A number of possible health hazards of air travel have been investigated.
Infection
editOn an airplane, people sit in a confined space for extended periods of time, which increases the risk of transmission of airborne infections.[1][2] For this reason, airlines place restrictions on the travel of passengers with known airborne contagious diseases (e.g. tuberculosis). During the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) epidemic of 2003, awareness of the possibility of acquisition of infection on a commercial aircraft reached its zenith when on one flight from Hong Kong to Beijing, 16 of 120 people on the flight developed proven SARS from a single index case.[3]
There is very limited research done on contagious diseases on aircraft. The two most common respiratory pathogens to which air passengers are exposed are parainfluenza and influenza.[4] In one study, the flight ban imposed following the attacks of September 11, 2001 was found to have restricted the global spread of seasonal influenza, resulting in a much milder influenza season that year,[5] and the ability of influenza to spread on aircraft has been well documented.[1] There is no data on the relative contributions of large droplets, small particles, close contact, surface contamination, and no data on the relative importance of any of these methods of transmission for specific diseases, and therefore very little information on how to control the risk of infection. There is no standardisation of air handling by aircraft, installation of HEPA filters or of hand washing by air crew, and no published information on the relative efficacy of any of these interventions in reducing the spread of infection.[6]
Air travel, like other forms of travel, radically increases the speed at which infections spread around the world, as viruses rapidly spread to large numbers of people living across the world. Human and cargo traffic greatly facilitates the spread of pathogens across the world,[7][8] for example during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Deep vein thrombosis
editDeep vein thrombosis (DVT) is the third most common vascular disease next to stroke and heart attack. It is estimated that DVT affects one in 5,000 travellers on long flights.[9][10] Risk increases with exposure to more flights within a short time frame and with increasing duration of flights.[10] According to a health expert in Canada, even though the risk of a blood clot is low, given the number of people who fly, it is a public health risk.[9] It is reported in 2016 that the average distance between seat rows has declined to 79 centimetres (31 in), from over 89 centimetres (35 in), while the average seat size has shrunk to 43 centimetres (17 in) from 46 centimetres (18 in) in the previous two decades.[9]
Radiation exposure
editFlying 12 km (39,000 ft) high, passengers and crews of jet airliners are exposed to at least 10 times the cosmic ray dose that people at sea level receive. Every few years, a geomagnetic storm permits a solar particle event to penetrate down to jetliner altitudes. Aircraft flying polar routes near the geomagnetic poles are at particular risk.[11][12][13] There is also increased radiation from space.[14]
Other possible health hazards
editOther possible hazards of air travel that have been investigated include airsickness and chemical contamination of cabin air.
In pregnancy
editIn low risk pregnancies, most health care providers approve flying until about 36 weeks of gestational age.[15] Most airlines allow pregnant women to fly short distances at less than 36 weeks, and long distances at less than 32 weeks.[16] Many airlines require a doctor's note that approves flying, specially at over 28 weeks.[16]
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ a b Mangili A, Gendreau MA (2005). "Transmission of infectious diseases during commercial air travel". Lancet. 365 (9463): 989–96. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)71089-8. PMC 7134995. PMID 15767002.
- ^ Leder K, Newman D (2005). "Respiratory infections during air travel". Intern Med J. 35 (1): 50–55. doi:10.1111/j.1445-5994.2004.00696.x. PMC 7165774. PMID 15667469.
- ^ Olsen SJ, Chang HL, Cheung TY, et al. (2003). "Transmission of the severe acute respiratory syndrome on aircraft". N Engl J Med. 349 (25): 2416–22. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa031349. PMID 14681507.
- ^ Luna LK, Panning M, Grywna K, Pfefferle S, Drosten C (2007). "Spectrum of viruses and atypical bacteria in intercontinental air travelers with symptoms of acute respiratory infection". J Infect Dis. 195 (5): 675–9. doi:10.1086/511432. PMC 7199876. PMID 17262708.
- ^ Brownstein JS, Wolfe CJ, Mandl KD (2006). "Empirical evidence for the effect of airline travel on inter-regional influenza spread in the United States". PLOS Med. 3 (10): 3401. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030401. PMC 1564183. PMID 16968115.
- ^ Pavia, Andrew T. (2007). "Germs on a Plane: Aircraft, International Travel, and the Global Spread of Disease". Journal of Infectious Diseases. 195 (5): 621–22. doi:10.1086/511439. PMC 7109684. PMID 17262701.
- ^ Globalization and infectious diseases: A review of the linkagesLance Saker,1MSc MRCPKelley Lee,1MPA, MA, D.Phil.Barbara Cannito,1MScAnna Gilmore,2MBBS, DTM&H, MSc, MFPHMDiarmid Campbell-Lendrum,1D.Phil. "Globalization and infectious diseases: A review of the linkages" (PDF). World Health Organization.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Aron, Joan (2003). Ecosystem Change and Public Health | Johns Hopkins University Press Books. jhupbooks.press.jhu.edu. doi:10.56021/9780801865817. ISBN 9780801874581. Retrieved 2020-04-14.
- ^ a b c Marchitelli, Rosa (30 May 2016). "Air Canada passenger suffers 'horrible pain' after being stuck in cramped seat". CBC. Retrieved 30 May 2016.
- ^ a b Kuipers S, Cannegieter SC, Middeldorp S, Robyn L, Büller HR, Rosendaal FR (2007). "The absolute risk of venous thrombosis after air travel: a cohort study of 8,755 employees of international organisations". PLOS Med. 4 (9): e290. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0040290. PMC 1989755. PMID 17896862.
- ^ "Evaluation of the Cosmic Ray Exposure of Aircraft Crew" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-07-16. Retrieved 2020-10-19.
- ^ Phillips, Tony (25 October 2013). "The Effects of Space Weather on Aviation". Science News. NASA. Archived from the original on 28 September 2019. Retrieved 19 October 2020.
- ^ "NAIRAS Real-time radiation Dose". sol.spacenvironment.net. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 1 June 2019.
- ^ Protection of air crew from cosmic radiation: Guidance material
- ^ Page 173 in: Genevieve Howland (2017). The Mama Natural Week-by-Week Guide to Pregnancy and Childbirth. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9781501146688.
- ^ a b Page 57 in: Sarah Jarvis, Joanne Stone, Keith Eddleman, Mary Duenwald (2011). Pregnancy For Dummies. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781119997061.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)