Karlodinium veneficum is a species of dinoflagellates belonging to the family Kareniaceae.[1] This species is predominantly inhabiting aquatic environments, particularly in temperate coastal regions.
| Karlodinium veneficum | |
|---|---|
| |
| Scanning electron microscope image of Karlodinium veneficum (right) feeding on Rhodomonas | |
Scientific classification 
| |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Clade: | Diaphoretickes |
| Clade: | SAR |
| Clade: | Alveolata |
| Phylum: | Myzozoa |
| Superclass: | Dinoflagellata |
| Class: | Dinophyceae |
| Order: | Gymnodiniales |
| Family: | Kareniaceae |
| Genus: | Karlodinium |
| Species: | K. veneficum
|
| Binomial name | |
| Karlodinium veneficum (D.Ballantine) J.Larsen 2000
| |
Karlodinium veneficum genome sizes have been reported as ~20 pg/cell[2] and 4 pg/cell.[3]
This phytoplankton has the capacity to produce harmfull toxins, specifically karlotoxins, which have been associated with detrimental phenomena such as harmful algae blooms.[4] These blooms have been documented globally, spanning regions from South Africa[5] and Europe[6] to Australia, North America, and China. The repercussions of K. veneficum blooms include not only ecological concerns, also substantial economic and environmental impacts.
The species-specific toxins produced by K. veneficum, known as karlotoxins, belong to the amphidinol-like compound class, exhibiting hemolytic, ichthyotoxic, and cytotoxic properties. The toxins generated by this dinoflagellate have been implicated in massive fish kills during bloom events.[7]
K. veneficum is not confined to solitary blooms but frequently coexists with other phytoplankton species, such as Prorocentrum donghaiense and Karenia mikimotoi.[8] K. veneficum often proliferates into dense blooms following the decline of P. donghaiense.[9]
References
edit- ^ "Karlodinium veneficum (D.Ballantine) J.Larsen 2000 :: Algaebase". www.algaebase.org. Retrieved 29 October 2022.
- ^ Figueroa, Rosa Isabel; Garcés, E.; Bravo, I. (2010). "The use of flow cytometry for species identification and life-cycle studies in dinoflagellates". Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography. 57 (3–4). Elsevier BV: 301–307. Bibcode:2010DSRII..57..301F. doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2009.09.008. ISSN 0967-0645.
- ^ Liu, Yuyang; Hu, Zhangxi; Deng, Yunyan; Shang, Lixia; Gobler, Christopher J.; Tang, Ying Zhong (2021). "Dependence of genome size and copy number of rRNA gene on cell volume in dinoflagellates". Harmful Algae. 109. Elsevier BV: 102108. doi:10.1016/j.hal.2021.102108. ISSN 1568-9883. PMID 34815026. S2CID 244318552.
- ^ Deeds, Jonathan R; Terlizzi, Daniel E; Adolf, Jason E; Stoecker, Diane K; Place, Allen R (1 June 2002). "Toxic activity from cultures of Karlodinium micrum (=Gyrodinium galatheanum) (Dinophyceae)—a dinoflagellate associated with fish mortalities in an estuarine aquaculture facility". Harmful Algae. 1 (2): 169–189. doi:10.1016/S1568-9883(02)00027-6. ISSN 1568-9883.
- ^ "Gymnodinium galatheanum Braarud :: AlgaeBase". www.algaebase.org. Retrieved 2 December 2023.
- ^ Carreto, J. I. (1 October 2001). "Pigment profile of the ichthyotoxic dinoflagellate Gymnodinium sp. from a massive bloom in southern Chile". Journal of Plankton Research. 23 (10): 1171–1175. doi:10.1093/plankt/23.10.1171. ISSN 1464-3774.
- ^ Van Wagoner, Ryan M.; Deeds, Jonathan R.; Satake, Masayuki; Ribeiro, Anthony A.; Place, Allen R.; Wright, Jeffrey L.C. (November 2008). "Isolation and characterization of karlotoxin 1, a new amphipathic toxin from Karlodinium veneficum". Tetrahedron Letters. 49 (45): 6457–6461. doi:10.1016/j.tetlet.2008.08.103. PMC 2928153. PMID 20798789.
- ^ Zhou, Chengxu; Place, Allen R.; Yan, Xiaojun; Xu, Jilin; Luo, Qijun; William, Ernest; Jiang, Ying (November 2015). "Interactions between Karlodinium veneficum and Prorocentrum donghaiense from the East China Sea". Harmful Algae. 49: 50–57. doi:10.1016/j.hal.2015.08.004. PMC 6512812. PMID 31093028.
- ^ Wang, Rui; Wu, Jiajun; Zhou, Shiwen; Cao, Ruobing; Chan, Leo Lai (1 September 2020). "A preliminary study on the allelopathy and toxicity of the dinoflagellate Karlodinium veneficum". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 158: 111400. Bibcode:2020MarPB.15811400W. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111400. ISSN 0025-326X. S2CID 220979297.