The Kota Formation is a geological formation in India. The age of the Kota Formation is uncertain; it is commonly considered to date to the Early Jurassic, but some studies have suggested it may extend into the Middle Jurassic or even later. It conformably overlies the Lower Jurassic Upper Dharmaram Formation and is unconformably overlain by the Lower Cretaceous Gangapur Formation. It is split into a Lower Member and Upper Member. The Lower Member is approximately 100 m thick while the Upper Member is 490 m thick. Both subunits primarily consist of mudstone and sandstone, but near the base of the upper unit there is a 20-30 metre thick succession of limestone deposited in a freshwater setting.[1]
Kota Formation | |
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Stratigraphic range: Jurassic ~ | |
Type | Geological formation |
Sub-units | Lower & Upper members |
Underlies | Unconformity with the Gangapur Formation and Chikiala Formation |
Overlies | Dharmaram Formation |
Thickness | 550–600 m (1,800–1,970 ft) |
Lithology | |
Primary | Mudstone, sandstone |
Other | Limestone |
Location | |
Coordinates | 18°54′N 80°00′E / 18.9°N 80.0°E |
Approximate paleocoordinates | 31°36′S 31°54′E / 31.6°S 31.9°E |
Region | Telangana |
Country | ![]() |
Extent | Pranhita-Godavari Basin |
Type section | |
Named for | Kota Village |
Stratigraphy
editThe lower boundary of the Kota Formation is made of pebbly sandstone, covering the topmost clay seen in the Dharmaram Formation.[2] The Kota Formation has been traditionally divided into 2 main members, the Lower and Upper members, yet more recent work have redivided it into 3.[3] The Lower member can be seen at locations such as Adamilli, Kamavarapukota and Sudikonda, being made of sandstones, with clay clasts, with greater or lower stratification.[4] The Middle Member is well developed along the Continental Gondwana basin, specially towards the northwestern part, and is made of medium to fine white sandstone with clay and concretionary limestone, suggesting the development of paleosols associated with alluvial floodplains.[3] The last member is mostly made of broad sandstone sheets with large clay casts associated with fluvial channels, and has an extension that can be easuly seen on several continuous kilometers.[4][5] The Uppermost section of the unit is mostly made of limestones and is overlain on an angular unconformity by the Gangapur Formation.[3]
Age
editThe age of the Kota Formation is controversial. There are no magmatic rocks or volcanic ash beds associated with the Kota Formation, which means that its age cannot be determined directly through radiometric dating.[6][7] The maximum age of the Kota Formation is constrained by the underlying Upper Dharmaram Formation, which is Early Jurassic, probably Hettangian or Sinemurian, in age.[8][7] Various researchers have attempted to date the Kota Formation using biostratigraphy. Krishnan (1968), Jain (1973), and Yadagiri and Prasad (1977) favored an Early Jurassic age based on the fish fauna. Govindan (1975) suggested a Middle Jurassic age based on ostracods. In 2006, Bandyopadhyay and Sengupta argued that the fish fauna suggested a Toarcian age for the Upper Kota Formation, possibly extending into the Aalenian, and in turn estimated the Lower Kota to be Sinemurian to Pliensbachian in age.[9] Guntupalli V. R. Prasad, along with various coauthors, has argued for a younger age. In 2001, Vijaya and Prasad proposed based on palynological evidence that the Kota Formation was deposited between the Callovian age of the Middle Jurassic and the Barremian age of the Early Cretaceous.[10] In 2002, Prasad and Manhas argued that the mammal genus Dyskritodon, known only from the Kota Formation and the Early Cretaceous of Morocco, provides evidence for a young age for the Kota Formation.[11] In 2020, Prasad and Parmar argued that the similarity of the dinosaur fauna of the Kota Formation to that of the Middle Jurassic of the United Kingdom supported a Middle Jurassic age for the Kota Formation.[12]
Paleoenvironment
editThe Kota Formation represents mostly a Continental succession related to a continental rift basin, the Pranhita-Godavari Gondwana Basin of peninsular India.[13] The associated facies of sandstone and limestones are likely related to playa-type lake, with nearby fluvial currents, part of low gradient hanging wall alluvial fans, being deposited on it´s margin. There have been records of freshwater lue green algal stromatolites and oncolites, suggested to be deposited on low energy and low bathymetry lacustrine settings.[14] More recent works have proven the basin hosted in the Early Jurassic a freshwater carbonate wetland marked by the presence of limestones.[1] The environmental model proposed include a depositional cycle marked by several facies types, A for the sublittoral zones of shallow water bodies, followed by palustrine environments, including surfaces with abundance of influence of both plants and animals, specially rhizobrecciation indicating active colonization of the margins by plants, having a similar deposition to the modern Las Tablas de Daimiel wetlands.[1] Associated with the lacustrine facies have recovered microbial bioherms and lacustrine spring mounds, shallow ephemeral ponds with carbonated mud and Phyllopods, pedogenic calcrete under arid seasons and short-lived distributary channels.[13] The depositional setting may have been partially sheltered from the input of siliciclastic materials, except on flooding seasons. Microbial biomats likely developed on shallow waters, while rhizoliths increased it´s presence of abandoned channel fills and pedogenic facies indicate drought seasons.[13]
Fossil content
editColor key
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Notes Uncertain or tentative taxa are in small text; |
Ostracoda
editGenus | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Notes | Images |
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Clinocypris sp. |
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Six carapaces |
A freshwater ostracodan of the Family Pontocyprididae. |
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Cypredea sp. |
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Fourteen incomplete carapaces |
A freshwater ostracodan of the Family Palaeocytheridae. |
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Darwinula cf.sarytirmenensis |
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More than 200 carapaces and valves |
A freshwater ostracodan of the Family Darwinulidae. The most dominant genus locally and the main indicator of both fluvial and lacustrine settings |
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Darwinula kingi |
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Around 120 carapaces and valves |
A freshwater ostracodan of the Family Darwinulidae. |
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Darwinula spp. |
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Nineteen Carapaces |
A freshwater ostracodan of the Family Darwinulidae. |
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Eucandona sp. |
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Eight incomplete carapaces |
A freshwater ostracodan of the Family Candoninae. |
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Limnocythere spp. |
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Three complete carapaces |
A freshwater ostracodan of the family Limnocytheridae. |
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?Stenocypris sp. |
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Single incomplete carapace |
A freshwater ostracodan of the family Cyprididae. |
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Timiriasevia digitalis |
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Twenty complete carapaces and thirty-six partly broken carapaces. |
A freshwater ostracodan of the family Limnocytheridae. |
Phyllopoda
editGenus | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Notes | Images |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Estheriina alibadadensis |
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Valves |
A freshwater clam shrimp of the family Estheriininae. The most abundant Estheriid in the region and the key element of the Estheriina biozone |
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Estheriina indijurassica |
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Valves |
A freshwater clam shrimp of the family Estheriininae. |
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Estheriina bullata |
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Valves |
A freshwater clam shrimp of the family Estheriininae. |
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Estheriina pranhitaensis |
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Valves |
A freshwater clam shrimp of the family Estheriininae. |
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Lioestheria kotaensis |
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Valves |
A freshwater clam shrimp of the family Lioestheriidae. The second key element of the Estheriina biozone |
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Lioestheria crustabundis[17] |
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Valves |
A freshwater clam shrimp of the family Lioestheriidae. | ||
Lioestheria ssp.[17] |
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Valves |
A freshwater clam shrimp of the family Lioestheriidae. | ||
Paleolimnadia spp. |
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Valves |
A freshwater clam shrimp of the family Estheriininae. |
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Pseudeasmussiata andhrapradeshia |
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Valves |
A freshwater clam shrimp of the family Lioestheriidae. |
Insecta
editGenus | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Notes | Images |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A. shiva |
Tasch outcrop K-2 bed 8 |
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Right forewing tegmen |
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C. sp. |
Kota limestone ridge |
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Isolated wings |
An Indeterminate Coleopteran. | ||
K. frankmortoni |
Sirpur Taluka, Tasch's K1 outcrop bed 2(A) |
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MCZ 11909, Isolated wing |
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P. lakshmi |
Kota Formation outcrop K-2 |
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MCZ 3046, Isolated wing |
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T. bharataja |
Sirpur Taluka, Tasch's K1 outcrop bed 3(A) |
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No.2013(3013), part and counterpart of well preserved wing |
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T. tulyabhijana |
Sirpur Taluka, Tasch's K1 outcrop bed 2(A) |
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No. 5034, well preserved wing |
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X. alexandri |
Kota Formation outcrop K-2 |
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MCZ 11831, well preserved wing |
Fish
editTaxon | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Notes | Images |
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Indocoelacanthus robustus |
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A robust freshwater coelacanth of the family Latimeriidae. Represents the largest member of the local freshwater fauna, measuring up to 70 cm.[24] |
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Lepidotes deccanensis |
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A freshwater neopterygian of the family Lepisosteiformes. |
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Lepidotes spp. |
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Isolated remains |
A freshwater neopterygian of the family Lepisosteiformes. | ||
Lonchidion indicus |
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A freshwater elasmobranch of the family Lonchidiidae. |
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Paradapedium egertoni |
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A freshwater neopterygian of the family Dapediidae. |
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Pholidophorus kingi |
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A freshwater neopterygian of the family Pholidophoridae. |
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Pholidophorus indicus |
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A freshwater neopterygian of the family Pholidophoridae. |
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Polyacrodus? sp. |
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A freshwater elasmobranch of the family Polyacrodontidae. |
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Indeterminate |
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A freshwater neopterygian of the family Pycnodontidae, originally classified as Perciformes, yet suggested to be very similar to the Cretaceous pycnodont Stephanodus. |
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Indeterminate |
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A freshwater neopterygian of the family Semionotiformes. |
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Tetragonolepis oldhami |
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A freshwater neopterygian of the family Dapediidae. |
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Amphibia
editTaxon | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Notes | Images |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Indeterminate |
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Indeterminate frog remains, originally referred to Pelobatidae due to be compared with younger Creteaceous Indian frog material |
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Indeterminate |
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Indeterminate caudatan remains, originally referred to Sirenidae due to be compared with younger Creteaceous sirenid material |
Mammaliaforms
editTaxon | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Notes | Images |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Indeterminate |
Paikasigudem village |
|
Isolated lower molar |
A mammal of the group Australosphenida, resembling the south american genus Asfaltomylos |
||
Dyskritodon? indicus |
Paikasigudem village |
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VPL/JU/KM/13, lower left molar |
A dubious mammal of the group Eutriconodonta. This Genus is known from the Early Cretaceous of Morocco, what has been used to suggest a minimum Berrasian age for the Upper Kota Formation |
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Gondtherium dattai |
Paikasigudem village |
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VPL/JU/KM 12 right lower molar |
A mammal of the family Docodontidae |
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Indotherium pranhitai |
5 km west of Yamanapalli |
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GSI20795, right upper molar |
A mammaliform of the family Morganucodontidae. Includes the informally named "Indozostrodon simpsoni".[34] |
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Indobaatar zofiae |
Paikasigudem village |
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VPL/JU/KM/20, a left upper premolar |
A mammal described as an eobaatarid multituberculate, but this interpretation has been challenged.[36] |
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Kotatherium haldanei |
5 km west of Yamanapalli |
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GSI19634, right upper molar |
A mammaliform of the family Kuehneotheriidae |
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Nakunodon paikasiensis |
Paikasigudem village |
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GSI.SR/PAL/12, right upper molar |
A mammal of the family Amphidontidae |
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Paikasigudodon yadagirii |
Paikasigudem village |
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VPL/JU/KM/10, right upper molar |
A mammaliaform of the family Morganucodontidae, originally known as "Kotatherium yadagirii" |
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Trishulotherium kotaensis |
Paikasigudem village |
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GSISR/PAL/10, left lower molar |
A mammal of the order Symmetrodonta |
Lepidosauromorpha
editTaxon | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Notes | Images |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bharatagama rebbanensis |
Paikasigudem village |
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A lepidosauromorph originally described as an Iguanian lizard. May actually be a sphenodontian rather than a lizard.[41] |
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Godavarisaurus lateefi |
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A small sphenodontian, with a skull estimated to measure less than 20 mm |
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Paikasisaurus indicus |
Paikasigudem village |
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An indeterminate and dubious lepidosauromorph, originally suggested to be a varanoid lizard |
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Rebbanasaurus jaini |
Paikasigudem village |
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A small sphenodont |
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Indeterminate |
Paikasigudem village |
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Distinct from Bharatagama rebbanensis; may include material formerly assigned to the dubious Kota squamate Paikasisaurus indicus.[a] |
||
Indeterminate |
Paikasigudem village |
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Indeterminate Sphenodontidae remains |
Testudinata
editTaxon | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Notes | Images |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Indochelys spatulata |
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Mesochelydian stem-turtle, suggested to be related with Condorchelys |
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Indeterminate |
1 km south of Bodepalli |
|
Carapace fragments |
Indeterminate turtle remains |
Crocodylomorpha
editAtoposaurid crocodiles are known from the unit, yet is not clear from what locality.[7]
Taxon | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Notes | Images |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Indeterminate |
1 km south of Bodepalli |
Lower Member |
Maxillae, dentaries, teeth |
Indeterminate crocodylomorph remains, previously mixed with thyreophoran material and part of the chimaeric "Andhrasaurus" |
||
Indeterminate |
Kota limestone ridge |
|
Dermal scutes, with a femur and some fragments of other bones |
Indeterminate material referred to crocodylomorphs similar to Teleosaurus |
Pterosauria
editTaxon | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Notes | Images |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Campylognathoides indicus |
Kota limestone ridge |
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The holotype of Campylognathoides indicus, a pair of premaxillae, may represent a fish rather than a pterosaur.[49] |
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Indeterminate |
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Indeterminate pterosaur remains |
Dinosaurs
editGenus | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Notes | Images |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
"Andhrasaurus indicus" |
1 km south of Bodepalli |
Lower Member |
Sacral vertebra, vertebral centra, dorsal vertebrae, caudal vertebrae, parts of scapula and ilium, osteoderms |
A chimaera of thyreophoran postcranial material and Crocodylomorph skull pieces. The armor was later suggested to be Ankylosauria indet.[46] And other latter works pointed out it likely belongs to an indeterminate basal thyreophoran.[52] |
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Barapasaurus tagorei |
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A sauropod dinosaur, either a Eusauropoda or more likely a Gravisauria. Represents the best-known Early Jurassic sauropod |
| |
Dandakosaurus indicus |
Yamanpalli bonebed |
Lower Member |
|
A chimaera of large theropod bones, including and ischium and tooth, probably belonging to a carnosaur, and sauropod bones (two Kotasaurus vertebrae) |
| |
Indeterminate |
Paikasigudem village |
|
Isolated Teeth |
Five distinct morphotypes have been identified, mostly resemble coelurosaurs or dromaeosauroids.[12] |
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Hypsilophodontidae[55] |
Indeterminate |
Gorlapalli Village |
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|
Identified originally as a member of Hypsilophodontidae, probably represents a tooth of a basal neornithischian.[12] |
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Kotasaurus yamanpalliensis |
Yamanpalli bonebed |
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Disarticulated remains of at least 12 individuals[56] |
A basal sauropod |
| |
Indeterminate |
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Indeterminate ornithischian material. Among the teeth, at least five distinct morphotypes have been identified. | ||
Richardoestesia? spp. |
Paikasigudem village |
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Isolated Teeth |
Teeth similar to those of the problematic taxon Richardoestesia, of supposed coelurosaur affinities |
||
Indeterminate |
Paikasigudem village |
|
Scute and associated fragmentary limb bones. |
Indeterminate scelidosaurid material. |
||
Sauropoda[56] | Indeterminate. | Yamanpalli bonebed. | • Lower Member | Teeth. | Found in the same bonebed as Kotasaurus, resembles Amygdalodon. | |
Carnosauria[56] | Indeterminate. | Yamanapalli bonebed. | • Lower Member | Teeth. | Found in the same bonebed as Kotasaurus, referred to as |
Megaflora
editGenus | Species | Location | Stratigraphic position | Material | Notes | Images |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Agathoxylon kotaense |
Near Kota village |
|
Fossil wood |
Affinities with Araucariaceae or Cheirolepidiaceae inside Pinales. |
||
Agathoxylon chandrapurensis[59] |
Near Kota village |
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Fossil wood |
Affinities with Araucariaceae or Cheirolepidiaceae inside Pinales. |
||
Agathoxylon santacruzense[60] |
Near Kota village |
|
Fossil wood |
Affinities with Araucariaceae or Cheirolepidiaceae inside Pinales. |
||
Near Kota village |
|
Fossil wood |
Affinities with Araucariaceae or Cheirolepidiaceae inside Pinales. |
|||
Agathoxylon santalense[58] |
Near Kota village |
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Fossil wood |
Affinities with Araucariaceae or Cheirolepidiaceae inside Pinales. |
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Agathoxylon spp.[58] |
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Fossil wood |
Affinities with Araucariaceae or Cheirolepidiaceae inside Pinales. |
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Araucarites minutus |
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Branched shoots |
Affinities with Araucariaceae inside Pinales. |
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Araucarites sp. |
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Branched shoots |
Affinities with Araucariaceae inside Pinales. |
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Brachyphyllum expansum |
|
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Branched shoots |
Affinities with Araucariaceae or Cheirolepidiaceae inside Pinales. |
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Elatocladus conferta |
Near Kota village |
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Branched shoots |
Affinities with Cupressaceae inside Pinales. |
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Elatocladus tenerrimus[59] |
Near Kota village |
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Branched shoots |
Affinities with Cupressaceae inside Pinales. |
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Elatocladus jabalpurensis[59] |
Near Kota village |
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Branched shoots |
Affinities with Cupressaceae inside Pinales. |
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Elatocladus plana[59] |
Near Kota village |
|
Branched shoots |
Affinities with Cupressaceae inside Pinales. |
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Elatocladus sp.[59] |
Near Kota village |
|
Branched shoots |
Affinities with Cupressaceae inside Pinales. |
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Cladophlebis denticulata |
|
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Isolated fronds |
Affinities with Osmundaceae in the Osmundales. |
| |
|
|
Isolated fronds |
Affinities with Osmundaceae in the Osmundales | |||
|
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Isolated fronds |
Affinities with Osmundaceae in the Osmundales | |||
|
|
Isolated fronds |
Affinities with Osmundaceae in the Osmundales | |||
Circoporoxylon kotaense |
Near Kota village |
|
Fossil wood |
Affinities with Podocarpaceae inside Pinales. |
||
Coniopteris hymenophylloides |
|
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Isolated fronds |
Affinities with Polypodiales in the Polypodiidae. Common cosmopolitan Mesozoic fern genus. Recent research has reinterpreted it a stem group of the Polypodiales (closely related to the extant genera Dennstaedtia, Lindsaea, and Odontosoria) |
| |
Coniopteris sp.[61] |
|
|
Isolated fronds |
Affinities with Polypodiales in the Polypodiidae. | ||
Cupressinoxylon kotaense |
Near Kota village |
|
Fossil wood |
Affinities with Cupressaceae inside Pinales. |
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Dictyozamites falcatus |
|
|
Leaflets |
Affinities with Williamsoniaceae in the Bennettitales. |
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Dictyozamites kotaense[59] |
|
|
Leaflets |
Affinities with Williamsoniaceae in the Bennettitales. |
||
Equisetum rajmahalensis |
|
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Isolated Stems |
Affinities with Equisetaceae inside Equisetales. |
| |
Ginkgoites lobata |
|
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Leafs |
Affinities with Ginkgoaceae inside Ginkgoopsida. |
| |
Ginkgoxylon dixii |
Near Kota village |
|
Fossil wood |
Affinities with Ginkgoaceae inside Ginkgoopsida. |
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Hausmannia cf. buchii |
Near Kota village |
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Isolated pinnae |
Affinities with Dipteridaceae in the Polypodiales. |
| |
Otozamites vemavarmensis |
|
|
Leaflets |
Affinities with Williamsoniaceae in the Bennettitales. |
| |
Pagiophyllum peregrinum |
Near Kota village |
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Branched shoots |
Affinities with Araucariaceae or Cheirolepidiaceae inside Pinales. |
||
Pagiophyllum cf.peregrinum |
Near Kota village |
|
Branched shoots |
Affinities with Araucariaceae or Cheirolepidiaceae inside Pinales. |
||
Pagiophyllum spp. |
Near Kota village |
|
Branched shoots |
Affinities with Araucariaceae or Cheirolepidiaceae inside Pinales. |
||
Pachypteris indica |
Near Kota village |
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Isolated pinnae |
Affinities with Umkomasiaceae in the Pteridospermatophyta. |
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Planoxylon mahabalei |
Near Kota village |
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Fossil wood |
Affinities with Protopinaceae inside Pinales. |
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Podocarpoxylon chandrapurensis |
Near Kota village |
|
Fossil wood |
Affinities with Podocarpaceae inside Pinales. |
||
Podocarpoxylon chiturensis[59] |
Chitur village |
|
Fossil wood |
Affinities with Podocarpaceae inside Pinales. |
||
Podocarpoxylon krauselii[61] |
Near Kota village |
|
Fossil wood |
Affinities with Podocarpaceae inside Pinales. |
||
Podocarpoxylon rajmahalense[61] |
Near Kota village |
|
Fossil wood |
Affinities with Podocarpaceae inside Pinales. |
||
Podocarpoxyion sewardii[59] |
Near Kota village |
|
Fossil wood |
Affinities with Podocarpaceae inside Pinales. |
||
Podocarpoxylon sp.[61] |
Near Kota village |
|
Fossil wood |
Affinities with Podocarpaceae inside Pinales. |
||
Podozamites sp. |
|
|
Leaflets |
Broad conifer leaves |
||
Pseudoctenis cf. frngilis |
|
|
Leaflets |
Affinities with Cycadales in the Cycadopsida. |
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Ptilophyllum fissum |
|
|
Leaflets |
Affinities with Williamsoniaceae in the Bennettitales. |
||
Ptilophyllum acutifolium |
|
|
Leaflets |
Affinities with Williamsoniaceae in the Bennettitales. |
||
Ptilophyllum cutchense[59] |
|
|
Leaflets |
Affinities with Williamsoniaceae in the Bennettitales. |
||
Ptilophyllum cf.sahnii[59] |
|
|
Leaflets |
Affinities with Williamsoniaceae in the Bennettitales. |
||
Ptilophyllum cf.institacallum[59] |
|
|
Leaflets |
Affinities with Williamsoniaceae in the Bennettitales. |
||
Ptilophyllum sp. |
|
|
Leaflets |
Affinities with Williamsoniaceae in the Bennettitales. |
||
Protaxodioxylon sahnii |
Chitur village |
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Fossil wood |
Affinities with Cupressaceae inside Pinales. |
||
Prototaxoxylon liassicum[65] |
Near Kota village |
|
Fossil wood |
Affinities with Cupressaceae inside Pinales. |
||
Sphenopteris kotaensis |
Near Kota village |
|
Isolated Fronds |
Affinities with Dicksoniaceae in the Cyatheales. |
||
Taxaceoxylon sahnii |
Near Kota village |
|
Fossil wood |
Affinities with Cupressaceae inside Pinales. |
||
Taxaceoxylon biradarii[59] |
Chitur village |
|
Fossil wood |
Affinities with Cupressaceae inside Pinales. |
||
Taxaceoxylon antiquum[59] |
Near Kota village |
|
Fossil wood |
Affinities with Cupressaceae inside Pinales. |
||
Taxaceoxylon sp. |
Near Kota village |
|
Fossil wood |
Affinities with Cupressaceae inside Pinales. |
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Torreyites constricte |
|
|
Branched shoots |
|
See also
editNotes
editReferences
edit- ^ a b c Goswami, Suparna; Gierlowski-Kordesch, Elizabeth; Ghosh, Parthasarathi (January 2018). "Sedimentology of the Early Jurassic limestone beds of the Kota Formation: record of carbonate wetlands in a continental rift basin of India". Journal of Paleolimnology. 59 (1): 21–38. Bibcode:2018JPall..59...21G. doi:10.1007/s10933-016-9918-y. ISSN 0921-2728. S2CID 133167210.
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