rematch. Over the following decade, the two would play three more championship matches, with Kasparov narrowly retaining the title in each.[33]

FIDE World Championships (1948–1990)
Date Location Winner Score Runner-up Format Ref
1948†   The Hague (1–10),
  Moscow (11–20) 		  Mikhail Botvinnik 14‍–‍6[a]   Vasily Smyslov Quintuple round-robin tournament with 5 players [34]
1951‡   Moscow   Mikhail Botvinnik (2) 12‍–‍12   David Bronstein Best of 24 [35]
1954‡   Mikhail Botvinnik (3) 12‍–‍12   Vasily Smyslov [36]
1957   Vasily Smyslov 12½‍–‍9½   Mikhail Botvinnik [37]
1958   Mikhail Botvinnik (4) 12½‍–‍10½   Vasily Smyslov [37]
1960   Mikhail Tal 12½‍–‍8½   Mikhail Botvinnik [38]
1961   Mikhail Botvinnik (5) 13‍–‍8   Mikhail Tal [39]
1963   Tigran Petrosian 12½‍–‍9½   Mikhail Botvinnik [40]
1966   Tigran Petrosian (2) 12½‍–‍11½   Boris Spassky [41]
1969   Boris Spassky 12½‍–‍10½   Tigran Petrosian [42]
1972   Reykjavík   Bobby Fischer 12½‍–‍8½   Boris Spassky [43]
1975#   Manila   Anatoly Karpov —   Bobby Fischer [44]
1978   Baguio   Anatoly Karpov (2) 16½‍–‍15½   Viktor Korchnoi First to 6 wins [45]
1981   Merano   Anatoly Karpov (3) 11‍–‍7   Viktor Korchnoi [46]
1984–1985✻   Moscow   Anatoly Karpov 25‍–‍23   Garry Kasparov [47]
1985   Garry Kasparov 13‍–‍11   Anatoly Karpov Best of 24 [48]
1986   Moscow (1–12),
  London (13–24) 		  Garry Kasparov (2) 12½‍–‍11½   Anatoly Karpov [49]
1987‡   Seville   Garry Kasparov (3) 12‍–‍12   Anatoly Karpov [50]
1990   New York City (1–12),
  Lyon (13–24) 		  Garry Kasparov (4) 12½‍–‍11½   Anatoly Karpov [51]
  1. ^ 3‍–‍2 Smyslov; 4‍–‍1 Keres; 3½‍–‍1½ Reshevsky; 3½‍–‍1½ Euwe

Split title (1993–2006)

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Play between Garry Kasparov (left) and Viswanathan Anand (right) in the Top of the World observation deck of 2 World Trade Center during the 1995 PCA World Chess Championship

In 1993, following Nigel Short's victory in the Candidates Tournament, FIDE president Campomanes announced that that year's Championship would take place in Manchester, England. Both Kasparov and Short claimed that FIDE had made this decision without consulting either player, in violation of FIDE's regulations regarding the championship. Kasparov and Short responded by splitting from FIDE and forming the Professional Chess Association (PCA),[52] which organized a World Championship match between the two, played in London later that year. Meanwhile, FIDE stripped Kasparov of his title and organized a championship match between Karpov and Jan Timman, who had finished second and third in the Candidates Tournament.[53] For the 13 years between 1993 and 2006, there were two rival titles. While the PCA itself would fold after only a couple of years, Kasparov would retain what is referred to as "Classical" title, which would be inherited by Vladimir Kramnik upon defeating Kasparov in 2000.[54]

Meanwhile, FIDE once again began experimenting with the championship format. Beginning with the 1998 championship, the system of Zonal, Interzonal, Candidates, and Championship stages was replaced with one single-elimination tournament featuring dozens of players competing for the championship. For the next event in 1999, the incumbent World Champion would not automatically qualify for the finals. Due to this additional change, Karpov—who had won three additional titles during the schism—declined to participate going forward. Each of the four Classical Championships retained a traditional match format.[55]

Classical World Chess Championships (1993–2006)
Date Location Winner Score Runner-up Format Ref
1993   London   Garry Kasparov (5) 12½‍–‍7½   Nigel Short Best of 24 [56]
1995   New York City   Garry Kasparov (6) 10½‍–‍7½   Viswanathan Anand Best of 20 [57]
2000   London   Vladimir Kramnik 8½‍–‍6½   Garry Kasparov Best of 16 [58]
2004‡   Brissago   Vladimir Kramnik (2) 7‍–‍7   Peter Leko Best of 14 [59]
FIDE World Chess Championships (1993–2006)
Date Location Winner Score Runner-up Format Ref
1993
  Anatoly Karpov (4) 12½‍–‍8½   Jan Timman Best of 24 [60]
1996   Elista   Anatoly Karpov (5) 10½‍–‍7½   Gata Kamsky Best of 20 [61]
1998†   Lausanne   Anatoly Karpov (6) 3‍–‍3
2‍–‍0
[a] 		  Viswanathan Anand Single-elimination tournament with 100 players [62]
1999†   Las Vegas   Alexander Khalifman 18½‍–‍11½
[b] 		  Vladimir Akopian [63]
2000†
  Viswanathan Anand 14‍–‍6
[c] 		  Alexei Shirov [64]
2002†   Moscow   Ruslan Ponomariov 19‍–‍9
[d] 		  Vasyl Ivanchuk Single-elimination tournament with 128 players [65]
2004†   Tripoli   Rustam Kasimdzhanov 20‍–‍10
[e] 		  Michael Adams [66]
2005†   Potrero de los Funes   Veselin Topalov 10‍–‍4
[f] 		  Viswanathan Anand Double round-robin tournament with 8 players [67]
  1. ^ Karpov was automatically seeded into the final round: a best of 6, with tiebreaks as needed.
  2. ^ 3½‍–‍2½ Barua; 2½‍–‍1½ Kamsky; 1½‍–‍½ Asrian; 2½‍–‍1½ Gelfand; 1½‍–‍½ Polgár; 3½‍–‍2½ Nisipeanu; 3½‍–‍2½ Akopian
  3. ^ Anand had a bye in the first round. 1½‍–‍½ Bologan; 1½‍–‍½ Lputian; 1½‍–‍½ Macieja; 3½‍–‍2½ Khalifman; 2½‍–‍1½ Adams; 3½‍–‍½ Shirov
  4. ^ 1½‍–‍½ Li; 3‍–‍1 Tiviakov; 2‍–‍0 Georgiev; 2½‍–‍1½ Morozevich; 3‍–‍1 Bareev; 2½‍–‍1½ Svidler; 4½‍–‍2½ Ivanchuk
  5. ^ 2½‍–‍1½ Ramírez; 1½‍–‍½ Ghaem Maghami; 2½‍–‍1½ Ivanchuk; 2‍–‍0 Almási; 3‍–‍1 Grischuk; 4‍–‍2 Topalov; 4½‍–‍3½ Adams
  6. ^ 1‍–‍1 Anand; 1½‍–‍½ Svidler; 1½‍–‍½ Morozevich; 1½‍–‍½ Leko; 1½‍–‍½ Kasimdzhanov; 1½‍–‍½ Adams; 1½‍–‍½ Polgár

FIDE World Championships (2006–present)

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Ian Nepomniachtchi (left) and Magnus Carlsen (right) beginning game 11 of the 2021 Championship

Following a period of negotiation, in 2006 the Classical Champion Vladimir Kramnik played a match against the FIDE Champion Veselin Topalov to reunify the World Championship.[68] Since then, the championship has remained under the auspices of FIDE. The Candidates Tournament returned, and with the exception of the 2007 tournament, FIDE would return to a match format for the World Championship. Instead of the previous system of Zonals and Interzonals to provide candidates, the system was redesigned around the Chess World Cup.[69] Later, means for selecting candidates would variously include the FIDE Grand Prix, the FIDE Grand Swiss Tournament, selection by rating, and wild cards selected by the venue hosting the event.[70]

While shorter matches had taken place at various points, the block of 12 classical games was much shorter than matches had been for much of the 20th century. In the 2018 match, all 12 classical games resulted in draws for the first time in the history of the championship. Following this, the number of games was increased to 14.[71] Citing a lack of motivation and interest in the format, incumbent five-time champion Magnus Carlsen declined to defend his title in 2023.[72] Instead, the match featured the two best performers in the Candidates, with Ding Liren defeating Ian Nepomniachtchi to become the new World Champion. Carlsen later declined his spot in the 2024 Candidates Tournament.[73]

FIDE World Championships (2006–present)
Date Location Winner Score Runner-up Format Ref
2006   Elista   Vladimir Kramnik (3) 6‍–‍6
2½‍–‍1½ 		  Veselin Topalov Best of 12, tiebreaks if necessary [74]
2007†   Mexico City   Viswanathan Anand (2) 9‍–‍5
[a] 		  Vladimir Kramnik Double round-robin tournament with 8 players [75]
2008   Bonn   Viswanathan Anand (3) 6½‍–‍4½   Vladimir Kramnik Best of 12, tiebreaks if necessary [76]
2010   Sofia   Viswanathan Anand (4) 6½‍–‍5½   Veselin Topalov [77]
2012   Moscow   Viswanathan Anand (5) 6‍–‍6
2½‍–‍1½ 		  Boris Gelfand [78]
2013   Chennai   Magnus Carlsen 6½‍–‍3½   Viswanathan Anand [79]
2014   Sochi   Magnus Carlsen (2) 6½‍–‍4½   Viswanathan Anand [80]
2016   New York City   Magnus Carlsen (3) 6‍–‍6
3‍–‍1 		  Sergey Karjakin [81]
2018   London   Magnus Carlsen (4) 6‍–‍6
3‍–‍0 		  Fabiano Caruana [82]
2021   Dubai   Magnus Carlsen (5) 7½‍–‍3½   Ian Nepomniachtchi Best of 14, tiebreaks if necessary [83]
2023   Astana   Ding Liren 7‍–‍7
2½‍–‍1½ 		  Ian Nepomniachtchi [84]
2024   Singapore   Ding Liren vs.   Gukesh Dommaraju [85]
  1. ^ 1‍–‍1 Kramnik; 1‍–‍1 Gelfand; 1‍–‍1 Leko; 1½‍–‍½ Svidler; 1½‍–‍½ Morozevich; 1½‍–‍½ Aronian; 1½‍–‍½ Grischuk

Unrecognized championship events

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In 1909, amid discussions that would ultimately culminate with the World Championship match played the following year, Emanuel Lasker played a casual match with Dawid Janowski in Paris. This was reported in later decades as being a World Championship match.[86] However, research by Edward Winter has demonstrated that the title was not at stake.[87]

Unrecognized championship events
Date Location Winner Score Runner-up Format
1909   Paris   Emanuel Lasker 8‍–‍2   Dawid Janowski Best of 10, casual play

See also

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  • Fischer–Spassky (1992 match) – rematch between Bobby Fischer and Boris Spassky in Belgrade 20 years after their first match, considered by Fischer to be and billed as a World Chess Championship

References

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Citations

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  1. ^ Murray 1913, p. 405.
  2. ^ Murray 1913, pp. 774–779.
  3. ^ Murray 1913, p. 845.
  4. ^ Murray 1913, p. 883.
  5. ^
    • Pope, Nick. "1834 La Bourdonnais–Macdonnell Matches". Chess Archaeology. Archived from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 16 January 2024.
    • Capablanca 1977, p. 47
    • Sergeant 1934, p. 39, "Labourdonnais by his victory might fairly be entitled to call himself the leading player of the world"
  6. ^
  7. ^
  8. ^
    • Lawson, David (2010). Aiello, Thomas (ed.). Paul Morphy, The Pride and Sorrow of Chess. Lafayette: University of Louisiana Press. p. 172. ISBN 978-1-887366-97-7.
    • Horowitz 1973, pp. 5–6, 15–16
  9. ^ Horowitz 1973, p. 16; Löwenthal, Johann (1864). The Chess Congress of 1862. H. G. Bohn. OCLC 651260808.
  10. ^
    • Capablanca 1977, p. 47
    • Murray 1913, p. 888, "But after 1860 the opinion that the Tournament was not the best way of discovering the strongest player of the day became general, and the match became the recognized test. It was as a result of his match with Wilhelm Steinitz, in 1866, which he lost by 6 games to 8, that Anderssen's supremacy is assumed to have come to an end."
  11. ^
  12. ^ Winter 2023a.
  13. ^ Winter 1954, pp. 9–10.
  14. ^ Murray 1913, p. 889.
  15. ^ Kažić 1974, pp. 208–210.
  16. ^ Pope, Nick. "1890 Gunsberg-Steinitz World Championship Match". Chess Archaeology. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
  17. ^ Kažić 1974, pp. 208–211.
  18. ^ Pope, Nick. "1894 Lasker-Steinitz World Championship Match". Chess Archaeology. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
  19. ^ Kažić 1974, p. 213.
  20. ^ "The Championship Match". Free Press Prairie Farmer. 24 April 1907. p. 6. Archived from the original on 9 January 2024. Retrieved 9 January 2024 – via Newspapers.com.
  21. ^ Tarrasch, Siegbert (2021) [1908]. Der Schachwettkampf Lasker-Tarrasch um die Weltmeisterschaft im August-September 1908 [The Lasker–Tarrasch chess competition for the world championship in August–September 1908] (in German). De Gruyter. pp. 9–110. doi:10.1515/9783112515143. ISBN 978-3-11-251514-3. S2CID 244540032.
  22. ^ Kažić 1974, p. 216.
  23. ^ Kažić 1974, p. 217; Wilson 1975, p. 151.
  24. ^ Kažić 1974, pp. 217–218.
  25. ^ Kažić 1974, pp. 219–220.
  26. ^ Verhoeven & Skinner 1998, p. 364–371.
  27. ^ Verhoeven & Skinner 1998, p. 489-491.
  28. ^ Euwe, Max; Alekhine, Alexander (1973) [1936]. Smith, Ken (ed.). Euwe vs. Alekhine Match 1935. Translated by DeVault, Roy. Dallas, TX: Chess Digest. OCLC 3146006.
  29. ^ Botvinnik, Mikhail (1973) [1937]. Smith, Ken (ed.). Alekhine vs. Euwe Return Match 1937. Translated by DeVault, Roy. Dallas, TX: Chess Digest. OCLC 4395696.
  30. ^ Winter, Edward (2004). "Interregnum". chesshistory.com. Archived from the original on 28 May 2023. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
  31. ^ Plisetsky & Voronkov 1994, pp. 363–366.
  32. ^ Plisetsky & Voronkov 1994, p. 365.
  33. ^ Winter 1988.
  34. ^ Horowitz 1973, pp. 120–136; Kažić 1974, p. 224.
  35. ^ Kažić 1974, p. 225.
  36. ^ Kažić 1974, p. 226.
  37. ^ a b Kažić 1974, p. 227.
  38. ^ Kažić 1974, p. 228.
  39. ^ Kažić 1974, p. 229.
  40. ^ Kažić 1974, p. 230.
  41. ^ Kažić 1974, pp. 230–231.
  42. ^ Kažić 1974, p. 231.
  43. ^ Kažić 1974, pp. 232–241.
  44. ^ Plisetsky & Voronkov 1994, pp. 361–366.
  45. ^ Winter 1981, p. 169.
  46. ^ Calvo, R. (1981). Merano 1981 Karpov–Korchnoi: Lucha por el Campeonato del mundo de ajedrez (in Spanish). San Sebastián: Jaque. ISBN 978-84-300-6139-6.
  47. ^ Kasparov 2008, pp. 54–254; Winter 1988.
  48. ^ Kasparov 2008, pp. 277–419.
  49. ^ Kasparov 2009, pp. 21–237.
  50. ^ Kasparov 2009, pp. 238–428.
  51. ^ Kasparov 2010, pp. 81–282.
  52. ^ "Kasparov Breaks With World Chess Body". The New York Times. 27 February 1993. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 17 January 2018. Retrieved 16 January 2024.
  53. ^ "A Chess Title Match Is to Start on Sept. 7". The New York Times. 24 April 1993. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 17 January 2018. Retrieved 16 January 2024.
  54. ^ McClain, Dylan Loeb; Fleck, Fiona (4 October 2004). "And They're Off, but Will Winner Be True Champion of Chess?". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 6 February 2018. Retrieved 16 January 2024.
  55. ^ McClain, Dylan Loeb (31 October 2000). "A Chess Match Is Waged for a World Title Whose Authenticity Is Challenged". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 19 November 2023. Retrieved 16 January 2024.
  56. ^ Keene, Raymond D. (1993). Kasparov v. Short 1993: The Official Book of the Match. New York: Holt. ISBN 978-0-8050-3308-3.
  57. ^ Keene, Raymond D. (1995). World Chess Championship: Kasparov v. Anand. New York: Holt. ISBN 978-0-8050-4231-3.
  58. ^ Bareev & Levitov 2007, pp. 29–172.
  59. ^ Bareev & Levitov 2007, pp. 173–300.
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Works cited

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Further reading

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  • Barcza, Gedeon; Alföldy, László; Kapu, Jenö (2014) [1975]. Die Weltmeister Des Schachspiels: von Morphy bis Aljechin [The World Champions of Chess: From Morphy to Alekhine] (in German). Vol. 1 (Repr. ed.). Hamburg: Ishi. ISBN 978-4-87187-923-1.
    Die Weltmeister Des Schachspiels: von Botwinnik bis Fischer [The World Champions of Chess: From Botvinnik to Fischer] (in German). Vol. 2 (Reprint ed.). Hamburg: Ishi. 2014 [1975]. ISBN 978-4-87187-924-8.
  • Davidson, Henry A. (1981) [1949]. A Short History of Chess. McKay. ISBN 978-0-679-14550-9.
  • Golombek, Harry (1976). Chess: A History. New York: Putnam. ISBN 978-0-399-11575-2.
  • Winter, Edward (ed.). "World Chess Championship Rules". Retrieved 9 January 2024 – via chesshistory.com.
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