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Levantine Arabic grammar

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Levantine Arabic grammar is the set of rules by which Levantine Arabic creates statements, questions and commands. In many respects, it is quite similar to that of the other vernacular Arabic varieties.

Word order

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Both VSO (verb before subject before object) and SVO (subject before verb before object) word orders are possible in Levantine. The verb is before the object (VO).[1] However, Classical Arabic tends to prefer VSO, whereas in Levantine SVO is more common.[2] Subject-initial order indicates topic-prominent sentences, while verb-initial order indicates subject-prominent sentences.[3]

In interrogative sentences, the interrogative particle comes first.[4]

Copula

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There is no copula used in the present tense in Levantine. In other tenses, the verb kān (كان) is used. Its present tense form is used in the future tense.[5]

Definiteness

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See also: Arabic definite article

There is no indefinite article in Levantine. Nouns (except proper nouns) are automatically indefinite by the absence of the definite article.[6]

The Arabic definite article ال (il) precedes the noun or adjective and has multiple pronunciations. Its vowel is dropped when the preceding word ends in a vowel. A helping vowel "e" is inserted if the following word begins with a consonant cluster.[7]

It assimilates with "Sun letters", basically all consonants that are pronounced with the tip of the tongue. Other letters are called "Moon letters".[7] The letter Jeem (ج) is a special case. It is usually a Sun letter for speakers pronouncing it as [ʒ] but not for those pronouncing it as [d͡ʒ].[6][8]

Definiteness in Levantine: Examples
Moon letter البيت il-bēt
Sun letter (assimilation) الشمس iš-šams
Letter Jeem (ج) الجمعة il-jumʕa [ɪl.ˈd͡ʒʊm.ʕa] / ij-jumʕa [ɪʒ.ˈʒʊm.ʕa]
Consonant cluster الكتاب le-ktāb

Nouns

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Case

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There is no case marking in Levantine (contrary to Classical Arabic).[9]

Gender

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Nouns can be either masculine or feminine. In the singular, most feminine nouns end with Tāʼ marbūṭah (ـة). This is pronounced as –a or -e depending on the preceding consonant. Generally, -a after guttural (ح خ ع غ ق ه ء) and emphatic consonants (ر ص ض ط ظ), and -e after other consonants.[10]

Number

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Nouns in Levantine can be singular, dual or plural.[11][10]

The dual is invariably formed with suffix -ēn (ين-).[12][10] The dual is often used in a non-exact sense, especially in temporal and spatial nouns:

For nouns referring to humans, the regular (also called sound) masculine plural is formed with the suffix -īn. The regular feminine plural is formed with -āt. The masculine plural is used to refer to a group with both gender. However, there are many broken plurals (also called internal plurals),[13][10] in which the consonantal root of the singular is changed (nonconcatenative morphology). These plural patterns are shared with other varieties of Arabic and may also be applied to foreign borrowings: such as faːtuːra (plural: fwaːtiːr), from the Italian fattura, invoice.[9] The plural of loanwords may be sound or broken.[14] Several patterns of broken plurals exist and it is not possible to exactly predict them.[15]

Inanimate objects take feminine singular agreement in the plural, for verbs, attached pronouns, and adjectives.[16]

Some foreign words that designate weights and measures such as [sαnti] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 2) (help) (centimeter), šēkel (shekel), and kīlo (kilometer/kilogram) (but not mitr, meter, which behaves like other Arabic nouns) are invariable. The dual form is not used and numbers 3–10 don't lose their final vowel when followed by these nouns:

  • šēkel: 1 shekel
  • tnēn šēkel: 2 shekels
  • talāte šēkel: 3 shekels
  • ʕašara šēkel: 10 shekels[17]
The 12 most common broken plural patterns[15]
Pattern (Arabic) Pattern (Latin) Example English meaning
ـَ و ا ـِ ـ CawāCeC ‏شارع‎ šāreʕ
‏شوارع‎ šawāreʕ		 street
streets
أَ ـْ ـ ا ـ ʔaCCāC ‏شخص‎ šaḵṣ
‏أشخاص‎ ʾašḵāṣ		 person
people
ـَ ـ ا ـِ ي ـ CaCāCīC ‏دكان‎ dukkān
‏دكاكين‎ dakākīn		 convenience store
convenience stores
ـُ ـُ و ـ CuCūC ‏حرف‎ ḥarf
‏حروف‎ ḥurūf		 letter
letters
ـُ ـَ ـ CuCaC ‏قصة‎ ʾuṣṣa
‏قصص‎ ʾuṣaṣ		 story
stories
ـِ ـَ ـ CiCaC ‏فريق‎ farīq
‏فرق‎ firaq		 team
teams
ـُ ـَ ـ ا CuCaCa ‏مدير‎ mudīr
‏مدرا‎ mudara		 manager
managers
ـُ ـّ ا ـ CuC2C2āC ‏طالب‎ ṭāleb
‏طلاب‎ ṭullāb		 student
students
أَ ـْ ـِ ـ ة ʔaCCiCe ‏جهاز‎ jihāz
‏أجهزة‎ ʾajhize		 electrical device
electrical devices
ـُ ـُ ـ CuCoC ‏مدينة‎ madīne
‏مدن‎ mudon		 city
cities
ـُ ـْ ـ ا ن CuCCān ‏قميص‎ ʾamīṣ
‏قمصان‎ ʾumṣān		 dress shirt
dress shirts
أَ ـْ ـِ ـ ا ء ʔaCCiCāʔ ‏صديق‎ ṣadīq
‏أصدقاء‎ ʾaṣdiqāʾ		 friend
friends

Nominal sentences

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Phrasal word order is head-dependent:[1]

  • Noun-Genitive
  • Noun-Adjective
  • Noun-Relative clause.

The genitive relationship is formed by putting the nouns next to each other,[18] this construct is called Iḍāfah (lit. 'addition'). The first noun is always indefinite. If an indefinite noun is added to a definite noun, it results in a new definite compound noun.[19][20][21]

Besides possessiveness, the Iḍāfah construct can be used to specify or define the first term.[19]

Possession can also be expressed with تبع, tabaC, especially for loanwords:

  • my dog: kalbi or il-kalb tabaCi,
  • the neighbors' house: [bēt il-jirᾱn] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 11) (help) or [il-bēt tabaC il-jirᾱn] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 31) (help)
  • your radio: [ir-rᾱdyo tabaCkom] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 5) (help).[22]

There is no limit to the number of nouns that can be strung together in an Iḍāfah. However, it is rare to have three or more words, except with very common or monosyllabic nouns.[18]

The Iḍāfah construct is different from the noun-adjective structure. In an Iḍāfah construct, the two nouns might be different in terms of their definiteness: the first is indefinite, the second is usually definite. Whereas adjectives always agree with nouns in definiteness.[23][19]

The first term must be in the construct state: if it ends in the feminine marker (/-ah/, or /-ih/), it changes to (/-at/, /-it/) in pronunciation (i.e. ة pronounced as "t"). Whereas in a noun-adjective string, the pronunciation would remain (/-ah/, /-ih/).[19]

Iḍāfah and noun-adjective examples[19][23][22]
Levantine (Arabic) Levantine (Latin) English Note
كتاب إستاذ ktāb ʾistāz a book of a/the teacher Iḍāfah of two indefinite nouns
كتاب الإستاذ ktāb il-ʾistāz the book of the teacher Iḍāfah of indefinite + definite noun
كتاب الإستاذ الجديد ktāb il-ʾistāz le-jdīd the new book of the teacher OR the book of the new teacher The adjective is definite, because the Iḍāfah is definite. Both meanings are possible, to avoid confusion the preposition -la can be used to split the Iḍāfah.
الكتاب الجديد للإستاذ le-ktāb le-jdīd l-il-ʾistāz the new book of the teacher Split Iḍāfah
الكتاب للإستاذ الجديد le-ktāb l-il-ʾistāz le-jdīd the book of the new teacher Split Iḍāfah
الكتاب الجديد تبع الإستاذ le-ktāb le-jdīd tabaC il-ʾistāz the teacher's new book Use of تبع, tabaC to avoid confusion.
كتاب إستاذ العربي ktāb ʾistāz il-ʕarabi the book of the teacher of Arabic Chained Iḍāfah, only the last noun takes the definite article
مجلة جديدة majalle jdīde a new magazine Noun-adjective: ة pronounced as "ih"
مجلة الإستاذ majallet il-ʾistāz the magazine of the teacher ة pronounced as "t" in construct state
بيت خالد bēt ḵālid Khalid's house With a proper noun: possessiveness
مدينة نيويورك madīnet nyū-yōrk New York City First noun ends with ah (pronounced as "t"), second is a proper noun
مدينة زغيرة madīne zḡīre a small town/city Noun-adjective, ة pronounced as "ah"
صحن حمص ṣaḥen ḥummuṣ hummus dish

Verbal nouns

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Verbal nouns (also called gerunds or masdar[24]) play an important role in Levantine. Derived from a verb root, they can be used as a noun ("food") or as a gerund ("eating").[25] Verbal nouns do not exist as infinitives, they are not part of the verbal system but of the lexicon.[3]

Verbal nouns declension patterns for the ten verb forms[a][25]
Form Verb pattern Verbal noun pattern Example[26]
Most common Variants Verb Verbal noun
Form I C1vC2vC3 C1vC2C3 Many variants ‏‏درس‎
daras
(to study, to learn)		 ‏درس‎
dars
(a lesson)
Form II C1aC2C2aC3 taC1C2īC3 taC1C2iC3a / tiC1C2āC3 ‏قدّم‎
qaddam
(to present, to offer)		 ‏تقديم‎
taqdīm
(a presentation, presenting)
Form III C1v̄C2aC3 muC1v̄C2aC3a C1iC2v̄C3 ‏ساعد‎
sāʕad
(to help)		 ‏مساعدة‎
musāʕida
(help, assistance)
Form IV ʔaC1C2aC3 ʔiC1C2āC3 ‏أقنع‎
ʾaqnaʿ
(to convince)		 ‏إقناع‎
ʾiqnāʿ
(convincing)
Form V tC1aC2C2aC3 taC1aC2C2uC3 ‏تجنب‎
tjannab
(to avoid)		 ‏تجنّب‎
tajannub
(avoiding, avoidance)
Form VI tC1v̄C2aC3 taC1v̄C2uC3 ‏تجاهل‎
tjāhal
(to ignore)		 ‏تجاهل‎
tajāhul
(ignoring)
Form VII nC1aC2aC3 (North)
inC1aC2aC3 (South) 		inC1iC2v̄C3 ‏انبسط‎
inbasaṭ
(to be happy, to have fun)		 ‏انبساط‎
inbisāṭ
(happiness)
Form VIII C1tvC2vC3 (North)
iC1tvC2vC3 (South) 		iC1tiC2v̄C3 ‏اقترح‎
iqtaraḥ
(to suggest)		 ‏اقتراح‎
iqtirāḥ
(a suggestion)
Form IX C1C2aC3C3 (North)
iC1C2aC3C3 (South) 		iC1C2iC3āC3 ‏احمر‎
iḥmarr
(to blush, to turn red)		 ‏احمرار‎
iḥmirār
(blushing, turning red)
Form X staC1C2aC3 (North)
istaC1C2aC3 (South) 		istiC1C2āC3 ‏استعمل‎
istaʕmal
(to use)		 ‏استعمال‎
istiʕmāl
(use, usage)

Numerals

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Cardinal numbers

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Number one and two have a masculine and feminine form. When used with a noun, they rather follow it like an adjective than precede it for emphasis.[27] An exception are uncountable nouns.[28] When the number 2 is accompanied by a noun, the dual form is usually used: waladēn, 2 boys.[27]

Numbers larger than 3 do not have gender but may have two forms, one used before nouns and one used independently.[29] In particular, numbers between 3 and 10 lose their final vowel before a noun.[27]

Numbers from 3 to 10 are followed by plural nouns. Numbers from 11 to 99 are followed by a singular.[29][30][27]

Numbers 100 and onwards follow the same rule as numbers 0–99 based on their last two digits. 100 and 101 are followed by a singular, 102 is followed by a dual (102 books: miyye u-ktābēn), 103–110 by a plural, and 111–199 is like 11–99, followed by a singular.[31]

Before a small set of nouns (e.g. ألف, ʾalf, "thousand") the independent form is used in construct state (ة pronounced as "t"). مية (miyye, "hundred") is always in construct state before nouns.[28]

Levantine cardinal numbers[28][27][31]
Number Gender Independent Followed by noun Number of noun
0 / ٠ ‏صفر‎ ṣifr — Plural
1 / ١ m ‏واحد‎ wāḥad — Singular
f ‏واحدة‎‎ waḥde —
2 / ٢ m ‏تنين‎ tnēn — Dual or plural
f ‏تنتين‎‎ tintēn —
3 / ٣ ‏تلاتة‎ talāte (South)
‏تلاتة‎ tlēte (North)		 ‏تلت‎‎ talat/tlat (South)
‏تلات‎‎ tlēt/tlat (North)		 Plural
4 / ٤ ‏أربعة‎ ʾarbaʕa ‏أربع‎‎ ʾarbaʕ
5 / ٥ ‏خمسة‎ ḵamse ‏خمس‎‎ ḵams
6 / ٦ ‏ستة‎ sitte ‏ست‎‎ sitt
7 / ٧ ‏سبعة‎ sabʕa ‏سبع‎‎ sabʕ
8 / ٨ ‏تمانية‎ tamānye (South)
‏تمانة‎ tmēne (North)		 ‏تمن‎‎ taman/tman (South)
‏تمن‎‎ tman/tmin (North)
9 / ٩ ‏تسع‎ tisʕa ‏تسع‎‎ tisʕ
10 / ١٠ ‏عشرة‎ ʕašara ‏عشر‎‎ ʕašr
11 / ١١ ‏احدعش‎ (i)ḥdaʕš ‏احدعشر‎‎ (i)ḥdaʕšar Singular
12 / ١٢ ‏تنعش‎ tnaʕš ‏تنعشر‎‎ tnaʕšar
20 / ٢٠ ‏عشرين‎ ʕišrīn
21 / ٢١ ‏واحد وعشرين‎ wāhad w-ʕišrīn
30 / ٣٠ ‏تلاتين‎ talatīn (South) / tlētīn (North)
100 / ١٠٠ ‏مية‎ miyye ‏مية‎ mīt
101 / ١٠١ ‏مية وواحد‎ miyye u-wāḥad ‏مية و-‎ miyye u- + Singular noun
102 / ١٠٢ ‏مية وتنين‎ miyye u-tnēn ‏مية و-‎ miyye u- + Dual noun Dual
103 / ١٠٣ ‏مية وتلاتة‎ miyye u-talāte ‏مية وتلت‎‎ miyye u-talat Plural
200 / ٢٠٠ ‏ميتين‎ mītēn Singular
300 / ٣٠٠ ‏تلتمية‎ t(a)lat-miyye ‏تلتمية‎ t(a)lat-mīt
1000 / ١٠٠٠ ‏ألف‎ ʾalf
2000 / ٢٠٠٠ ‏ألفين‎ ʾalfēn
3000 / ٣٠٠٠ ‏تلتة آلاف‎ t(a)latt‿ālāf
10000 / ١٠٠٠٠ ‏عشرة آلاف‎ ʕašert‿ālāf
11000 / ١١٠٠٠ ‏إحدشر ألف‎‎ ʾiḥdaʕšar ʾalf
100000 / ١٠٠٠٠٠ ‏مية ألف‎‎ mīt ʾalf

Ordinal numbers and fractions

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Ordinal numbers can either precede or follow the noun. If they precede the noun the masculine form is used and the definite article is dropped.[28]

Ordinal numbers above 10 do not exist, instead the cardinal numbers are used following the noun.[28]

Ordinal numbers in Levantine[28]
Ordinal number Fraction
Number Masculine or
followed by noun		 Feminine Plural Number Singular Plural
1 / ١ ‏أول‎ ʾawwal ‏أولى‎‎ ʾūla ‏أوائل‎ ʾawāʾel or ‏أولى‎ ʾuwala —
2 / ٢ ‏تاني‎ tāni ‏تانية‎‎ tānye ‏تانين‎ tānyīn 1⁄2 / ١⁄٢ ‏نص‎ nuṣṣ ‏أنصاص‎ (ʾa)nṣāṣ
3 / ٣ ‏تالت‎ tālet ‏تالتة‎ tālte ‏تالتين‎ tāltīn 1⁄3 / ١⁄٣ ‏تلت‎ tult ‏تلات‎ tlāt
4 / ٤ ‏رابع‎ rābeʕ ‏رابعة‎ rābʕa ‏رابعين‎ rābʕīn 1⁄4 / ١⁄٤ ‏ربع‎ rubʕ ‏رباع‎ rbāʕ
5 / ٥ ‏خامس‎ ḵāmes ‏خامسة‎ ḵāmse ‏خامسين‎ ḵāmsīn 1⁄5 / ١⁄٥ ‏خمس‎ ḵums ‏أخماس‎ (ʾa)ḵmās
6 / ٦ ‏سادس‎ sādes ‏سادسة‎ sādse ‏سادسين‎ sādsīn 1⁄6 / ١⁄٦ ‏سدس‎ suds ‏أسداس‎ (ʾa)sdās
7 / ٧ ‏سابع‎ sābeʕ ‏سابعة‎ sābʕa ‏سابعين‎ sābʕīn 1⁄7 / ١⁄٧ ‏سبع‎ subʕ ‏أسباع‎ (ʾa)sbāʕ
8 / ٨ ‏تامن ‎ tāmen ‏تامنة‎ tāmne ‏تامنين‎ tāmnīn 1⁄8 / ١⁄٨ ‏تمن‎ tumn ‏أتمان‎ (ʾa)tmān
9 / ٩ ‏تاسع‎ tāseʕ ‏تاسعة‎ tāsʕa ‏تاسعين‎ tāsʕīn 1⁄9 / ١⁄٩ ‏تسع‎ tusʕ ‏أتساع‎ (ʾa)tsāʕ
10 / ١٠ ‏عاشر‎ ʕāšer ‏عاشرة‎ ʕāšra ‏عاشرين‎ ʕāšrīn 1⁄10 / ١⁄١٠ ‏عشر‎ ʕušr ‏أشار‎ (ʾa)ʕšār

Adjectives

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Form

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Many adjectives have the pattern فعيل (fʕīl / CCīC or faʕīl / CaCīC) but other patterns are also possible.[20]

Adjectives derived from nouns by the suffix ـي (-i) are called Nisba adjectives. Their feminine form ends in ـية (-iyye) and the plural in ـيين (-iyyīn).[32]

Gender

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Adjectives typically have three form: a masculine singular, a feminine singular, and a plural which does not distinguish gender. In most adjectives the feminine is formed through addition of -a/e, sometimes dropping an unstressed short vowel.[33]

Number

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Nouns in dual have adjectives in plural.[20]

The plural of adjectives is either regular ending in ـين (-īn) or is an irregular "broken" plural. It is used with nouns referring to people. For non-human / inanimate / abstract nouns, adjectives can use either the plural or the singular feminine form regardless of the noun's gender.[33][20][34][16]

Word order

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Adjectives follow the noun they modify and agree with it in definiteness. Adjectives without an article after a definite noun express a clause with the invisible copula "to be".[35]

Examples
بيت كبير bēt kbīr a big house
البيت الكبير il-bēt le-kbīr the big house
البيت كبير il-bēt kbīr the house is big

There is no dominant order for degree words and adjectives: Adverbs of degree like ‏كتير‎ (ktīr, "very") and ‏شوي‎ (šwayy, "a little / a bit") can either precede or follow the adjective.[1]

Superlative and comparative

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There are no separate comparative and superlative forms but the elative is used in both cases.[33]

The elative is formed by adding a hamza at the beginning of the adjective and replace the vowels by "a" (pattern: أفعل ʾafʕal / aCCaC).[20] Adjective endings in ‏ي‎ (i) and ‏و‎ (u) are changed into ‏ی‎ (a). If the second and third consonant in the root are the same, they are geminated (pattern: أفلّ ʾafall / ʾaCaCC).[36]

Speakers who pronounce ‏ق‎ as hamza might pronounced the elative prefix as "h" in order to avoid two consecutive hamzas.[37]

Examples of elative adjectives
Adjective Elative
Regular ‏كبير‎ kbīr ‏أكبر‎ ʾakbar
‏سهل‎ sahl ‏أسهل‎ ʾashal
‏قديم‎ ʾadīm ‏أقدم‎ ʾaʾdam / haʾdam
Gemination ‏جديد‎ jdīd ‏أجدّ‎ ʾajadd
‏قليل‎ ʾalīl ‏أقلّ‎ ʾaʾall / haʾall
Final i/u ‏عالي‎ ʕāli ‏أعلى‎ ʾaʕla
‏حلو‎ ḥilu ‏أحلى‎ ʾaḥla
Irregular ‏منيح‎ mnīḥ / ‏كويس‎ kwayyes ‏أحسن‎ 'aḥsan (from ‏حسن‎ ḥasan)

When an elative modifies a noun, it precedes the noun an no definite article is used.[38]

In order to compare two things, the word ‏من‎ (min, lit. 'from') is used in the sense of "than" in English.[38]

Examples of elative sentences
Levantine (Arabic) Levantine (Latin) English
أحسن إشي ʾaḥsan ʾiši the best thing
هالإشي أحسن ha-l-ʾiši ʾaḥsan this thing is better / the best
هالإشي أحسن من إشي تاني ha-l-ʾiši ʾaḥsan min ʾiši tāni this thing is better than something else

Not all adjectives can form an elative, especially those that are participles or derived from nouns. In this case, ‏أكتر‎ (ʾaktar, "more, most") is used.[33]

Examples of comparative and superlative using ‏أكتر‎ (ʾaktar, "more, most")
Levantine (Arabic) Levantine (Latin) English
‏مجنون‎ majnūn crazy
مجنون أكتر majnūn ʾaktar crazier / craziest
هو مجنون أكتر منك huwwe majnūn ʾaktar minnak he is crazier than you
أكتر واحد مجنون ʾaktar wāḥad majnūn the craziest one

Prepositions

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Prepositions must precede nominals in Levantine.[4]

Common prepositions[3]
Levantine English
‏بـ‎ bi- with; in, at
‏فِي‎ fī in, at
‏مَعَ‎ maʕ with, along with
‏مِن‎ min from; than
‏لـ‎ la- to; for
‏عـ‎ ʕa- / ‏على‎ ʕāla on, upon; to; about
‏قبل‎ ʾabl before
‏بعد‎ baʕd after
‏قدّام‎ ʾuddām in front of
‏ورا‎ wara behind
‏فوق‎ fōʾ above, over
‏تحت‎ taḥt below, under
‏بين‎ bēn between

Pronouns

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Feminine plural forms modifying human females are found mostly in rural and Bedouin areas. They are not mentioned below.[39]

Personal pronouns

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Levantine has eight persons, and therefore eight pronouns. Dual forms that exist in Modern Standard Arabic do not exist in Levantine, the plural is used instead. Because conjugated verbs indicate the subject with a prefix and/or a suffix, independent subject pronouns are usually not necessary and are mainly used for emphasis.[40][41]

Independent personal pronouns

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Levantine independent personal pronouns[41][42]
Singular Plural
1st person (m/f) ‏أنا‎ ʾana ‏احنا‎ ʾiḥna (South) / ‏نحنا‎ niḥna (North)
2nd person m ‏انت‎ ʾinta ‏انتو‎ / ‏انتوا‎ ʾintu
f ‏انتي‎ ʾinti
3rd person m ‏هو‎ huwwe ‏هم‎ humme (South) / ‏هن‎ hinne (North)
f ‏هي‎ hiyye

Direct object and possessive pronouns

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Direct object pronouns are indicated by suffixes attached to the conjugated verb. Their form depends whether the verb ends with a consonant or a vowel. Suffixed to nouns, these pronouns express possessive.[43][41]

Levantine enclitic pronouns, direct object and possessive[41]
Singular Plural
after consonant after vowel
1st person after verb ‏ـني‎ -ni ‏ـنا‎ -na
else ‏ـِي‎ -i ‏ـي‎ -y
2nd person m ‏ـَك‎ -ak ‏ـك‎ -k ‏ـكُن‎ -kun (North)
‏ـكُم‎ -kom ‏ـكو‎ -ku (South)
f ‏ـِك‎ -ik ‏ـكِ‎ -ki
3rd person m ‏و‎ -u (North)
‏ـُه‎ -o (South) 		‏ـه‎ (silent)[b] ‏ـُن‎ -(h/w/y)un (North)
‏ـهُم‎ -hom (South)
f ‏ـا‎ -a (North)
‏ـها‎ -ha (South) 		‏ـا‎ -(h/w/y)a (North)
‏ـها‎ -ha (South)

If a pronoun is already attached on the end of a word, the second pronoun is attached to يا yā (after a vowel) / iyā- (after a consonant), for instance: بدي ياك beddi yaak (I want you (m)).[44][45]

Indirect object pronouns

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Indirect object pronouns (dative) are suffixed to the conjugated verb. They are form by adding an ل (-l) and then the possessive suffix to the verb.[39] They precede object pronouns if present:

  • jāb il-jarīde la-ʔabūy: he brought the newspaper to my father,
  • jāb-ha la-ʔabūy: he brought it to my father,
  • jab-lo il-jarīde: he brought him the newspaper,
  • jab-lo yyā-ha: he brought him it.[39][45]
Levantine indirect object pronoun suffixes[41]
Singular Plural
1st person (m/f) ‏ـلي‎ -li ‏ـلنا‎ -lna
2nd person m ‏لَك‎ -lak ‏ـلكُن‎ -lkun (North)
‏ـلكُم‎ -lkom, ‏ـلكو‎ -lku (South)
f ‏ـِلك‎ -lik
3rd person m ‏لو‎ -lu (North)
‏لُه‎ -lo (South) 		‏ـلُن‎ -lun (North)
‏ـلهُم‎ -lhom (South)
f ‏ـلا‎ -la (North)
‏ـلها‎ -lha (South)

Demonstrative pronouns

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Demonstrative pronouns have three referential types: immediate, proximal, and distal. The distinction between proximal and distal demonstratives is of physical, temporal, or metaphorical distance. The genderless and numberless immediate demonstrative article ‏ها‎ ha is translated by "this/the", to designate something immediately visible or accessible.[46]

Levantine demonstrative pronouns
Singular Plural
Proximal
(this, these) 		m ‏هادا‎ hāda / ‏هاد‎ hād (South, Syria)
‏هيدا‎ hayda (Lebanon) 		‏هدول‎ hadōl (South, Syria)
‏هيدول‎ haydōl / ‏هودي‎ hawdi (Lebanon)
f ‏هادي‎ hādi / ‏هاي‎ hāy (South)
‏هيّ‎ hayy (Syria)
‏هيدي‎ haydi (Lebanon)
Distal
(that, those) 		m ‏هداك‎ hadāk (South, Syria)
‏هيداك‎ haydāk (Lebanon) 		‏هدولاك‎ hadōlāk (South)
‏هدوليك‎ hadōlīk (Syria)
‏هيدوليك‎ haydōlīk (Lebanon)
f ‏هديك‎ hadīk (South, Syria)
‏هيديك‎ haydīk (Lebanon)

Interrogative pronouns

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Interrogative pronouns in Levantine[46]
Levantine English
‏مين‎ mīn who
‏لمين‎ la-mīn whose
‏شو‎ šū / ‏إيش‎ ʾēš (South) what
‏لشو‎ la-šu for what
‏ليش‎ lēš / ‏ليه‎ lē (Lebanon) why
‏أيّ‎ ʾayy which
‏إيمتى‎ ʾēmta / ‏إمتى‎ ʾimta (Lebanon) when
‏وين‎ wēn where
‏لوين‎ la-wēn where to
‏من وين‎ min wēn / ‏منين‎ mnēn where from
‏كيف‎ kīf / ‏شلون‎ šlōn (Syria) how
‏قدّيش‎ ʾaddēš / ‏قدّيه‎ ʾaddē (Lebanon) how much
‏كم‎ kam how many
‏كل قدّيش‎ kull/kill ʾaddēš / ‏كم مرّة‎ kam marra how often

Relative pronouns

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The relative pronoun, invariable for number and gender, is ‏اللي‎ (illi).[47]

Verbs

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Root

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Like Arabic verbs, most Levantine verbs are based on a triliteral root (also called radical) made of three consonants (therefore also called triconsonantal root). The set of consonants communicates the basic meaning of a verb, e.g. k-t-b 'write', q-r-’ 'read', ’-k-l 'eat'. Changes to the vowels in between the consonants, along with prefixes or suffixes, specify grammatical functions such as tense, person and number, in addition to changes in the meaning of the verb that embody grammatical concepts such as mood (e.g. indicative, subjunctive, imperative), voice (active or passive), and functions such as causative, intensive, or reflexive.[48]

Quadriliteral roots are less common, but often used to coin new vocabulary or to Arabicize foreign words.[49][50]

The base form is the third-person masculine singular of the perfect (also called past) tense.[51]

Verb forms

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For broader coverage of this topic, see Wiktionary:Template:ajp-conj/documentation.

Almost all Levantine verbs can be categorized in one of ten verb forms (also called verb measures,[52] stems,[53] patterns,[54] or types[55]). Form I, the most common one, serves as a base for the other nine forms. Each form carries a different verbal idea, relative to the meaning of its root. Technically, 10 verbs can be constructed from any given triconsonantal root. However, all of those ten forms may not be used in practice by speakers.[48] After Form I, Forms II, V, VII, and X are the most common ones.[53]

Sound verb forms in Levantine[52][48][53][a]
Form/Measure/Stem Tendency of meaning Perfect pattern Imperfect pattern Example Root of the example Note
Form I Active or stative verb (base form) C1vC2vC3 -C1vC2vC3 ‏عمل‎
ʕimil
(to do, to make)		 ‏ع م ل‎
ʕ-m-l
(related to work)		 —
Form II Causes action (Causative), shows intensity (Augmentative), or may indicates continuing action C1aC2C2aC3 -C1aC2C2eC3 ‏علّم‎
ʕallam
(to teach)		 ‏ع ل م‎
ʕ-l-m
(related to knowledge)		 Most productive form[20]
Form III Active in meaning or shows attempt; focus is on one-sided action C1v̄C2aC3 -C1v̄C2eC3 ‏عامل‎
ʕāmal
(to treat)		 ‏ع م ل‎
ʕ-m-l
(related to work)		 —
Form IV Causes action, similar to Form II ʔaC1C2aC3 -C1C2eC3 ‏أعلن‎
ʔaʕlan
(to announce)		 ‏ع ل ن‎
ʔ-l-n
(related to publicity)		 Rare, limited to borrowings from MSA
Form V Reflexive/passive/mediopassive meaning for transitive Form II verbs tC1aC2C2aC3 -tC1aC2C2aC3 ‏تعلّم‎
tʕallam
(to learn)		 ‏ع ل م‎
ʕ-l-m
(related to knowledge)		 Usually intransitive
Form VI Reflexive/passive meaning for Form III or active in meaning tC1v̄C2aC3 -tC1v̄C2eC3 ‏تعامل‎
tʕāmal
(to work or deal with)		 ‏ع م ل‎
ʕ-m-l
(related to work)		 Usually intransitive
Form VII Reflexive/passive meaning for Form I or no particular tendency of meaning nC1aC2aC3 (North)
inC1aC2aC3 (South)		 -nC1ǝC2eC3
-nC1aːC2 in medial glide roots		 ‏انبسط‎
inbasaṭ
(to have fun, enjoy oneself)		 ‏ب س ط‎
b-s-ṭ
(related to spreading and extending)		 —
Form VIII Active, reflexive, or passive in meaning C1tvC2vC3 (North)
iC1tvC2vC3 (South)		 -C1tvC2vC3 ‏اعترف‎
iʕtaraf
(to confess)		 ‏ع ر ف‎
ʕ-r-f
(related to awareness)		 Not productive[20]
Form IX Inchoative verbs from adjectives: Changing of color or physical handicap C1C2aC3C3 (North)
iC1C2aC3C3 (South)		 -C1C2aC3C3 ‏اِبْيَضَّ‎
ibyaḍḍa
(to become white)		 ‏ب ي ض‎
b-y-ḍ
(related to whiteness)		 Very rare, replaced by ṣār "to become" + adjective[56]
Form X Sought to do something or believe something to be big, close, etc. (Denominal or deadjectival) staC1C2aC3 (North)
istaC1C2aC3 (South)		 -staC1C2eC3 ‏استعمل‎
istaʕmal
(to use)		 ‏ع م ل‎
ʕ-m-l
(related to work)		 Often transitive verbs[20]

Aldrich also defines verb forms XI (for verbs based on quadriliteral roots) and XII (for passive or intransitive version of form XI verbs).[52]

In addition to its form, each verb has a "quality":

  • Sound (or regular): 3 distinct radicals, neither the second nor the third is w or y,
  • Verbs containing the radicals w or y are called weak. They can be either:
    • Hollow: verbs with w or y as the second radical, which can become a long a in some forms, or
    • Defective: verbs with w or y as the third radical, treated as a vowel,
  • Geminate (or doubled): the second and third radicals are identical, remaining together as a double consonant.[52]

Some irregular verbs do not fit into any of the verb forms.[52]

The initial i in verb forms VII, VIII, IX, X drops when the preceding word ends in a vowel or at the beginning of a sentence.[7]

Regular verb conjugation

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The Levantine verb has only two tenses: past (perfect) and present (also called imperfect, b-imperfect, or bi-imperfect). The future tense is an extension of the present tense. The negative imperative is the same as the negative present with helping verb (imperfect). The grammatical person and number as well as the mood are designated by a variety of prefixes and suffixes. The following table shows the paradigm of a sound Form I verb, katab (كتب) 'to write'.[48]

The b-imperfect is usually used for the indicative mood (non-past present, habitual/general present, narrative present, planned future actions, or potential). The prefix b- is deleted in the subjunctive mood, usually after various modal verbs, auxiliary verbs, pseudo-verbs, prepositions, and particles.[20][56][57][58]

In the following table, the accented vowel is in bold.

Conjugation of كتب, 'to write' (sound form I verb)
North Levantine[59] South Levantine[60][61]
1st person 2nd person 3rd person 1st person 2nd person 3rd person
Past[c] Masc. ‏كتبت‎‎ katabit ‏كتبت‎ katabit ‏كتب‎ katab ‏كتبت‎‎ katabt ‏كتبت‎‎ katabt ‏كتب‎‎ katab
Fem. ‏كتبتي‎‎ katabti ‏كتبت‎‎ katabit ‏كتبتي‎‎ katabti ‏كتبت‎‎ katbat
Plural ‏كتبنا‎‎ katabna ‏كتبتو‎‎ katabtu ‏كتبو‎‎‎ katabu ‏كتبنا‎‎ katabna ‏كتبتو‎‎‎ katabtu ‏كتبو‎‎‎ katabu
Present[d] Masc. ‏بكتب‎‎ biktub ‏بتكتب‎ btiktub ‏بيكتب‎‎ byiktub ‏بكتب‎‎ baktob ‏بتكتب‎‎ btuktob ‏بكتب‎‎ buktob
Fem. ‏بتكتبي‎‎ btiktbi ‏بتكتب‎‎ btiktub ‏بتكتبي‎‎ btuktobi ‏بتكتب‎‎ btuktob
Plural ‏منكتب‎‎ mniktub ‏بتكتبو‎‎ btiktbu ‏بيكتبو‎‎ byiktbu ‏منكتب‎‎‎ mnuktob
‏بنكتب‎‎‎ bnuktob
[62][e] 		‏بتكتبو‎‎‎ btuktobu ‏بكتبو‎‎‎ buktobu
Present with helping verb[f] Masc. ‏اكتب‎ iktub ‏تكتب‎‎ tiktub ‏يكتب‎‎ yiktub ‏أكتب‎‎ ʾaktob ‏تكتب‎‎ tuktob ‏يكتب‎‎ yuktob
Fem. ‏تكتبي‎‎ tiktbi ‏تكتب‎‎ tiktub ‏تكتبي‎‎ tuktobi ‏تكتب‎‎ tuktob
Plural ‏نكتب‎‎ niktub ‏تكتبو‎‎ tiktbu ‏يكتبو‎‎ yiktbu ‏نكتب‎‎ nuktob ‏تكتبو‎‎ tuktobu ‏يكتبو‎‎ yuktobu
Positive imperative[g] Masc. — ‏كتوب‎‎ ktūb — — ‏أكتب‎ ʾuktob —
Fem. ‏كتبي‎‎ ktibi ‏أكتب‎ ʾuktobi
Plural ‏كتبو‎‎ ktibu ‏أكتب‎ ʾuktobu
Active participle[h] Masc. ‏كاتب‎ kētib ‏كاتب‎ kāteb
Fem. ‏كاتبة‎ kētbi ‏كاتبة‎ kātbe
Plural ‏كاتبين‎ kētbīn ‏كاتبين‎ kātbīn
Passive participle[i] Masc. ‏مكتوب‎ maktūb ‏مكتوب‎ maktūb
Fem. ‏مكتوبة‎ maktūba ‏مكتوبة‎ maktūba
Plural ‏مكتوبين‎ maktūbīn ‏مكتوبين‎ maktūbīn
Table of prefixes, affixes, and suffixes added to the base form (for sound form I verbs with stressed prefixes)[63]
Singular Dual/Plural
1st person 2nd person 3rd person 1st person 2nd person 3rd person
Past[c] M -it -it ∅ (base form) -na -tu -u
F -ti -it (North)
-at (South)
Present[d] M bi- (North)
ba- (South) 		bti- byi- (North)[42]
bi- (South) 		mni- bti- -u byi- -u (North)[42]
bi- -u (South)
F bti- -i bti-
Present with helping verb[f] M i- (North)
a- (South) 		ti- yi- ni- ti- -u yi- -u
F ti- -i ti-
Positive imperative[g] M — ∅ (Lengthening the present tense vowel, North)
i- (Subjunctive without initial consonant, South) 		— — -u (Stressed vowel u becomes i, North)
i- -u (South) 		—
F -i (Stressed vowel u becomes i, North)
i- -i (South)
Active participle[h] M -ē- (North) or -ā- (South) after the first consonant -īn (added to the masculine form)
F -e/i or -a (added to the masculine form)
Passive participle[i] M ma- and -ū- after the second consonant
F -a (added to the masculine form)

In the perfect tense, the first person singular and second person masculine singular are identical. For regular verbs, the third-person feminine singular is written identically but stressed differently.[64]

Depending on regions and accents, the -u can be pronounced -o and the -i can be pronounced -é.[65]

In Southern Levantine dialects, the vowel of the suffix in past tense 3rd person feminine as well as the prefix in the present tense 1st person singular is "a" instead of "i". It might be "u" in other persons of the present tense due to vowel harmony.[66]

Active participle

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The active participle, also called present participle, is grammatically an adjective derived from a verb. Depending on the context, it can express the present or present continuous (with verbs of motion, location, or mental state), the near future, or the present perfect (past action with a present result).[67] It can also serve as a noun or an adjective.[68]

The active participle can be inflected from the verb based on its verb form.[68]

Active participle declension patterns for the ten verb forms[a][68]
Form Verb pattern Active participle pattern Example[69][70][71][72][73][74][75][76][77][78]
Verb Active participle
Form I C1vC2vC3 C1v̄C2vC3 ‏‏مسك‎
masak
(to grab, to arrest)		 ‏ماسك‎
mɑ̄sik
(is arresting, has arrested)
Form II C1aC2C2aC3 mC1aC2C2eC3 ‏قدّم‎
qaddam
(to present, to offer)		 ‏مقدّم‎
mqaddem
(has presented, a presenter)
Form III C1v̄C2aC3 mC1v̄C2iC3 ‏ساعد‎
sāʕad
(to help)		 ‏مساعد‎
msāʕid
(assistant, has helped)
Form IV ʔaC1C2aC3 miC1C2iC3 ‏أقنع‎
ʾaqnaʿ
(to convince)		 ‏مقنع‎
miqniʿ
(is convincing, has convinced)
Form V tC1aC2C2aC3 mitC1aC2C2eC3 ‏تجنب‎
tjannab
(to avoid)		 ‏متجنب‎
mitjanneb
(is avoiding)
Form VI tC1v̄C2aC3 mitC1v̄C2aC3 ‏تجاهل‎
tjāhal
(to ignore)		 ‏متجاهل‎
mitjāhal
(is ignoring)
Form VII nC1aC2aC3 (North)
inC1aC2aC3 (South)		 minC1aC2eC3 ‏انبسط‎
inbasaṭ
(to be happy, to have fun)		 ‏منبسط‎
minbasiṭ
(is happy)
Form VIII C1tvC2vC3 (North)
iC1tvC2vC3 (South)		 minC1tvC2vC3 ‏اقترح‎
iqtaraḥ
(to suggest)		 ‏مقترح‎
miqtariḥ
(has suggested)
Form IX C1C2aC3C3 (North)
iC1C2aC3C3 (South)		 miC1C2aC3C3 ‏احمر‎
iḥmarr
(to blush, to turn red)		 ‏محمر‎
miḥmarr
(is blushing, has turned red)
Form X staC1C2aC3 (North)
istaC1C2aC3 (South)		 mistaC1C2iC3 ‏استعمل‎
istaʕmal
(to use)		 ‏مستعمل‎
imstaʕmil
(user, has used)

Passive participle

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The passive participle, also called past participle,[24] has a similar meaning as in English (i.e. sent, written, etc.). It is mostly used as an adjective but it can sometimes be used as a noun. It is inflected from the verb based on its verb form.[79] However, in practice, passive participles are largely limited to verb forms I (CvCvC) and II (CvCCvC), becoming maCCūC for the former and mCaCCaC for the latter.[3]

Passive participle declension patterns[a][79]
Form Verb pattern Passive participle pattern Example
Verb Passive participle
Form I C1vC2vC3 maC1C2ūC3 ‏فتح‎
fataḥ
(to open)		 ‏مفتوح‎
maftūḥ
(opened)
Form II C1aC2C2aC3 mC1aC2C2aC3 ‏رتب‎
rattab
(to organize, to tidy up)		 ‏مرتب‎
mrattab
(organized, neat)
Form III C1v̄C2aC3 muC1v̄C2eC3 ‏فاجأ‎
fājaʔ
(to surprise)		 ‏مفاجِئ‎‎
mufājaʔ
(surprised)
Form IV ʔaC1C2aC3 muC1C2eC3 ‏أعطى‎
ʔaʕṭa
(to give)		 ‏معطى‎
muʕṭa
(given)
Form V tC1aC2C2aC3 Very rarely used
Form VI tC1v̄C2aC3 Very rarely used
Form VII nC1aC2aC3 (North)
inC1aC2aC3 (South) 		Not used
Form VIII C1tvC2vC3 (North)
iC1tvC2vC3 (South)		 muC1tvC2vC3 ‏اقترح‎
iqtaraḥ
(to suggest)		 ‏مقترح‎
muqtaraḥ
(suggested)
Form IX C1C2aC3C3 (North)
iC1C2aC3C3 (South) 		Not used
Form X staC1C2aC3 (North)
istaC1C2aC3 (South)		 mustaC1C2eC3 ‏استعمل‎
istaʕmal
(to use)		 ‏مستعمل‎
mustaʕmel
(used)

Future

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There are various ways to express the future. One is by using the present tense (with b- prefix) on its own. Another one is by using ‏بد‎ (bidd-, lit. 'want').[80]

The future tense is formed with the imperfect preceded by the particle ‏رح‎ (raḥ) or by the prefixed particle ‏حـ‎ (ḥa-).[81]

Expressing the future: examples
Way Levantine (Arabic) Levantine (Latin) English
Present tense بروح معك. barūḥ maʕek. I'll go with you.
bidd- (to want) بدي أمرق لعنده بكرة. biddi ʾamroʾ la-ʕindo bukra. I'm going to go to his house tomorrow.
Future tense رح شوفك بكرة. raḥ šūfak bukra. I'll see you tomorrow.
حشوفك بكرة. ḥa-šūfak bukra.

Present continuous

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The present continuous is formed with the progressive particle ‏عم‎ (ʕam) followed by the imperfect, with or without the initial b/m depending on the speaker.[82][83]

Examples of the present continuous
Without b-/m- prefix With b-/m- prefix English
Levantine (Arabic) Levantine (Latin) Levantine (Arabic) Levantine (Latin)
شو عم تعمل؟ šū ʕam tiʕmel? شو عم بتعمل؟ šū ʕam(ma) btiʕmel? What are you doing?
عم أشرب قهوة. ʕam ʾašrab ʾahwe. عم بشرب قهوة. ʕam bašrab ʾahwe. I'm drinking coffee.

It is also common to use the b- prefix only in those forms starting with a vowel (e.g. 1st person singular).[84]

Mixed usage (b- prefix before vowels)
Levantine (Arabic) Levantine (Latin) English
عم بعمل ʕam baʕmel I'm doing
عم تعمل ʕam tiʕmel you're doing / she's doing
عم بعمل / عم يعمل ʕam biʕmel / ʕam yiʕmel he's doing

Helping verbs

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After helping verbs (may also be called modal verbs, pseudo-verbs, auxiliary verbs, or prepositional phrases) the imperfect form (also called subjunctive)[f] is used, that is, the form without the initial b/m.[83]

Common components followed by the subjunctive[f][83][20][56][85]
Levantine English
‏بد‎ bidd- / badd- to want
‏ممكن‎ mumkin, ‏قدر‎ qider to can
‏قدر‎ qider / ‏فيـ‎ fī- (North) / ḥəsen to be able to
‏لازم‎ lazim to must, it is necessary to
‏حب‎ ḥabb to like
‏بلكي‎ balki / ‏بركي‎ berki may
‏ممنوع‎ mamnūʿ it's forbidden to
‏مفروض‎ mafrūḍ / ‏المفروض‎ il-mafrūḍ should
‏صار‎ ṣār to start to, to got used to doing
‏بلش‎ ballaš to begin to
‏فضل‎ fiḍel / bəʾi to end up
‏ضل‎ ḍall / ‏تم‎ tamm to keep doing
‏رجع‎ rijeʕ to start doing again
‏كان‎ kān used to doing

Compound tenses

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The verb ‏كان‎ (kān) can be followed by another verb, forming compound tenses. Both verbs are conjugated with their subject.[86]

Compound tenses with the example of the verb ʕimil (to do)[86][87][80]
kān in the past tense kān in the present tense
Followed by Levantine English Levantine English
Past tense كان عمل kān ʕimel he had done بكون عمل bikūn ʕimel he will have done
Active participle كان عامل kān ʕāmel he had done بكون عامل bikūn ʕāmel he will have done
Subjunctive كان يعمل kān yiʕmel he used to do / he was doing بكون يعمل bikūn yiʕmel he will be doing
Progressive كان عم يعمل kān ʕam yiʕmel he was doing بكون عم يعمل bikūn ʕam yiʕmel he will be doing
Future tense كان رح يعمل kān raḥ yiʕmel
كان حيعمل kān ḥa-yiʕmel		 he was going to do —
Present tense كان بعمل kān biʕmel he would do

Passive voice

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Form I verbs often correspond to an equivalent passive form VII verb, with the prefix n-. Form II and form III verbs usually correspond to an equivalent passive on forms V and VI, respectively, with the prefix t-.[52][88]

Examples of passive forms
Active Passive
Verb form Levantine English Verb form Levantine English
I ‏مسك‎ masak to catch VII ‏انمسك‎ inmasak to be caught
II ‏غيّر‎ ḡayyar to change V ‏تغيّر‎ tḡayyar to be changed
III ‏فاجأ‎ fājaʾ to surprise VI ‏تفاجأ‎ tfājaʾ to be surprised

While the verb forms V, VI and VII are common in the simple past and compound tenses, the passive participle (past participle) is preferred in the present tense.[89]

Examples of the passive voice[89]
Levantine (Arabic) Levantine (Latin) English Verb form Tense
الكتاب مكتوب. le-ktāb maktūb The book is written. I passive participle
الكتاب عم بنكتب. le-ktāb ʕam binkateb The book is being written. VII progressive
الكتاب انكتب. le-ktāb inkatab The book has been written. / The book was written. VII past tense
الكتاب كان مكتوب. le-ktāb kān maktūb The book was written. I kān + passive participle
الكتاب رح ينكتب. le-ktāb raḥ yinkateb The book will be written. VII future

To have

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Levantine does not have a verb "to have". Instead, possession is expressed using the prepositions عند (ʕind, lit. 'at', meaning "to possess") and مع (maʕ, lit. 'with', meaning "to have on oneself"), followed by personal pronoun suffixes. The past indicator ken and the future indicator raH are used to express possession in the past or the future, respectively.[90][91]

Inflected forms of عند (ʕind, "at", "to possess, to have")
Base form ‏عند‎ ʕind
Personal-pronoun-
including forms 		singular plural
m f
1st person ‏عندي‎ ʕindi ‏عنّا‎ ʕinna
2nd person ‏عندك‎ ʕindak ‏عندك‎ ʕindek ‏عندكم‎ ʕindkom (South) / ‏عندكن‎ ʕindkun (North)
3rd person ‏عنده‎ ʕindo (South) / ‏عندو‎ ʕindu (North) ‏عندها‎ ʕindha (South) / ‏عندا‎ ʕinda (North) ‏عندهم‎ ʕindhom (South) / ‏عندن‎ ʕindun (North)
Inflected forms of مع (maʕ, "with", "to have on oneself")
Base form ‏مع‎ maʕ
Personal-pronoun-
including forms 		singular plural
m f
1st person ‏معي‎ maʕi ‏معنا‎ maʕna
2nd person ‏معك‎ maʕak ‏معك‎ maʕek ‏معكم‎ maʕkom (South) / ‏معكن‎ maʕkun (North)
3rd person ‏معه‎ maʕo (South) / ‏معو‎ maʕu (North) ‏معها‎ maʕha (South) / ‏معا‎ maʕa (North) ‏معهم‎ maʕhom (South) / ‏معن‎ maʕun (North)

To want

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Enclitic personal pronouns are suffixed directly to the pseudo-verb بدّ (North: badd- / South: bidd-) to express "to want".[39]

Examples of bidd-
Levantine (Arabic) Levantine (Latin) English
بدها تشرب قهوة. bidha tišrab ʾahwe. She wants to drink coffee.
ما بدي ياه. mā biddi yyā. I don't want it.

Adverbs

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Levant does not distinguish between adverbs and adjectives in adverbial function. Almost any adjective can be used as an adverb: ‏منيح‎ (mnīḥ, ‘good’) vs. نمتي منيح؟ (nimti mnīḥ, ‘Did you sleep well?’) Adverbs from MSA, showing the suffix -an, are often used, e.g. ‏أبدا‎ (ʾabadan, ‘at all’).[3] Adverbs often appear after the verb or the adjective. ‏كتير‎ (ktīr, ‘very’) can be positioned after or before the adjective.[3]

Adverbs of manner can usually be formed using bi- followed by the nominal form: ‏بسرعة‎ (b-sirʿa, ‘fast, quickly’, lit. 'with speed').[57]

Common adverbs[58][57][20]
Levantine English
‏إيمتى‎ ʾēmta when (interrogative)
‏اليوم‎ il-yōm today
‏بكرة‎ bukra tomorrow
‏بعد بكرة‎ baʕd bukra the day after tomorrow
‏مبارح‎ mbāreḥ yesterday
‏أول مبارح‎ ʾawwal mbāriḥ / ‏قبل مبارح‎ ʾabl mbāreḥ the day before yesterday
‏هلا‎ halla(ʾ) (common Levantine) / ‏هسا‎ hassa (Amman) / ‏هلقيت‎ halʾēt (Jerusalem) now
‏بكير‎ bakkīr early
‏بعدين‎ baʕdēn afterwards
‏على بكرة‎ ʕala bukra early in the morning
‏وقتها‎ waʾt-ha at that time
‏الصبح‎ iṣ-ṣubḥ in the morning or this morning
‏دايما‎ dāyman / ‏على طول‎ ʕala ṭūl (Damascus) always
‏لسا‎ lissa / ‏بعد‎ baʕd (Beirut) still / not yet
‏هون‎ hōn here
‏هناك‎ hunāk (Amman) / ‏هونيك‎ honīk (Beirut) / ‏هنيك‎ hnīk (Damascus) there
‏هيك‎ hēk like this
‏على مهل‎ ʕala mahl / ‏شوي شوي‎ šway šway / ‏بهدوء‎ bi-hudūʾ slowly
‏كتير‎ ktīr very
‏عالآخر‎ ʕa-lʾāxir totally
‏قوام‎ ʾawām quickly
‏حاجة‎ ḥāje enough!
‏بس‎ bass only
‏كمان‎ kamān(e) also
‏دغري‎ duḡri straight on
‏لألله‎ laʾalla lit. 'to God', used as an intensifier
‏عادي‎ ʕādi lit. 'ordinary' or 'it makes no difference'
‏عشان هيك‎ ʕašān hēk therefore
‏مبلا‎ mbala it is so
‏أكيد‎ ʾakīd assuredly
‏يمكن‎ yimken / ‏بركي‎ barki maybe

Negation

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‏لا‎ lā and ‏لأ‎ laʔ mean “no.”[92]

Verbs and prepositional phrases can be negated by the particle ‏ما‎ mā / ma either on its own or, in South Levantine, together with the suffix ‏ـش‎ -iš at the end of the verb or prepositional phrase. In Palestinian, it is also common to negate verbs by the suffix ‏ـش‎ -iš only.[92]

Examples of negation with mā and -š
Without -š With -š English
Levantine (Arabic) Levantine (Latin) Levantine (Arabic) Levantine (Latin)
ما كتب. mā katab. ما كتبش. ma katab-š. He didn't write.
ما بحكي إنكليزي. mā baḥki ʾinglīzi. ما بحكيش إنكليزي. ma baḥkī-š ʾinglīzi. I don't speak English.
ما تنسى! mā tinsa! ما تنساش! ma tinsā-š! Don't forget!
ما بده ييجي عالحفلة. mā biddo yīji ʕa-l-ḥafle. — He doesn't want to come to the party.

‏مش‎ miš or in Syrian Arabic ‏مو‎ mū negates adjectives (including active participles), demonstratives, and nominal phrases.[93][92]

Examples of negation with miš
Levantine (Arabic) Levantine (Latin) English
أنا مش فلسطيني. ʾana miš falasṭīni. I'm not Palestinian.
مش عارفة. miš ʕārfe. I (fem.) don't know.
هادا مش منيح. hāda miš mnīḥ. That's not good.

The particles ‏عم‎ (ʕam) and ‏رح‎ (raḥ) can be negated with either ‏ما‎ mā or ‏مش‎ miš.

Levantine (Arabic) Levantine (Latin) English
ما رح أروح. mā raḥ ʾarūḥ. I won't go.
مش رح أروح. miš raḥ ʾarūḥ.

Negative copula

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North Levantine has a negative copula formed by ‏ما‎ mā / ma and a suffixed pronoun.[92]

Negative copula in Levantine[92]
Singular Plural
1st person (m/f) ‏ماني‎ māni ‏مانا‎ māna
2nd person m ‏مانَك‎ mānak ‏مانكُن‎ mānkon
f ‏مانِك‎ mānek
3rd person m ‏مانو‎ māno ‏مانلُن‎ mānon
f ‏مانا‎ māna

Subordination

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Relative clauses are formed with the particle yalli/illi/halli (the one who) when definite things are being described. It can be used either for people (who) or objects (that, which).[94][95][96]

If the noun to which the relative pronoun refers is indefinite and non specific, the relative clause is linked without any coordinating conjunction and is indistinguishable from an independent sentence.[97][95][96]

Examples of relative clauses[96][58]
English Levantine (Arabic) Levantine (Latin) Note
I saw the boy who was playing football. شفت الولد اللي كان يلعب فطبول šuft il-walad illi kān yilʕab faṭbōl. Definite subject: use of illi
I saw a girl playing football. شفت بنت كانت تلعب فطبول šuft bint kānat tilʕab faṭbōl. Indefinite subject: sentences connected without a pronoun

In formal speech, sentence complements can be introduced with the particle ʔǝnn ("that"), to which some speakers attach a personal pronoun (o or i).[97]

For circumstantial clauses, the conjunction w- introduces subordinate clauses with the sense "while, when, with".[98]

Temporal adverbs such as baʕd (after) may be used with the "ma" to form a subordinate clause: baʕd ma tnaːm ("after she goes to sleep").[97]

Conjunctions

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Common conjunctions[20][57][58]
Levantine English
‏و‎ w ~ u and (also with temporal meaning "then, during...")
‏أو‎ ʾaw or
‏يا ... يا‎ ya ... ya either ... or
‏بس‎ bass but
‏لإنه‎ laʾinno / ‏حاكم‎ ḥākem / ‏لأن‎ laʾann(o) (Beirut) because
‏لما‎ lamma / ‏بس‎ bass as soon as
‏وقت‎ waʾt / ‏وقت اللي‎ waʾt illi when
‏ما ... إلا‎ ma ... ʾilla just as soon as, hardly
‏طالما‎ ṭāla ma as long as
‏تـ‎ ta so that, until
‏عشان‎ ʕašān so that
‏كل ما‎ kull/kill ma every time that
‏على بين ما‎ (ʕa)la bēn ma until
‏أحسن ما‎ ʾaḥsan ma rather than
‏لـ‎ la / ‏حتى‎ ḥatta / ‏لحتى‎ la ḥatta / ‏منشان‎ minšān in order to
‏لـ‎ la lest
‏إذا‎ ʾiza / ‏لو‎ law / ‏إن‎ ʾin / ‏إذاً‎ ʾizan (Amman) if

Notes

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  1. ^ a b c d C represents a consonant, v represent a short vowel, v̄ represents a long vowel. Short vowel variations include e ~ i ~ ǝ and a ~ ǝ.[53]
  2. ^ The accent moves to the last vowel.
  3. ^ a b Also called perfect.
  4. ^ a b Also called bi-imperfect, b-imperfect, or standard imperfect.
  5. ^ The mn- form is the most common one. However, the bn- form is used in some parts of Palestine such as Jerusalem.
  6. ^ a b c d Also called Ø-imperfect, imperfect, or subjunctive.
  7. ^ a b Also called imperative or command.
  8. ^ a b Also called present participle. Not all active participles are used and their meaning may vary.
  9. ^ a b Also called past participle, mostly used as an adjective. Not all passive participles are used and their meaning may vary.


References

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  1. ^ a b c "WALS Online – Language Arabic (Syrian)". World Atlas of Language Structures. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  2. ^ Al-Masri 2015, pp. 139–140
  3. ^ a b c d e f Brustad & Zuniga 2019, p. 420
  4. ^ a b Brustad & Zuniga 2019, p. 421
  5. ^ Aldrich 2017, pp. 76–77
  6. ^ a b Brustad & Zuniga 2019, p. 422
  7. ^ a b c Elihay 2012, pp. 771–779
  8. ^ Liddicoat, Lennane & Abdul Rahim 2018, p. 19
  9. ^ a b c Brustad & Zuniga 2019, p. 413
  10. ^ a b c d Hitchcock, Chris. "FuSHa to Shami 4: Nouns – #TeamMaha". Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  11. ^ Nammur-Wardini 2011, pp. 18–19
  12. ^ Nammur-Wardini 2011, p. 19
  13. ^ Nammur-Wardini 2011, p. 18
  14. ^ Laks, Lior (2014). "The Cost of Change: Plural Formation of Loanwords in Palestinian and Jordanian Arabic". Zeitschrift für Arabische Linguistik (60): 5–34. JSTOR 10.13173/zeitarabling.60.0005.
  15. ^ a b Tiedemann 2020, Appendix D: Broken Plurals
  16. ^ a b Elihai 2011b, p. 101
  17. ^ Elihai 2011b, p. 5
  18. ^ a b Brustad & Zuniga 2019, pp. 422–423
  19. ^ a b c d e Al-Masri 2015, p. 82
  20. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Lentin, Jérôme. "Damascus Arabic". In Edzard, Lutz; de Jong, Rudolf (eds.). Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics. doi:10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_0077.
  21. ^ Cowell 1964, pp. 455–475
  22. ^ a b Elihai 2011b, p. 44
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  26. ^ Tiedemann 2020, pp. 147, 171, 176, 179, 186, 189, 192, 196, 205, 206
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  42. ^ a b c "The Arabic Verb Is Just A Three-Letter Word: عرف (Levantine)". theLevanTongue. 30 March 2020. Retrieved 13 July 2021.
  43. ^ Nammur-Wardini 2011, p. 28
  44. ^ Liddicoat, Lennane & Abdul Rahim 2018, p. 339
  45. ^ a b Elihai 2011b, pp. 114–115
  46. ^ a b Brustad & Zuniga 2019, p. 412
  47. ^ Brustad & Zuniga 2019, pp. 412–413
  48. ^ a b c d Tiedemann 2020, p. i
  49. ^ Cowell 1964, pp. 54, 109–124
  50. ^ Brustad & Zuniga 2019, p. 418
  51. ^ Aldrich 2017, p. 107
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  55. ^ Liddicoat, Lennane & Abdul Rahim 2018, p. 310
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  57. ^ a b c d Naïm, Samia. "Beirut Arabic". In Edzard, Lutz; de Jong, Rudolf (eds.). Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics. doi:10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_0039.
  58. ^ a b c d Al-Wer, Enam. "Jordanian Arabic (Amman)". In Edzard, Lutz; de Jong, Rudolf (eds.). Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics. doi:10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_vol2_0065.
  59. ^ Aldrich 2017, p. 78
  60. ^ Tiedemann 2020, pp. xxiv, 127, 151
  61. ^ Elihay 2012, p. 755
  62. ^ Elihai 2011a, p. 34
  63. ^ Aldrich 2017, pp. 107–114
  64. ^ Aldrich 2017, p. 108
  65. ^ Nammur-Wardini 2011, p. 11
  66. ^ Abu-Salim, Issam M. (1987). "Vowel Harmony in Palestinian Arabic: A Metrical Perspective". Journal of Linguistics. 23 (1): 1–24. doi:10.1017/S0022226700011014. JSTOR 4175865.
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  70. ^ Tiedemann 2020, p. 171
  71. ^ Tiedemann 2020, p. 176
  72. ^ Tiedemann 2020, p. 179
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  76. ^ Tiedemann 2020, p. 196
  77. ^ Tiedemann 2020, p. 205
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  79. ^ a b Tiedemann 2020, p. xiv
  80. ^ a b Hitchcock, Chris. "FuSHa to Shami 12: Compound tenses (future, continuous, past habitual)". Retrieved 2021-07-22.
  81. ^ Aldrich 2017, p. 109
  82. ^ Aldrich 2017, p. 110
  83. ^ a b c "The confusing world of B-prefix verbs in Levantine Arabic simplified". theLevanTongue. 20 December 2018. Retrieved 13 July 2021.
  84. ^ Elihay 2012, p. 10
  85. ^ Tiedemann 2020, pp. iv–ix
  86. ^ a b Aldrich 2017, pp. 114–115
  87. ^ Aldrich 2021, pp. 118–119
  88. ^ Hitchcock, Chris. "FuSHa to Shami 19: Passive – #TeamMaha". Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  89. ^ a b Tiedemann 2020, Introduction – iii
  90. ^ Aldrich 2017, pp. 100–102
  91. ^ Nammur-Wardini 2011, pp. 43–45
  92. ^ a b c d e Brustad & Zuniga 2019, pp. 424–425
  93. ^ Al-Masri 2015, p. 45
  94. ^ Liddicoat, Lennane & Abdul Rahim 2018, p. 331
  95. ^ a b Cowell 1964, pp. 494–499
  96. ^ a b c Al-Masri 2015, p. 103
  97. ^ a b c Brustad & Zuniga 2019, pp. 423–424
  98. ^ Cowell 1964, p. 531

Sources

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