Wikipedia

List of South American animals extinct in the Holocene

This is a list of South American animals extinct in the Holocene that covers extinctions from the Holocene epoch, a geologic epoch that began about 11,650 years before present (about 9700 BCE)[A] and continues to the present day.[1]

Map of South America

The list includes animal extinctions in the Galápagos, Falklands, and other islands near the continent. Extinct animals from the West Indies are covered in List of Antillian and Bermudan animals extinct in the Holocene. Extinctions from Easter Island, a territory of Chile in Polynesia, are covered in the List of Oceanian species extinct in the Holocene.

Many extinction dates are unknown due to a lack of relevant information.

Mammals (class Mammalia)

edit

Opossums (order Didelphimorphia)

edit

Opossums (family Didelphidae)

edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments
Red-bellied gracile opossum Cryptonanus ignitus Jujuy, Argentina Last collected in 1962. The only known locality was destroyed by agriculture and urban development.[2]
Possibly extinct
edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments
One-striped opossum Monodelphis unistriata Southeastern Brazil and northeastern Argentina Only collected twice, in 1821 in Brazil and 1899 in Argentina. The causes of decline are unknown, but possibly related to habitat loss through logging and agriculture.[3]

Armadillos, pampatheres, and glyptodonts (order Cingulata)

edit

Long-nosed armadillos (family Dasypodidae)

edit
Scientific name Range Comments
Propraopus sulcatus Eastern South America Most recent remains at Toca do Serrote do Artur, Brazil dated to 6660-4880 BCE.[4]

Chlamyphorid armadillos and glyptodonts (family Chlamyphoridae)

edit
Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Doedicurus clavicaudatus South American pampas Most recent remains at Arroyo Seco, Argentina dated to 4765-4445 BCE.[4]  
Eutatus seguini Northern Argentina and Uruguay Most recent remains at Arroyo Seco, Argentina dated to 6389-6060 BCE.[5]
 
Glyptodon clavipes Eastern Brazil to the Argentinian pampa[6] Most recent remains at Toca do Serrote do Artur, Brazil dated to 6660-4880 BCE.[4]  
Glyptodon reticulatus Southern Brazil Found in the late Pleistocene to early Holocene of Upper Ribeira Valley, southeastern Sao Paulo, Brazil but without direct datation.[7]  
Glyptotherium cylindricum Florida and Texas to northeastern Brazil Found in the late Pleistocene to early Holocene of Serra do Ramalho, Brazil but without direct datation.[8]  
Hoplophorus euphractus Eastern Brazil Most recent remains at Toca do Serrote do Artur, Brazil dated to 6660-4880 BCE.[4]
 
Neosclerocalyptus ornatus[9] Southern South America Most recent remains in Paraguay dated to 5120 BCE.[10]  
Neuryurus sp. Eastern Argentina and Uruguay Most recent remains at Lobería, Argentina dated to c. 19050-8050 BCE.[11]
Panochthus tuberculatus Argentina to southern Brazil Found in the late Pleistocene to early Holocene of Luján, Argentina but without direct datation.[12]  

Pachyarmatheres (family Pachyarmatheriidae)

edit
Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Pachyarmatherium brasiliense Eastern Brazil Found in the late Pleistocene to early Holocene of Serra do Ramalho, Brazil but without direct datation.[8]  

Pampatheres (family Pampatheriidae)

edit
Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Holmesina majus Minas Gerais and Ceará, Brazil Found in the late Pleistocene to early Holocene of Serra do Ramalho, Brazil but without direct datation.[8]
Pampatherium sp. Mexico, Central and South America  

Anteaters and sloths (order Pilosa)

edit

Megalonychid ground sloths (family Megalonychidae)

edit
Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Ahytherium aureum Eastern Brazil Found in the late Pleistocene to early Holocene of Upper Ribeira Valley, southeastern Sao Paulo, Brazil but without direct datation.[7]  

Giant ground sloths (family Megatheriidae)

edit
Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Eremotherium laurillardi Southern United States to Brazil Most recent remains in eastern Brazil dated to 7800-7740 BCE.[13]  
Megatherium americanum Temperate South America and the Andes Most recent remains at Campo Laborde, Argentina were dated to 5270-4310 BCE and show signs of human hunting and processing.[9]  

Mylodonts (family Mylodontidae)

edit
Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Glossotherium robustum South America Most recent remains at El Cautivo, Ecuador dated to 6810-6650 BCE.[4]  
Lestodon armatus Southern Brazil Found in the late Pleistocene to early Holocene of Upper Ribeira Valley, southeastern Sao Paulo, Brazil but without direct datation.[7]  
Mylodon darwini Pampas and Patagonia Most recent remains at Cueva del Milodón, Chile dated to 10935-8804 BCE.[14]  
Scelidodon chiliensis Western South America Most recent remains at Pampa de los Fósiles, Peru, dated to 7160-6760 BCE.[4]  

Scelidotherid ground sloths (family Scelidotheriidae)

edit
Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Catonyx cuvieri Eastern South America Most recent remains at Lagoa Santa, Brazil dated to 7830-7430 BCE.[4]
 
Scelidotherium leptocephalum Southern South America Most recent remains at Río Cuarto, Argentina dated to 5660-5540 BCE.[15]  
Valgipes bucklandi Intertropical region of Brazil[8] Most recent remains at Lagoa Santa, Brazil dated to 9110-9030 BCE.[16]  

Nothrotheriid ground sloths (family Nothrotheriidae)

edit
Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Nothrotherium maquinense Eastern Brazil Found in the late Pleistocene to early Holocene of Serra do Ramalho, Brazil but without direct datation.[8]  

Elephant-like mammals (order Proboscidea)

edit

Gomphotheres (family Gomphotheriidae)

edit
Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Notiomastodon platensis South America Most recently dated at El Totumo, Colombia, to 4170-4050 BCE; however this date is uncalibrated and the remains are assigned to the Late Glacial. Other remains from Toro, Valle del Cauca are assigned to the Holocene but with no direct date.[17] Remains at El Cautivo, Ecuador were dated to 6810-6650 BCE.[4]  

Rodents (order Rodentia)

edit

Cavies (family Caviidae)

edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Galea tixiensis Río de la Plata basin to southern Bolivia Most recent remains at the Tandilia mountains, Argentina dated to around 950 CE.[18]
Giant capybara[19] Neochoerus sp. Southern United States to Brazil Found in sites of Minas Gerais, Bahia, and Rondonia, Brazil that date from the Late Pleistocene to early Holocene, but without exact dating.[8]  

Tuco-tucos (family Ctenomyidae)

edit
Scientific name Range Comments
Ctenomys viarapaensis Pampa de Achala, Argentina Most recent remains at Quebrada del Real 1 dated to 5410 BCE - 1590 CE.[20]

Neotropical spiny rats (family Echimyidae)

edit
Scientific name Range Comments
Clyomys riograndensis Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Most recent remains dated to 1750 BCE.[21]
Dicolpomys fossor Río de la Plata basin and southern Brazil Most recent remains at Sambaquí de Puerto Landa, Argentina dated to 894-953 CE.[22]
Proclinodontomys mordax Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Most recent remains dated to 5250 BCE.[21]

Rock rats, degus, and viscacha rats (family Octodontidae)

edit
Scientific name Range Comments
Octomys sp. Western Argentina Most recent remains at Vaquerías Gruta 1, Argentina dated to 1150 BCE - 1570 CE. Related to the Mountain viscacha rat but different enough to be a new species.[23]

Hamsters, voles, lemmings, muskrats, and New World rats and mice (family Cricetidae)

edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Bibimys massoiai Piauí, Brazil Most recent remains at Toca do Serrote do Artur dated to 6943-3656 BCE.[24]
Candango mouse Juscelinomys candango Brasilia, Brazil Last collected in 1960. Presumed extinct when the area was urbanized.[25]  
Galápagos giant rat Megaoryzomys curioi Santa Cruz, Galápagos Islands, Ecuador Known from subfossil remains. Possibly extinct by introduced predators like feral dogs, cats, pigs, and black rats.[26]  
Darwin's Galápagos mouse Nesoryzomys darwini Santa Cruz, Galápagos Islands Last recorded in 1930. Extinct due to competition, pathogens transmitted by, or predation by black rats, house mice, brown rats, and feral cats.[27]
Indefatigable Galápagos mouse Nesoryzomys indefessus Santa Cruz and Baltra, Galápagos Islands Last collected in 1934. Extinct due to competition, pathogens transmitted by, or predation by black rats, house mice, brown rats, and feral cats.[28]
Vespucci's giant rat Noronhomys vespuccii Fernando de Noronha Island, Brazil Only recorded alive by Amerigo Vespucci in 1503; otherwise known from subfossil remains.[29]
Possibly extinct
edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Brucepattersonius talpinus Lagoa Santa, Brazil Known from Quaternary fossils.[24]
Fossorial giant rat Gyldenstolpia fronto Chaco Basin to southeastern Brazil Known from the holotype collected in the Argentinian Chaco in 1896, and four Quaternary fossils from Lagoa Santa, Brazil.[30]  
Habrothrix clivigenis Lagoa Santa, Brazil Known from Quaternary fossils.[24]
Juliomys anoblepas  
Zuniga's dark rice rat Melanomys zunigae Lomas de Atocongo, near Lima, Peru Last recorded in 1949. Declined due to habitat degradation caused by goat grazing and mining activity.[31]
Oxymycterus cosmodius Lagoa Santa, Brazil Known from Quaternary fossils.[24]

Bats (order Chiroptera)

edit

Leaf-nosed bats (family Phyllostomidae)

edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments
Giant vampire bat Desmodus draculae Eastern South America Most recent remains in Centinela del Mar, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina dated to 1675-1755 AD.[32]

Carnivorans (order Carnivora)

edit

Cats (family Felidae)

edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
South American saber-toothed cat Smilodon populator Eastern South America Most recent remains at Lagoa Santa, Brazil dated to 7330-7030 BCE.[4]  

Dogs (family Canidae)

edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Dire wolf Aenocyon dirus North America and western South America Most recent remains at Talara, Peru dated to 7320-6840 BCE; however this date is uncalibrated and the age of the remains could be older. Other late remains from Luján, Argentina were older than the most recent stratigraphical section dated to 9050-8050 BCE.[33]  
Falkland Islands wolf Dusicyon australis Falkland Islands Exterminated by sheep farmers in 1876.[34]  
Dusicyon avus Argentina and Uruguay Most recent remains in the Pampas dated to 1232-1397, and in southernmost Patagonia to 1454-1626.[35]  
Fuegian dog Lycalopex sp. Tierra del Fuego and possibly southern Patagonia Only domestic descendant of the culpeo, bred by the Selk'nam people. Disappeared during the Selk'nam genocide in the early 20th century.[36][37]  
Protocyon troglodytes Middle South America[38] to Yucatan[39] Most recent remains at Toca da Boa Vista, Brazil dated to 20,000-10,000 years ago.[33]

Bears (family Ursidae)

edit
Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Arctotherium bonariense Argentina Recorded from the Middle Pleistocene to the Early Holocene.[40]  
Arctotherium tarijense Argentina, Uruguay, Bolivia, and Chile Most recent remains at Cueva de los Chingues, Chile dated to 9310-9210 BCE.[41]
Arctotherium wingei Northeastern South America Most recent remains at Muaco, Venezuela dated to 7320-6840 BCE. However, this datation is uncalibrated and the remains could be older.[40]

Earless seals (family Phocidae)

edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Caribbean monk seal Neomonachus tropicalis Caribbean Sea, Bahamas, and Gulf of Mexico Last recorded in Venezuela before 1700.[42] The species was hunted for its skin, oil, and to remove competition for fishermen.[43]  

Notoungulates (order Notoungulata)

edit

Toxodonts (family Toxodontidae)

edit
Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Toxodon platensis South America One tooth found at Abismo Ponta da Flecha, Brazil was dated to 4650-1450 BCE when testing its enamel, and 6050-3450 BCE when testing its dentine.[4]  

Litopterns (order Litopterna)

edit

Macrauchenids (family Macraucheniidae)

edit
Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Macrauchenia patachonica Southwestern South America Most recent remains at Centinela del Mar, Argentina dated to 9381-9281 BCE.[44]  
Xenorhinotherium bahiense North and east South America Found in the late Pleistocene to early Holocene of Serra do Ramalho, Brazil but without direct datation.[8]  

Odd-toed ungulates (order Perissodactyla)

edit

Horses and allies (family Equidae)

edit
Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Equus neogeus South America Most recent remains at Toca do Serrote do Artur, Brazil dated to 6660-4880 BCE.[4]  
Hippidion saldiasi Eastern South America Most recent remains at Cueva del Medio, Chile dated to 10748-9456 BCE.[14]  

Even-toed ungulates (order Artiodactyla)

edit

Camels and llamas (family Camelidae)

edit
Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Hemiauchenia paradoxa Northern Río de la Plata Basin and central Brazil[45] Found in Holocene sites of Argentina but without exact dates.[41]  
Palaeolama major Northern and eastern South America Most recent remains at Toca do Serrote do Artur, Brazil dated to 6660-4880 BCE.[4]  
Locally extinct
edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Chilihueque Population of Lama guanicoe Central Chile A third domestic South American camelid recorded by Europeans in the 16th and 17th centuries, bred by the Mapuche and different from llamas and vicuñas. DNA analysis of remains from Mocha Island (where camelids were introduced by people) indicates that it was a population of Patagonian guanaco that was managed, or domesticated independently from the llama. It disappeared when indigenous communities switched to sheep and horse farming after colonization.[46]  
Gracile llama Population of Lama vicugna Argentina and the Strait of Magellan Formerly considered a separate species, Lama gracilis. Most recent remains at Piedra Museo, Argentina dated to 7365-7155 BCE, though this datation is not calibrated and the remains could be older.[47]

True deer (family Cervidae)

edit
Scientific name Range Comments
Antifer ultra Río de la Plata Basin to central Chile Most recent remains in Chile dated to around 7950 BCE. However this datation was not calibrated and the remains could be older.[48]
Morenelaphus brachyceros Temperate South America Most recently dated to 8050-5845 BCE; however this datation was not calibrated and the remains could be older. Other remains from southern Uruguay were dated, and calibrated, to 10010-9907 BCE.[6]

Birds (class Aves)

edit

Landfowl (order Galliformes)

edit

Chachalacas, guans, and curassows (family Cracidae)

edit
Extinct in the wild
edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Alagoas curassow Mitu mitu Alagoas and Pernambuco, Brazil Declined due to hunting and destruction of its habitat for sugarcane plantation, until the last known individual in the wild was killed near São Miguel dos Campos in either 1987 or 1988. All living individuals descent from three animals captured in 1977, and part of the current captive population is hybridized with the razor-billed curassow.[49] The species was reintroduced to the wild in 2019.[50]  

Waterfowl (order Anseriformes)

edit

Ducks, geese, and swans (family Anatidae)

edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments
Niceforo's pintail Anas georgica niceforoi Central Colombia Last recorded in 1952. Possibly extinct due to hunting and habitat degradation.[51]
Fighting shelduck[52] Neochen pugil Minas Gerais, Brazil Known from the late Pleistocene or early Holocene of Lagoa Santa, Brazil.[53]

Grebes (order Podicipediformes)

edit

Grebes (family Podicipedidae)

edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments
Colombian grebe Podiceps andinus Bogotá wetlands, Colombia Last recorded in 1977. Extinct due to wetland drainage, siltation, pesticide pollution, disruption caused by reed harvesting, hunting, and predation by introduced rainbow trout.[54]

Nightjars (order Caprimulgiformes)

edit

Typical nightjars (family Caprimulgidae)

edit
Possibly extinct
edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments
Cayenne nightjar Setopagis maculosa Tamanoir, French Guiana Only known from the holotype collected in 1917.[55]

Swifts, treeswifts, and hummingbirds (order Apodiformes)

edit

Hummingbirds (family Trochillidae)

edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Bogotá sunangel Heliantelus zusii Northern Andes? Only known from one skin purchased in Bogotá in 1909. It could have disappeared due to deforestation, though the original range is unknown.[51]
Alejandro Selkirk Island firecrown Sephanoides fernandensis leyboldi Alejandro Selkirk Island?, Juan Fernández Archipelago, Chile Last recorded in 1908 (with doubts).[51]  
Possibly extinct
edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Letitia's thorntail Discosura letitiae Bolivia Only known from two males collected at an unknown locality in 1852.[51]  
Turquoise-throated puffleg Eriocnemis godini Northern Ecuador Only known from the holotype collected in 1850, with an unconfirmed sighting in 1976. The original habitat at the holotype's location is almost certainly destroyed.[56]  

Rails and cranes (order Gruiformes)

edit

Rails (family Rallidae)

edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments
Peruvian rail Rallus semiplumbeus peruvianus Peruvian highlands and possibly Ecuador Only known from the holotype collected in 1886, which is now lost.[51]
Rallus sp. Fernando de Noronha Island, Brazil A flightless species known from subfossil remains, presumably extinct due to predation by introduced mammals.[52]

Shorebirds (order Charadriiformes)

edit

Sandpipers (family Scolopacidae)

edit
Possibly extinct
edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Eskimo curlew Numenius borealis Northwestern Canada and Alaska, and Southern Cone Last recorded in South America in 1939, where it wintered. Likely extinct due to large scale hunting in North America, the conversion of the Great Plains to agriculture, and the extinction of the Rocky Mountain locust, once its prey. The South American pampas were converted to agriculture in the same manner afterward.[57]  

Storks and allies (order Ciconiiformes)

edit

Storks (family Ciconiidae)

edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Asphalt stork Ciconia lydekkeri Contiguous United States to Argentina Known from the late Pleistocene or early Holocene of Lagoa Santa, Brazil.[53]
 

New World vultures (order Cathartiformes)

edit

New World vultures and condors (family Cathartidae)

edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments
Pleistovultur nevesi Matozinhos, Brazil Known from a humerus dated around 10560-8040 BCE. Presumed extinct as a consequence of the disappearance of the megafauna.[52]
Winge's vulture[52] Wingegyps cartellei Bahia and Minas Gerais, Brazil Known from the late Pleistocene or early Holocene of Lagoa Santa.[53]

Owls (order Strigiformes)

edit

True owls (family Strigidae)

edit
Possibly extinct
edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments
Pernambuco pygmy owl Glaucidium mooreorum Northeast coast of Brazil Last recorded in 2001.[55]

Parrots (order Psittaciformes)

edit

Holotropical parrots (family Psittacidae)

edit
Possibly extinct
edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Glaucous macaw Anodorhynchus glaucus Border area of Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay Last recorded in Mbaracayu, Paraguay in 2001. Declined due to clearance of gallery forests for agriculture and livestock grazing, and possibly also hunting and capture of animals for the exotic pet trade.[58]  
Sinú parakeet Pyrrhura subandina Sinú Valley, Córdoba Department, Colombia Last recorded in 1949. Declined due to habitat loss to agriculture and cattle grazing, hunting, trapping for the pet trade, and pollution with agrochemicals.[59]
Extinct in the wild
edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Spix's macaw Cyanopsitta spixii Sao Francisco River, Bahia, Brazil Last recorded in the wild in 2000. Declined due to capture for the pet trade, and habitat loss caused by deforestation, livestock grazing, and the construction of the Sobradinho Dam.[60]  

Perching birds (order Passeriformes)

edit

Antpittas (family Grallariidae)

edit
Possibly extinct
edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments
Táchira antpitta Grallaria chtonia Southwestern Táchira, Venezuela Last collected in 1955-1956. Declined due to extensive deforestation of its range for agricultural use.[51]
Antioquia brown-banded antpitta Grallaria milleri gilesi Santa Helena, Antioquia, Colombia Only known from the holotype, collected in 1878. The type locality has since been deforested for coffee cultivation and other agriculture.[51]

Ovenbirds (family Furnariidae)

edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments
Cryptic treehunter Cichlocolaptes mazarbarnetti Alagoas and Pernambuco, Brazil Last recorded in 2007. Extinct due to deforestation.[51]
Alagoas foliage-gleaner Philydor novaesi Last recorded in 2011. Extinct due to deforestation.[51]

Antbirds (family Thamnophilidae)

edit
Possibly extinct
edit
Common name Scientific name Range
Rio de Janeiro antwren Myrmotherula fluminensis Rio de Janeiro, Brazil[55]

Tanagers (family Thraupidae)

edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Darwin's ground finch Geospiza magnirostris magnirostris Floreana and San Cristóbal, Galápagos Islands Only recorded alive by Charles Darwin in 1835. It was restricted to the lowlands which were the most affected by human settlement starting in 1832; introduced donkeys, cattle, and goats reduced the Opuntia cacti it fed and nested on, while dogs, cats, and rats predated on the birds.[51]  

Tyrant flycatchers (family Tyrannidae)

edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments
San Cristóbal flycatcher Pyrocephalus dubius San Cristóbal, Galápagos Islands Last recorded in 1987. Likely extinct due to predation by introduced rats, the avian vampire fly, or avian pox.[61]

Reptiles (class Reptilia)

edit

Turtles and tortoises (order Testudines)

edit

Big-headed turtles (family Podocnemididae)

edit
Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Peltocephalus maturin Madeira River, Brazil Only known from a lower jaw dated to 12385-7060 BCE, roughly coinciding with the time when the area was first reached by Paleo-Amerindians.[62]  

Tortoises (family Testudinidae)

edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Pinta Island tortoise Chelonoidis niger abingdonii Pinta, Galápagos Islands, Ecuador The last wild individual (Lonesome George) was captured in 1972 and died in Santa Cruz's Tortoise Center in 2012, but hybrid descendants survive in northern Isabela Island. Declined due to hunting and habitat destruction by grazing feral goats.[63]  
Floreana giant tortoise Chelonoidis niger niger Floreana, Galápagos Islands, Ecuador Disappeared from the wild in the mid-19th century, though hybrids survive in captivity and in northern Isabela Island. Likely extinct due to hunting and the impact of introduced mammals including pigs, dogs, cats, goats, donkeys, cattle, black rats and house mice.[64]  
Santa Fe Island tortoise Chelonoidis niger 'Santa Fe Island' Santa Fe, Galápagos Islands, Ecuador Undescribed lineage, known from subfossil bones.[65]

Amphibians (class Amphibia)

edit

Frogs (order Anura)

edit

True toads (family Bufonidae)

edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments
Maracay harlequin frog Atelopus vogli Güey River, Aragua, Venezuela Last collected in 1957. Its habitat was destroyed by agriculture.[66]
Possibly extinct
edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments
Green and red venter harlequin toad Atelopus pinangoi Near Piñango, Mérida, Venezuela Last recorded in 1997. Declined due to chytridiomycosis, habitat loss caused by logging and ranching, introduced trout, and climate change.[67]

Tree frogs and allies (family Hylidae)

edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments
Spiny-knee leaf frog Phrynomedusa fimbriata Sao Paulo and Paraná states, Brazil Last collected in the 1950s. Extinct due to air pollution and infection by Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis[68]

Darwin's frogs (family Rhinodermatidae)

edit
Possibly extinct
edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments
Chile Darwin's frog Rhinoderma rufum Valparaíso and Biobío, Chile Last recorded in 1981. The cause of decline is unknown but chytridiomycosis has been suggested.[69]

Rain frogs (family Strabomantidae)

edit
Possibly extinct
edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments
Aragua robber frog Pristimantis anotis Henri Pittier National Park, Aragua, Venezuela Last collected in 1974. The cause of decline is unknown, though chytridiomycosis is present in the area.[70]

Ray-finned fish (class Actinopterygii)

edit

Catfishes (order Siluriformes)

edit

Pencil catfishes (family Trichomycteridae)

edit
Possibly extinct
edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Greasefish Rhizosomichthys totae Tota Lake, Colombia Last collected in 1958. Possibly extinct due to exotic fish introductions (Eremophilus mutisii, Grundulus bogotensis, Carassius auratus, Oncorhynchus mykiss) and chemical pollution caused by agriculture.[71]  

Toothcarps (order Cyprinodontiformes)

edit

Pupfishes (family Cyprinodontidae)

edit
Possibly extinct
edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Titicaca orestias Orestias cuvieri Lake Titicaca The causes of decline are unknown.[72]  

Ovalentaria incertae sedis

edit

Family Pomacentridae

edit
Possibly extinct
edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Galápagos damsel Azurina eupalama Galápagos Islands, Ecuador Last recorded during the 1982-83 El Niño event, which warmed the waters it inhabited and killed off the plankton on which it fed.[73]  

Starfishes (class Asteroidea)

edit

Order Forcipulatida

edit

Family Heliasteridae

edit
Possibly extinct
edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments
24-rayed sunstar Heliaster solaris Galápagos Islands, Ecuador Last recorded during the 1982-83 El Niño event.[74]

Insects (class Insecta)

edit

Beetles (order Coleoptera)

edit

Predaceous diving beetles (family Dytiscidae)

edit
Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Megadytes ducalis Condeúba, Bahia, Brazil Only known from individuals collected in the 19th century.[75]  
Meridiorhantus orbignyi Argentina and Brazil[76]

Bark lice, book lice, and parasitic lice (order Psocodea)

edit

Bird body lice (family Menoponidae)

edit
Possibly extinct
edit
Scientific name Range Comments
Austromenopon confine Americas Parasite of the slender-billed curlew.[77]

Bird chewing lice (family Philopteridae)

edit
Possibly extinct
edit
Scientific name Range Comments
Cummingsiella breviclypeata Americas Parasite of the slender-billed curlew.[77]

Arachnids (class Arachnida)

edit

Order Mesostigmata

edit

Family Halarachnidae

edit
Common name Scientific name Range Comments Pictures
Caribbean monk seal nasal mite Halarachne americana Caribbean Sea Extinct with its host.[78]  

Clitellates (class Clitellata)

edit

Order Opisthopora

edit

Family Glossoscolecidae

edit
Possibly extinct
edit
Scientific name Range Comments
Rhinodrilus fafner Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil Only known from the holotype described in 1918.[79]

Slugs and snails (class Gastropoda)

edit

Order Littorinimorpha

edit

Family Cochliopidae

edit
Scientific name Range Comments
Littoridina gaudichaudii Ecuador[80]  

Order Stylommatophora

edit

Family Odontostomidae

edit
Scientific name Range Pictures
Tomigerus gibberulus Brazil[81]
Tomigerus turbinatus Brazil[82]  

Family Strophocheilidae

edit
Scientific name Range
Megalobulimus cardosoi Brazil[83]

Unassigned order

edit

Family Hemisinidae

edit
Extinct in the wild
edit
Scientific name Range
Aylacostoma chloroticum Paraná River[84]

See also

edit

Notes

edit
  1. ^ The source gives "11,700 calendar yr b2k (before CE 2000)". But "BP" means "before CE 1950". Therefore, the Holocene began 11,650 BP. Doing the math, that is c. 9700 BCE.

References

edit
  1. ^ Walker, Mike; Johnsen, Sigfus; Rasmussen, Sune Olander; Popp, Trevor; Steffensen, Jorgen-Peder; Gibrard, Phil; Hoek, Wim; Lowe, John; Andrews, John; Bjo Rck, Svante; Cwynar, Les C.; Hughen, Konrad; Kersahw, Peter; Kromer, Bernd; Litt, Thomas; Lowe, David J.; Nakagawa, Takeshi; Newnham, Rewi; Schwander, Jakob (2009). "Formal definition and dating of the GSSP (Global Stratotype Section and Point) for the base of the Holocene using the Greenland NGRIP ice core, and selected auxiliary records" (PDF). Journal of Quaternary Science. 24 (1): 3–17. Bibcode:2009JQS....24....3W. doi:10.1002/jqs.1227. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-11-04. Retrieved 2022-04-24.
  2. ^ Flores, D. (2016). "Cryptonanus ignitus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T41320A22177809. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T41320A22177809.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  3. ^ Pavan, S. (2016). "Monodelphis unistriata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T13703A22171555. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T13703A22171555.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Turvey, Sam (2009). Holocene Extinctions. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-953509-5. Retrieved 29 February 2012.
  5. ^ Stuart, A.J. (2021) Vanished Giants: The Lost World of the Ice Age. University of Chicago Press, 288 pages.
  6. ^ a b Ubilla, M., et al. (2018). "Mammals in last 30 to 7 ka interval (Late Pleistocene-Early Holocene) in southern Uruguay (Santa Lucía River Basin): last occurrences, climate, and biogeography". Journal of Mammalian Evolution, 25(2), 291-300.
  7. ^ a b c Ghilardi, A. M., Fernandes, M. A., & Bichuette, M. E. (2011). "Megafauna from the Late Pleistocene-Holocene deposits of the Upper Ribeira karst area, southeast Brazil". Quaternary International, 245 (2), 369-378.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g da Silva, R. C., Berbert-Born, M., Bustamante, D. E. F., Santoro, T. N., Sedor, F., & dos Santos Avilla, L. (2019). "Diversity and preservation of Pleistocene tetrapods from caves of southwestern Bahia, Brazil". Journal of South American Earth Sciences, 90, 233-254.
  9. ^ a b Gutiérrez, M.A. et al. (2010). "Supervivencia diferencial de mamíferos de gran tamaño en la región pampeana en el Holoceno temprano y su relación con aspectos paleobiológicos". In Zooarqueología a principios del siglo XXI: Aportes teóricos, metodológicos y casos de estudio. Ediciones del Espinillo, Buenos Aires, 231-242.
  10. ^ Zurita, A. E. (2007). Sistemática y evolución de los Hoplophorini (Xenarthra: glyptodontidae: hoplophorinae. Mioceno tardío-Holoceno temprano). Importancia bioestratigráfica, paleobiogeográfica y paleoambiental. (Doctoral dissertation, Universidad Nacional de La Plata).
  11. ^ Carlini, A. A. (2006) Neuryurus (Xenarthra, Glyptodontidae) in the Lujanian (late Pleistocene–early Holocene) of the Pampean region. N. Jb. Geol. Paläont. Mh., pp. 78-88.
  12. ^ Fariña, R. A., Vizcaíno, S. F., & Bargo, M. S. (1998). "Body mass estimations in Lujanian (late Pleistocene-early Holocene of South America) mammal megafauna". Mastozoología Neotropical, 5 (2), 87-108.
  13. ^ Dantas, M.A.T., & Cozzuol, M.A. (2016). "The Brazilian intertropical fauna from 60 to about 10 ka BP: taxonomy, dating, diet, and Paleoenvironments". In Marine Isotope Stage 3 in Southern South America, 60 KA BP-30 KA BP, pages 207-226.
  14. ^ a b Barnosky, A. D., & Lindsey, E. L. (2010). "Timing of Quaternary megafaunal extinction in South America in relation to human arrival and climate change". Quaternary International, 217 (1-2), 10-29.
  15. ^ Cruz, L. E., Bargo, M. S., Tonni, E. P., & Figini, A. J. (2010). "Radiocarbon date on megafauna from the late Pleistocene-early Holocene of Córdoba province, Argentina: stratigraphic and paleoclimatic significance". Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Geológicas, 27 (3), 470-476.
  16. ^ Miño-Boilini, Á. R., & Quiñones, S. I. (2020). "Los perezosos Scelidotheriinae (Xenarthra, Folivora): taxonomía, biocronología y biogeografía". Revista del Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales, 22 (2), 201-218.
  17. ^ Rodríguez-Flórez, C. D., Rodríguez-Flórez, E. L., & Rodríguez, C. A. (2009). "Revisión de la fauna pleistocénica Gomphotheriidae en Colombia y reporte de un caso para el Valle del Cauca. Boletín Científico. Centro de Museos". Museo de Historia Natural, 13 (2), 78-85.
  18. ^ Quintana, C. (2005). Despiece de microroedores en el Holoceno Tardío de las Sierras de Tandilia (Argentina). Archaeofauna, 14, 227-241.
  19. ^ Fariña, R.A., Vizcaíno, S.F., & De Iuliis, G. (2013) Megafauna: Giant beasts of Pleistocene South America. Indiana University Press, 435 pages.
  20. ^ De Santi, N. A., Verzi, D. H., Olivares, A. I., Piñero, P., Morgan, C. C., Medina, M. E., ... & Tonni, E. P. (2020). A new peculiar species of the subterranean rodent Ctenomys (Rodentia, Ctenomyidae) from the Holocene of central Argentina. Journal of South American Earth Sciences, 100, 102499.
  21. ^ a b Hadler, P., Verzi, D. H., Vucetich, M. G., Ferigolo, J., & Ribeiro, A. M. (2008). Caviomorphs (Mammalia, Rodentia) from the Holocene of Rio Grande do Sul state, Brazil: systematics and paleoenvironmental context. Revista Brasileira de Paleontologia, 11(2), 97-116.
  22. ^ Verzi, D. H., Olivares, A. I., Hadler, P., Castro, J. C., & Tonni, E. P. (2018). Occurrence of Dicolpomys (Echimyidae) in the late Holocene of Argentina: the most recently extinct South American caviomorph genus. Quaternary International, 490, 123-131.
  23. ^ Verzi, D. H., Olivares, A. I., De Santi, N. A., Morgan, C. C., López, J. M., & Chiavazza, H. (2024). A new extinct desert rodent from the Holocene of South America and its bearing on the diversity of Octodontidae (Hystricognathi). Journal of Mammalogy, 105(1), 59-72.
  24. ^ a b c d Das Neves, S. B., Pardiñas, U. F., Hadler, P., Mayer, E. L., & Ribeiro, A. M. (2020). A new fossil cricetid (Rodentia, Sigmodontinae) from northeastern Brazil with remarks on small mammal extinctions in the tropical Quaternary. Journal of Mammalogy, 101(4), 1133-1147.
  25. ^ Roach, N. (2019). "Juscelinomys candango". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T10946A160756258. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T10946A160756258.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  26. ^ Weksler, M.; Tirira, D.G. (2019). "Megaoryzomys curioi". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T136657A22330270. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T136657A22330270.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  27. ^ Tirira, D.G.; Weksler, M. (2019). "Nesoryzomys darwini". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T14706A22390382. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T14706A22390382.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  28. ^ Tirira, D.G.; Weksler, M. (2019). "Nesoryzomys indefessus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T14708A22390443. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T14708A22390443.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  29. ^ Weksler, M.; Costa , L.M. (2019). "Noronhomys vespuccii". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T136692A22333193. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T136692A22333193.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  30. ^ Pardinas, U.; D'Elia, G.; Teta, P.; Patterson, B. (2018). "Gyldenstolpia fronto". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2018: e.T11062A22388720. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T11062A22388720.en. Retrieved 15 November 2021.
  31. ^ Zeballos, H.; Vivar, E. (2019). "Melanomys zunigae". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T13048A22344408. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T13048A22344408.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  32. ^ Pardiñas, U.F.J., & Tonni, E.P. (2000). "A giant vampire (Mammalia, Chiroptera) in the Late Holocene from the Argentinean pampas: paleoenvironmental significance". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 160 (3-4), 213-221.
  33. ^ a b Prevosti, F. J., Tonni, E. P., & Bidegain, J. C. (2009). "Stratigraphic range of the large canids (Carnivora, Canidae) in South America, and its relevance to quaternary biostratigraphy". Quaternary International, 210 (1-2), 76-81.
  34. ^ Sillero-Zubiri, C. (2015). "Dusicyon australis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2015: e.T6923A82310440. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T6923A82310440.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  35. ^ Prevosti, Francisco J.; Ramírez, Mariano A.; Schiaffini, Mauro; Martin, Fabiana; Udrizar Sauthier, Daniel E.; Carrera, Marcelo; Sillero-Zubiri, Claudio; Pardiñas, Ulyses F. J. (November 2015). "Extinctions in near time: new radiocarbon dates point to a very recent disappearance of the South American fox Dusicyon avus (Carnivora: Canidae)". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 116 (3): 704–720. doi:10.1111/bij.12625. hdl:11336/46106.
  36. ^ Silva Rochefort, B., & Root‐Bernstein, M. (2021). "History of canids in Chile and impacts on prey adaptations". Ecology and Evolution, 11 (15), 9892-9903.
  37. ^ Petrigh, R. S., & Fugassa, M. H. (2013). Molecular identification of a Fuegian dog belonging to the Fagnano Regional Museum ethnographic collection, Tierra del Fuego. Quaternary International, 317, 14-18.
  38. ^ Prevosti, F. J., Zurita, A. E., & Carlini, A. A. (2005). Biostratigraphy, systematics, and paleoecology of Protocyon Giebel, 1855 (Carnivora, Canidae) in South America. Journal of South American Earth Sciences, 20(1-2), 5-12.
  39. ^ Schubert, B. W., Chatters, J. C., Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Samuels, J. X., Soibelzon, L. H., Prevosti, F. J., ... & Erreguerena, P. L. (2019). Yucatán carnivorans shed light on the Great American Biotic Interchange. Biology Letters, 15(5), 20190148.
  40. ^ a b Rincón, A. D., & Soibelzon, L. H. (2007). "The fossil record of the short-faced bears (Ursidae, Tremarctinae) from Venezuela. Systematic, biogeographic, and paleoecological implications". Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, 244.
  41. ^ a b Haynes, Gary (2009). American Megafaunal Extinctions at the End of the Pleistocene. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-8792-9. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  42. ^ McClenachan, L., & Cooper, A. B. (2008). "Extinction rate, historical population structure and ecological role of the Caribbean monk seal". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 275(1641), 1351-1358.
  43. ^ Lowry, L. (2015). "Neomonachus tropicalis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2015: e.T13655A45228171. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T13655A45228171.en. Retrieved 8 August 2021.
  44. ^ Prado, J. L., Martinez-Maza, C., & Alberdi, M. T. (2015). "Megafauna extinction in South America: A new chronology for the Argentine Pampas". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 425, 41-49.
  45. ^ Root-Bernstein, M., & Svenning, J. C. (2016). Prospects for rewilding with camelids. Journal of Arid Environments, 130, 54-61.
  46. ^ Westbury, M., Prost, S., Seelenfreund, A., Ramírez, J. M., Matisoo-Smith, E. A., & Knapp, M. (2016). "First complete mitochondrial genome data from ancient South American camelids-the mystery of the chilihueques from Isla Mocha (Chile)". Scientific Reports, 6 (1), 1-7.
  47. ^ Weinstock, J., Shapiro, B., Prieto, A., Marín, J. C., Gonzalez, B. A., Gilbert, M. T. P., & Willerslev, E. (2009). The Late Pleistocene distribution of vicuñas (Vicugna vicugna) and the “extinction” of the gracile llama (“Lama gracilis”): New molecular data. Quaternary Science Reviews, 28(15-16), 1369-1373.
  48. ^ Labarca, R., & Alcaraz, M. A. (2011). "Presencia de Antifer ultra Ameghino (= Antifer niemeyeri Casamiquela)(Artiodactyla, Cervidae) en el Pleistoceno tardío-Holoceno temprano de Chile central (30-35° S)". Andean Geology, 38 (1), 156-170.
  49. ^ BirdLife International (2018). "Mitu mitu". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2018: e.T22678486A132315266. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22678486A132315266.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  50. ^ Francisco, M. R., Costa, M. C., Azeredo, R. M., Simpson, J. G., da Costa Dias, T., Fonseca, A., ... & Silveira, L. F. (2021). "Recovered after an extreme bottleneck and saved by ex situ management: Lessons from the Alagoas curassow (Pauxi mitu [Linnaeus, 1766]; Aves, Galliformes, Cracidae)". Zoo Biology, 40 (1), 76-78.
  51. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Hume, J.P. (2017) Extinct Birds. Bloomsbury Publishing, 560 pages.
  52. ^ a b c d Nascimento, R. S. (2022). Fossil Birds of Brazil (Master's dissertation, Universidade de São Paulo).
  53. ^ a b c Nascimento, R., & Silveira, L. F. (2020). The fossil birds of Peter Lund. Zootaxa, 4743(4), 480-510.
  54. ^ BirdLife International (2016). "Podiceps andinus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T22696615A93574182. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22696615A93574182.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  55. ^ a b c Mittermeier, J. C., Rutt, C. L., Safford, R., Long, B., Hanks, C., & Lebbin, D. J. (2022). Fantastic lost birds and how you can help find them: an updated gap analysis for the Neotropical avifauna. Neotropical Birding, 31, 25-32.
  56. ^ BirdLife International (2020). "Eriocnemis godini". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T22687922A182244989. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T22687922A182244989.en. Retrieved 18 November 2021.
  57. ^ BirdLife International (2019). "Numenius borealis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T22693170A155293606. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T22693170A155293606.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  58. ^ BirdLife International (2019). "Anodorhynchus glaucus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T22685527A154380861. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T22685527A154380861.en. Retrieved 18 November 2021.
  59. ^ BirdLife International (2016). "Pyrrhura subandina". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T45422401A95151315. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T45422401A95151315.en. Retrieved 20 November 2021.
  60. ^ BirdLife International (2019). "Cyanopsitta spixii ". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T22685533A153022606.
  61. ^ BirdLife International (2017). "Pyrocephalus dubius". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e.T103682916A119211257. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T103682916A119211257.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  62. ^ Ferreira, G. S., Nascimento, E. R., Cadena, E. A., Cozzuol, M. A., Farina, B. M., Pacheco, M. L. A. F., ... & Langer, M. C. (2024). The latest freshwater giants: a new Peltocephalus (Pleurodira: Podocnemididae) turtle from the Late Pleistocene of the Brazilian Amazon. Biology Letters, 20(3), 20240010.
  63. ^ Cayot, L.J.; Gibbs, J.P.; Tapia, W.; Caccone, A. (2016). "Chelonoidis abingdonii". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T9017A65487433. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T9017A65487433.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  64. ^ van Dijk, P.P.; Rhodin, A.G.J.; Cayot, L.J.; Caccone, A. (2017). "Chelonoidis niger". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e.T9023A3149101. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T9023A3149101.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  65. ^ Durham, W. H. (2021). Exuberant Life: An Evolutionary Approach to Conservation in Galápagos. Oxford University Press.
  66. ^ IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group (2020). "Atelopus vogli". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T54561A109529582. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T54561A109529582.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  67. ^ La Marca, E.; García-Pérez, J.E. (2004). "Atelopus pinangoi". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2004: e.T54542A11164544. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T54542A11164544.en.
  68. ^ Instituto Boitatá de Etnobiologia e Conservação da Fauna; IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group (2023). "Spiny-knee Leaf Frog: Phrynomedusa fimbriata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2023. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: e.T17078A172621499. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2023-1.RLTS.T17078A172621499.en. Retrieved January 30, 2024.
  69. ^ IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group (2015). "Rhinoderma rufum". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2015: e.T19514A79809567. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T19514A79809567.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  70. ^ IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group (2020). "Pristimantis anotis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T56423A109538689. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T56423A109538689.en. Retrieved 18 November 2021.
  71. ^ Mesa-Salazar, L.; Mojica, J. (2016). "Rhizosomichthys totae". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T19661A61472482. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T19661A61472482.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  72. ^ World Conservation Monitoring Centre (1996). "Orestias cuvieri". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 1996: e.T15491A4665163. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.1996.RLTS.T15491A4665163.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  73. ^ Allen, G.; Robertson, R.; Rivera, R.; et al. (2010). "Azurina eupalama". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2010: e.T184017A8219600. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2010-3.RLTS.T184017A8219600.en.
  74. ^ Alvarado, J.J. & Solis-Marin, F.A. (2012). Echinoderm Research and Diversity in Latin America. Springer Science & Business Media.
  75. ^ Hendrich, Lars; Manuel, Michael; Balke, Michael (2019-04-18). "The return of the Duke—locality data for Megadytes ducalis Sharp, 1882, the world's largest diving beetle, with notes on related species (Coleoptera: Dytiscidae)". Zootaxa. 4586 (3): 517–535. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4586.3.8. ISSN 1175-5334. PMID 31716121.
  76. ^ World Conservation Monitoring Centre (1996). "Rhantus orbignyi". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 1996: e.T19461A8894689. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.1996.RLTS.T19461A8894689.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  77. ^ a b Beall, L. (1 November 2023). "Unwelcome Guests – Coextinction of Parasites". TheExtinctions. Retrieved 21 August 2023.
  78. ^ Seal, West Indian Monk. Published 13 July 2004 by the American Society of Mammalogists.
  79. ^ Moreira, F.M.S. et al. (2006). Soil Diversity in Amazonian and Other Brazilian Ecosystems. CABI, 280 pages.
  80. ^ IUCN
  81. ^ IUCN
  82. ^ IUCN
  83. ^ IUCN
  84. ^ Mansur, M.C.D.; et al. (Mollusc Specialist Group) (2000). "Aylacostoma chloroticum". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2000: e.T29612A9504703. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2000.RLTS.T29612A9504703.en. Retrieved 16 November 2021.
edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wiki.x.io/w/index.php?title=List_of_South_American_animals_extinct_in_the_Holocene&oldid=1248646328"