The Principality of Galicia (Ukrainian: Галицьке князівство, romanized: Halytske kniazivstvo; Old East Slavic: Галицкоє кънѧжьство, romanized: Galickoje kǔnęžǐstvo), also known as Principality of Halych or Principality of Halychian Rus',[1] was a medieval East Slavic principality, and one of the main regional states within the political scope of Kievan Rus', established by members of the oldest line of Yaroslav the Wise descendants. A characteristic feature of the Galician principality was the important role of the nobility and citizens in political life, and consideration a will which was the main condition for the princely rule.[2] Halych as the capital mentioned in around 1124 as a seat of Ivan Vasylkovych the grandson of Rostislav of Tmutarakan. According to Mykhailo Hrushevsky the realm of Halych was passed to Rostyslav upon the death of his father Vladimir Yaroslavich, but he was banished out of it later by his uncle to Tmutarakan.[3] The realm was then passed to Yaropolk Izyaslavich who was a son of the ruling Grand Prince Iziaslav I of Kiev.
| Principality of Galicia Галицкоє кънѧжьство | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Principality of the Kievan Rus' | |||||||||||||
| 1124–1199 (1205–1239) | |||||||||||||
 Flag
 Coat of arms
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 Halych Principality in the 12th century | |||||||||||||
| Capital | Halych | ||||||||||||
| History | |||||||||||||
• Succeeded from Peremyshl-Terebovlia Principality | 1124 | ||||||||||||
• United with Volyn Principality | 1199 (1205–1239) | ||||||||||||
| Political subdivisions | Principalities of Kievan Rus' | ||||||||||||
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| Today part of | Poland, Ukraine, Romania, Moldova | ||||||||||||
Prehistory
editThe first recorded Slavic tribes living in the regions of Red Rus' were the White Croats and Dulebes.[4][5][6] In the year 907 tribes of Croats and Dulebes were involved in the military campaign against Constantinople led by Rus' Prince Oleg of Novgorod.[7][8] This was the first significant evidence of political affiliation among the native tribes of the Red Rus' region. According to Nestor the Chronicler some strongholds in the West Part of Red Rus' were conquered by Vladimir the Great in 981, and in 992 or 993 Vladimir carried out a military campaign against the Croats.[9][10] Around that time the city of Volodymyr was established in honour of him which became the main centre of political power in the region. During the 11th century western border cities including Przemysl, were twice annexed by the Kingdom of Poland (1018–1031, and 1069–1080). In the meantime, Yaroslav the Wise established a "solid foot" in the region founding the city of Jarosław.
As part of the territory of the Kievan Rus', the area was later organized as the southern part of the Volodymyr Principality. Around 1085, with the help of the Grand Prince of Kiev Vsevolod I of Kiev the three Rostystlavych brothers - sons of Rostislav Vladimirovich (of Tmutarakan) settled. Their lands were organized into three smaller principalities of Przemysl, Zvenyhorod and Terebovlia. In 1097 the Terebovlia Principality was secured by the Council of Liubech after several years of a civil war with Vasylko Rostyslavych. In 1124 the Principality of Galicia was given as a minor principality to Ihor Vasylkovich by his father Vasylko, the Prince of Terebovlia who removed it from the larger Terebovlia Principality.
Unification
editThe Rostislavich Brothers managed not only to be politically separate from Volodymyr but also to defend themselves from external enemies. In 1099, in the battle on Rozhne field, the Galicians defeated the army of the Grand Prince Sviatopolk II of Kiev and later that year the army of Hungarian king Coloman near Przemysl.[11]
These two significant victories brought nearly one hundred years of relatively peaceful development in the Galician Principality.[12] The four sons of the Rostystlavych Brothers divided the area into four parts with centres in Przemysl (Rostislav), Zvenyhorod (Volodymyrko), Halych and Terebovlia (Ivan and Yuriy). After the death of three of them Volodimyrko took Przemysl and Halych and gave Zvenyhorod to Ivan - son of his older brother Rostyslav. In 1141 Volodymyrko moved his residence from Przemysl to more geographically advantageous Halych giving birth to a united Galician Principality. In 1145 citizens of Halych, taking advantage of the absence of Volodymyrko, called Ivan of Zvenyhorod to reign. After the defeat of Ivan under the walls of Halych, the Zvenyhorod Principality was also incorporated into the Galician lands.
Era of Yaroslav Osmomysl
edit
Volodymyrko pursued a policy of balancing between neighbours. He managed to strengthen the power of the principality, attach some cities belonging to the Kiev Grand Prince and force to keep them despite the conflict with both two powerful rulers Iziaslav II of Kiev and the king Géza II of Hungary.[13]
In 1152, after the death of Volodymyrko, the Galician throne was succeeded by his only son Yaroslav Osmomysl. Yaroslav began his reign with the Battle on the river Siret in 1153 with Grand Prince Iziaslav, which resulted a heavy losses for the Galicians but led to the retreat of Izyaslav, who died shortly thereafter. Thus the danger from the east had passed and Jaroslav via diplomacy reached peace with his other neighbors - Hungary and Poland. Subsequently, thanks to negotiations Jaroslav neutralized his only rival - Ivan, the eldest descendant of the Rostislavich Brothers, former Prince of Zvenyhorod.
These diplomatic successes enabled Yaroslav to focus on the internal development of the Principality: the construction of new buildings in the capital and other cities, enrichment of monasteries, as well as strengthening his power over the territory in lower courses of Dniester, Prut and Danube rivers. During this time (around 1157) the construction of the Assumption Cathedral - the second largest temple of Ancient Rus after St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev, was completed in Halych.[14] The city itself grew into a big agglomeration[15] being approximately 11 x 8.5 kilometers in size.[16] Despite his strong position in the international arena, Yaroslav was under the control of the Galicians citizens whose will he had to consider even sometimes in matters of his personal, and family life.
Contacts with the Byzantine Empire
editIn the same period, Byzantine emperor Manuel I Komnenos attempted to draw the Russian principalities into his net of diplomacy directed against Hungary. Volodymyrko was described as Manuel's vassal (hypospondos). Following the deaths of both Iziaslav and Vladimirko, the situation became reversed; when Yuri of Suzdal, Manuel's ally, took over Kiev and Yaroslav, the new ruler of Principality of Galicia, adopted a pro-Hungarian stance.[17]
In 1164–65 Manuel's cousin Andronikos, the future emperor, escaped from captivity in Byzantium and fled to the court of Yaroslav in Galicia. This situation, holding out the alarming prospect of Andronikos making a bid for Manuel's throne sponsored by both Galicia and Hungary, spurred the Byzantines into an unprecedented flurry of diplomacy. Manuel pardoned Andronikos and persuaded him to return to Constantinople in 1165. A mission to Kiev, then ruled by Prince Rostislav, resulted in a favourable treaty and a pledge to supply the Empire with auxiliary troops; Yaroslav of Galicia was also persuaded to renounce his Hungarian connections and return fully into the imperial fold. As late as 1200 the princes of Galicia were providing invaluable services against the enemies of the Empire, at that time the Cumans.[18]
The restoration of relations with Galicia had an immediate benefit for Manuel when, in 1166, he dispatched two armies to attack the eastern provinces of Hungary in a vast pincer movement. One army crossed the Walachian Plain and entered Hungary through the Transylvanian Alps (Southern Carpathians), while the other army made a wide circuit to Galicia and, with Galician aid, crossed the Carpathian Mountains. It resulted in the Hungarian province of Transylvania being thoroughly ravaged by the Byzantine armies.[19]
"Freedom in princes"
edit
A significant feature in the political life of the Galician Principality was the decisive role of nobles and citizens. Galicians used the principle of ″freedom in princes″ and invited and expelled princes, also correcting their activities. Contrary to the will of Yaroslav Osmomysl who left the throne to his younger son Oleg, the Galicians invited his brother Vladimir II Yaroslavich, and later, after conflict with him, Roman the Great, prince of Volodymyr. But almost immediately Roman was replaced by Andrew - the son of Hungarian King Bela III. The reason for this choice was complete freedom of government that was guaranteed by Béla and Andrew to Galicians.[20] This period can be considered as the first experience of self-rule government by noblemen and citizens. However, the vulgar behaviour of the Hungarian garrison and their attempts to install Roman Catholic rites[21] led to another change in mood and to the throne again was returned Vladimir II, who ruled in Halych next decade up to the year 1199.
Autocracy of Roman the Great and unification with Volhynia
editAfter the death of the last descendant of Principality's founders Rostislavich Brothers - Vladimir II in 1199, Galicians started negotiations with the sons of his sister (daughter of Yaroslav Osmomysl) and the legendary Prince Igor (the main hero of the poem The Tale of Igor's Campaign) about succession to the Galician throne. But Prince of Volodymir Roman with the help of Prince Leszek the White managed to capture Halych despite a strong resistance of residents.[22] Following next six years lasted a period of continued repression against the nobility and active citizens as well as a significant territorial and political expansion that transformed Halych into the main centre of all Rus'. Volhynian principality was united with Galicia but this time the new Centre of Galicia-Volhynia principality became Halych. Further successful war with Igorevich Brother's contenders for the Galician throne enabled Roman the Great to establish his control over Kiev and place there his henchmen, one of them with the consent of Vsevolod the Big Nest. After victorious campaigns against the Cumans, and probably Lithuanians, Roman the Great reached the height of its power and was called in the annals as "The Tzar and Autocrator of all Rus'".[23][24][25] After the death of Roman in 1205, his widow to keep power in Galicia called for help Hungarian King Andrew, who sent her to the military garrison. However, in the next 1206 years Galicians again invited Vladimir III Igorevich - son of Yaroslav Osmomysl's daughter, and Roman's widow, along with the sons to flee the city.
Climax of citizens-nobles rule
edit
Vladimir III reigned in Galicia only for two years. As a result of feuds with his brother Roman II, he was expelled and the latter took the Galicia throne. But very soon Roman was replaced by Rostislav II of Kiev. When Roman II managed to overthrow Rostislav, Galicians called for help from the Hungarian king who sent to Halych palatine Benedict.[26] While Benedict remained in Halych citizens called to the throne Prince Mstislav the Dumb from Peresopnytsya, who also with ridicules sent home. To get rid of Benedict, the citizens again invited the Ihrevychiv Brothers - Vladimir III and Roman II who expelled Benedict and regained their rule in the Principality. Vladimir III settled in Halych, Roman II in Zvenyhorod and their brother Svyatoslav in Przemysl. Attempts of the Igorevich Brothers to rule by themselves led to conflict with the Galicians during which many of them were killed,[27] and later the Igorevich Brothers were executed. On the throne was placed a young son of Roman the Great Daniel of Halych. After his mother made an attempt to concentrate power in her hands as regent, she was banished from the city and Mstislav the Dumb was again invited to reign, but he fled fearing Hungarian troops had been called by of Daniel's mother. After the failure of the Hungarian King's campaign, the local community had made a unique step in the history of Rus', enthroned in 1211 or 1213[28] one of the Galician nobles[29][30] Volodyslav Kormylchych. This episode can be considered as a peak of citizens-nobles democracy in Halych.
Rule of Volodyslav caused aggression of neighboring states and in spite of the Galicians' resistance they managed to overwhelm Volodyslav's army. In 1214 Hungarian King Andrew and Polish Prince Leszek signed an agreement about partition of the Principality of Halych. The western edge passed to Poland and the rest to Hungary. Palatine Benedict returned to Halych and the son of Hungarian king Andrew Koloman, received the crown from the Pope with the title of "King of Galicia." However, religious conflict with the local population[31] and capture by Hungarians territory that was transferred to Poland, led to the expulsion in 1215 of all foreign forces and the enthronement of Prince Mstislav the Bold from Novgorod under whose reign all power was concentrated in the hands of the nobility[32][33][34] and Prince not disposed even Galician army. Despite this Mstislav also was not popular among the Galicians, who gradually began to favor Prince Andrew.[35][36] In 1227 Mstislav allowed his daughter to marry him and gave them government in Galicia. Andrew has been a long time favorite of Galicia due to its careful approach to the rights of the nobility. However, in 1233 part of Galicians invited Daniel. As a result of the siege and the death of Andrew Daniel briefly seized the capital, but was forced to leave it not finding support of citizens majority. In 1235, at the invitation of Galicians to the city came Chernigov Prince Michael of Chernigov and his son Rostislav (his mother was the daughter of Roman the Great, the sister of Daniel).[37] During the Mongol invasion, Halych turns in the hands of Daniel, but his power was not certain, because at this time chronicle mentions an ascension to the throne a loсal nobleman Dobroslav Suddych.[38]
Daniel of Galicia and Mongol invasion
editIn the 1240s in Galician Principality's history occurred an important changes. In 1241 Наlych was captured by the Mongol army.[39] In 1245 Daniel won a decisive battle over the Hungarian-Polish army of his opponent Rostislav and again unites Galicia with Volhynia. After the victory build his residence in Holm in the western part of Volhynia. After Daniel's visit to Batu Khan, started payments of tribute to Golden Horde. All these factors led to the beginning of cultural, economic and political decline of Halych.
Last rise and decline
editAlready in the time of Daniel's rule Galicia turned to the hands of his elder son Leo I of Galicia, who, after his father's death, gradually takes power in all areas of Volhynia. In the second half of the thirteenth century, he raised the importance of Lviv - a new political-administrative center, founded near Zvenyhorod on the border with Volhynia. Near 1300, Leo, in a short time, achieved power over Kiev, remaining however dependent on the Golden Horde. After the death of Leo, the center of the united Galician-Volhynian state returns to the city of Volodymyr. In the times of following princes, nobles gradually regained power, and from 1341 to 1349, it came in the hands of nobleman Dmytro Dedko, at the nominal reign of prince Liubartas.[40] In 1349, after the death of Dmytro, Polish King Casimir III the Great marched on Lviv, while coercing with the Golden Horde[41] and the Hungarian kingdom.[42] The result was the end of political independence of Galicia and its annexation into the Polish crown.
Post-history
editIn 1387 all lands of the Galician principality were included in to the possessions of Polish Queen Jadwiga, and later in 1434 transformed into Rus' Voivodeship. In 1772, Galicia was attached to the Austrian Empire within which it existed as an administrative unit called "Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria" with the center in Lviv.
Relations with Byzantine Empire
editGalician Principality had a close ties with Byzantine Empire, closest than any other principality of Kievan Rus. According to some records, Volodar of Peremyshl's daughter Irina was married in 1104 to Isaac - third son of Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos.[43] Her son, future Emperor Andronicus I Comnenus some time lived in Halych and ruled by several cities of principality in years 1164-65.[44][45] According to reports of Bartholomew of Lucca Byzantine Emperor Alexius III fled to Halych after the capture of Constantinople by Crusaders in 1204.[46][47] Galician Principality and Byzantine Empire were frequent allies in the fight against Cumans.
Princes of Halych
edit| Princes of Halych (according to М. Hrushevsky) | ||
|---|---|---|
| Prince | Years | Remarks |
| Ivan Vasylkovych | 1124–1141 | son of Vasylko Rostyslavych of Terebovel' (not mentioned in Hrushevsky list) |
| Volodymyrko Volodarovych | 1141–1144 | son of Prince of Przemysl Volodar Rostyslavych |
| Ivan Rostyslavych Berladnyk | 1144 | son of Prince of Przemysl' Rostyslav Volodarovych (not mentioned in Hrushevsky list) |
| Volodymyrko Volodarovych | 1144–1153 | second time |
| Yaroslav Osmomysl | 1153–1187 | son of Volodymyrko Volodarovych |
| Oleg Yaroslavich | 1187 | son of Yaroslav Osmomysl |
| Vladimir II Yaroslavich | 1187–1188 | son of Yaroslav Osmomysl |
| Roman Mstyslavych | 1188–1189 | Prince of Volhynia |
| Vladimir II Yaroslavich | 1189–1199 | son of Yaroslav Osmomysl, second time |
| Roman Mstyslavych | 1199–1205 | second time |
| Daniel Romanovych | 1205–1206 | son of Roman Mstyslavych |
| Vladimir III Igorevich | 1206–1208 | from the Olgovichi of Chernigov |
| Roman II Igorevich | 1208–1209 | brother of Volodymyr Igorevych |
| Rostislav II of Kiev | 1210 | son of Rurik Rostislavich of Kiev |
| Roman II Igorevich | 1210 | second time |
| Vladimir III Igorevich | 1210–1211 | second time |
| Daniel Romanovych | 1211–1212 | second time |
| Mstyslav of Peresopnytsia | 1212–1213 | from the Iziaslavichi of Volhynia |
| Volodyslav Kormyl'chych | 1213–1214 | boyar from Halych |
| Coloman II | 1214–1219 | son of Andrew II of Hungary |
| Mstyslav the Bold | 1219 | from the Rostislavichi of Smolensk, grandson of Yaroslav Osmomysl (by female line) |
| Coloman II | 1219–1221? | second time |
| Mstyslav the Bold | 1221?-1228 | second time |
| Аndriy Andrievych | 1228–1230 | son of Andrew II of Hungary |
| Daniel Romanovych | 1230–1232 | third time |
| Аndiy Andrievych | 1232–1233 | second time |
| Daniel Romanovych | 1233–1235 | fourth time |
| Michael Vsevolodovich | 1235–1236 | from the Olgovichi of Chernigov |
| Rostislav Mikhailovich | 1236–1238 | son of Michael Vsevolodovich, from the Olgovichi of Chernigov |
| Daniel Romanovych | 1238–1264 | fifth time |
| Shvarn Danilovych | 1264–1269 | son of Daniel, co-ruler of Leo I of Galicia |
| Leo I of Galicia | 1264–1301? | son of Daniel |
| Yuri I of Galicia | 1301?-1308? | son of Lev I |
| Leo II of Galicia | 1308–1323 | son of Yuri I |
| Volodymyr Lvovych | 1323–1325 | son of Lev II |
| Yuri II Boleslav | 1325–1340 | from Mazovian princes, grandson of Yuri I |
| Dmitriy Liubart | 1340–1349 | from Lithuanian princes |
References
edit- ^ Larry Wolff (2010): The Idea of Galicia (p. 254-255)
- ^ Майоров А. В.. Галицко-Волынская Русь. Очерки социально-политических отношений в домонгольский период. Князь, бояре и городская община. СПб., Университетская книга. 640 с., 2001
- ^ Грушевський. Історія України-Руси. Том II. Розділ VII. Стор. 1.
- ^ Magocsi, Paul Robert (1995). "The Carpatho-Rusyns". Carpatho-Rusyn American. XVIII (4). Carpatho-Rusyn Research Center.
- ^ Magocsi, Paul Robert (2002). The Roots of Ukrainian Nationalism: Galicia as Ukraine's Piedmont. University of Toronto Press. pp. 2–4. ISBN 9780802047380.
- ^ Sedov, Valentin Vasilyevich (2013) [1995]. Славяне в раннем Средневековье [Sloveni u ranom srednjem veku (Slavs in Early Middle Ages)]. Novi Sad: Akademska knjiga. pp. 168, 444, 451. ISBN 978-86-6263-026-1.
- ^ "Oleg of Novgorod | History of Russia". historyofrussia.org. Retrieved 2016-02-14.
- ^ Ипатьевская летопись. — СПб., 1908. — Стлб. 21
- ^ ЛІТОПИС РУСЬКИЙ. Роки 988 — 1015.
- ^ Samuel Hazzard Cross; Olgerd P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor, eds. (1953), The Russian Primary Chronicle: Laurentian Text (PDF), Cambridge, Massachusetts: Medieval Academy of America, p. 119
- ^ Font, Márta (2001). Koloman the Learned, King of Hungary (Supervised by Gyula Kristó, Translated by Monika Miklán). Márta Font (supported by the Publication Commission of the Faculty of Humanities of the University of Pécs). p. 73.ISBN 963-482-521-4.
- ^ М. Грушевський. Історія України-Руси. Том II. Розділ VII. Стор. 1.
- ^ Makk, Ferenc (1989). The Árpáds and the Comneni: Political Relations between Hungary and Byzantium in the 12th century (Translated by György Novák). Akadémiai Kiadó. p. 47. ISBN 963-05-5268-X
- ^ Пастернак Я. Старий Галич: Археологічно-історичні досліди в 1850 - 1943 рр. - Краків, Львів, -1944р., - С. 66, 71-72,
- ^ Петрушевичъ А. 1882–1888 Критико-исторические рассуждения о надднестрянскомъ городе Галичъ и его достопамятностях // Льтопись Народного Дома. – Львов. – С. 7–602.
- ^ Могитич Р. Містобудівельний феномен давнього Галича // Галицька брама. – Львів. 1998 – № 9. – С. 13–16
- ^ D. Obolensky, The Byzantine Commonwealth, 299–300.
- ^ D. Obolensky, The Byzantine Commonwealth, 300–302.
- ^ M. Angold, The Byzantine Empire, 1025–1204, 177.
- ^ ПСРЛ. — Т. 2. Ипатьевская летопись. — СПб., 1908. — Стлб. 661
- ^ Dimnik, Martin (2003). The Dynasty of Chernigov, 1146–1246. Cambridge University Press. p.193 ISBN 978-0-521-03981-9.
- ^ W.Kadłubek Monum. Pol. hist. II 544-7
- ^ ПСРЛ. — Т. 2. Ипатьевская летопись. — СПб., 1908. — Стлб. 715
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- ^ Майоров А.В. Царский титул галицко-волынского князя Романа Мстиславича и его потомков//Петербургские славянские и балканские исследования 2009 # 1/2 (5/6)
- ^ ПСРЛ. — Т. 2. Ипатьевская летопись. — СПб., 1908. — Стлб.722
- ^ M. Hrushevsky History of Ukraine-Rus Volume III Knyho-Spilka, New-York 1954 -P.26
- ^ Грушевський М.С. Хронольогія подій Галицько-Волинської літописи // ЗНТШ. Львів, 1901. Т. XLI C.12
- ^ ПСРЛ. — Т. 2. Ипатьевская летопись. — СПб., 1908. — Стлб. 729
- ^ Фроянов И.Я., Дворниченко А.Ю. Города-осударства Юго-Западной Руси. Л., 1988. С.150
- ^ Huillard-Breholles Examen de chartes de l'Eglise Romaine contenues dans les rouleaux de Cluny, Paris, 1865, 84
- ^ Крип’якевич І.П. Галицько-Волинське князівство. Київ, 1984. С.90
- ^ Софроненко К.А. Общественно-политический строй Галицко-Волінской Руси ХІ - ХІІІ вв. М.1955.С.98
- ^ Софроненко К.А. Общественно-политический строй Галицко-Волынской Руси ХІ - ХІІІ вв. М.1955.С.98
- ^ ПСРЛ. — Т. 2. Ипатьевская летопись. — СПб., 1908. — Стлб. 787
- ^ Шараневич И.И. История Галицко-Володимирской Руси от найдавнейших времен до року 1453. Львов, 1863. С.79
- ^ M. Hrushevsky History of Ukraine-Rus Volume III Knyho-Spilka, New-York 1954 -P.54
- ^ ПСРЛ. — Т. 2. Ипатьевская летопись. — СПб., 1908. — Стлб. 789
- ^ ПСРЛ. — Т. 2. Ипатьевская летопись. — СПб., 1908. — Стлб. 786
- ^ M.Hrushevsky History of Ukraine-Rus'- Volume IV Knyho-Spilka, New York 1954 -P.20
- ^ nuncii Tartarorum venerunt ad Regem Poloniae. Et in fine eiusdem anni Rex Kazimirus terram Russiae obtinuit Monum. Poloniae hist. II c. 885
- ^ M.Hrushevsky History of Ukraine-Rus'- Volume IV Knyho-Spilka, New York 1954 -P.35
- ^ Hypatian Codex Ипатьевская летопись. — СПб., 1908. — Стлб. 256
- ^ Nicetae Choniatae histoia. Rec. I. Bekker. Bonnae 1835, p. 168–171, 172–173(lib. IV, cap. 2; lib. V, cap. 3)
- ^ Tiuliumeanu M. Andronic I Comnenul. Iasi 2000.
- ^ Girgensonn J. Kritische Untersuchung über das VII. Buch der Historia Polonica des Dlugosch. Göttingen 1872, s. 65.
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Bibliography
edit- Hrushevsky, M. History of Ukraine-Rus. Saint Petersburg, 1913.
- History of Ukraine-Rus. Vienna, 1921.
- Illustrated history of Ukraine. "BAO". Donetsk, 2003. ISBN 966-548-571-7 (Chief Editor - Iosif Broyak)
- Obolensky, Dimitri (1971). The Byzantine Commonwealth: Eastern Europe 500–1453. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 1-84212-019-0.
External links
edit- Halych principality in Encyclopedia of Ukraine, vol. 2 (1988). (in English) (Encyclopedia of Ukraine)