Wikipedia

Effects of climate change on small island countries

The effects of climate change on small island countries are affecting people in coastal areas through sea level rise, increasing heavy rain events, tropical cyclones and storm surges.[1]: 2045  These effects of climate change threaten the existence of many island countries, their peoples and cultures. They also alter ecosystems and natural environments in those countries. Small island developing states (SIDS) are a heterogenous group of countries but many of them are particularly at risk to climate change.[2] Those countries have been quite vocal in calling attention to the challenges they face from climate change.[2] For example, the Maldives and nations of the Caribbean and Pacific Islands are already experiencing considerable impacts of climate change.[3] It is critical for them to implement climate change adaptation measures fast.[3]

A sign on South Tarawa, Kiribati pointing out the threat of sea level rise to the island, with its highest point being only three metres above sea level.

Some small and low population islands do not have the resources to protect their islands and natural resources. They experience climate hazards which impact on human health, livelihoods, and inhabitable space. This can lead to pressure to leave these islands but resources to do so are often lacking as well.

Efforts to combat these challenges are ongoing and multinational. Many of the small island developing countries have a high vulnerability to climate change, whilst having contributed very little to global greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, some small island countries have made advocacy for global cooperation on climate change mitigation a key aspect of their foreign policy.

History

edit

Sea level was much lower during the last ice age when glaciers covered a third of Earth's land mass.[4]

Common features

edit

Small island developing states (SIDS) are identified as a group of 38 United Nations (UN) Member States and 20 Non-UN Member/Associate Members that are located in three regions: the Caribbean; the Pacific; and the Atlantic, Indian Ocean, Mediterranean and South China Seas (AIMS) and are home to approximately 65 million people. These nations are far from homogeneous but they do share numerous features, including narrow resource bases, dominance of economic sectors that are reliant on the natural environment, limited industrial activity, physical remoteness, and limited economies of scale.[2]

Due to close connections between human communities and coastal environments, SIDS are particularly exposed to hazards associated with the ocean and cryosphere, including sea level rise, extreme sea levels, tropical cyclones, marine heatwaves, and ocean acidification. A common feature of SIDS is a high ratio of coastline-to-land area, with large portions of populations, infrastructure, and assets being located along the coast.[2]

Patterns of increasing hazards, high levels of exposure, and acute vulnerability interact to result in high risk of small island developing states (SIDS) to climate change.[2]

Small island developing states (SIDS) have long been recognized as being particularly at risk to climate change. These nations are often described as being on the “frontlines of climate change”, as “hot spots of climate change”, or as being “canaries in the coalmine”.[2] The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change warned already in 2001 that small island countries will experience considerable economic and social consequences due to climate change.[5]

Small island developing states make minimal contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions, with a combined total of less than 1%.[6][3] However, that does not indicate that greenhouse emissions are not produced at all, and it is recorded that the annual total greenhouse gas emissions from islands could range from 292.1 to 29,096.2 [metric] tonne CO2-equivalent.[7]

Impacts

edit
See also: Effects of climate change
 
The global average sea level has risen about 250 millimetres (9.8 in) since 1880.[8]
 
Surface area change of islands in the Central Pacific and Solomon Islands[9]

Sea level rise

edit

Sea level rise is especially threatening to low-lying island nations because seas are encroaching upon limited habitable land and threatening existing cultures.[10][11] Stefan Rahmstorf, a professor of Ocean Physics at Potsdam University in Germany, notes "even limiting warming to 2 degrees, in my view, will still commit some island nations and coastal cities to drown."[12]

This section is an excerpt from Sea level rise.[edit]

Between 1901 and 2018, the average sea level rose by 15–25 cm (6–10 in), with an increase of 2.3 mm (0.091 in) per year since the 1970s.[13]: 1216  This was faster than the sea level had ever risen over at least the past 3,000 years.[13]: 1216  The rate accelerated to 4.62 mm (0.182 in)/yr for the decade 2013–2022.[14] Climate change due to human activities is the main cause.[15]: 5, 8  Between 1993 and 2018, melting ice sheets and glaciers accounted for 44% of sea level rise, with another 42% resulting from thermal expansion of water.[16]: 1576 

Sea level rise lags behind changes in the Earth's temperature by many decades, and sea level rise will therefore continue to accelerate between now and 2050 in response to warming that has already happened.[17] What happens after that depends on human greenhouse gas emissions. If there are very deep cuts in emissions, sea level rise would slow between 2050 and 2100. It could then reach by 2100 slightly over 30 cm (1 ft) from now and approximately 60 cm (2 ft) from the 19th century. With high emissions it would instead accelerate further, and could rise by 1.0 m (3+1⁄3 ft) or even 1.6 m (5+1⁄3 ft) by 2100.[15][13]: 1302  In the long run, sea level rise would amount to 2–3 m (7–10 ft) over the next 2000 years if warming stays to its current 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) over the pre-industrial past. It would be 19–22 metres (62–72 ft) if warming peaks at 5 °C (9.0 °F).[15]: 21 

Changes in temperatures and rain

edit

Atmospheric temperature extremes have already increased in frequency and intensity in SIDS and are projected to continue along this trend.[2] Heavy precipitation events in SIDS have also increased in frequency and intensity and are expected to further increase.[2]

Agriculture and fisheries

edit

Climate change poses a risk to food security in many Pacific Islands, impacting fisheries and agriculture.[18] As sea level rises, island nations are at increased risk of losing coastal arable land to degradation as well as salination. Once the limited available soil on these islands becomes salinated, it becomes very difficult to produce subsistence crops such as breadfruit. This would severely impact the agricultural and commercial sector in nations such as the Marshall Islands and Kiribati.[19]

In addition, local fisheries would also be affected by higher ocean temperatures and increased ocean acidification. As ocean temperatures rise and the pH of oceans decreases, many fish and other marine species would die out or change their habits and range. As well as this, water supplies and local ecosystems such as mangroves, are threatened by global warming.[20]

Economic impacts

edit

SIDS may also have reduced financial and human capital to mitigate climate change risk, as many rely on international aid to cope with disasters like severe storms. Worldwide, climate change is projected to have an average annual loss of 0.5% GDP by 2030; in Pacific SIDS, it will be 0.75–6.5% GDP by 2030. Caribbean SIDS will have average annual losses of 5% by 2025, escalating to 20% by 2100 in projections without regional mitigation strategies.[2] The tourism sector of many island countries is particularly threatened by increased occurrences of extreme weather events such as hurricanes and droughts.[20]

Public health

edit

Climate change impacts small island ecosystems in ways that have a detrimental effect on public health. In island nations, changes in sea levels, temperature, and humidity may increase the prevalence of mosquitoes and diseases carried by them such as malaria and Zika virus. Rising sea levels and severe weather such as flooding and droughts may render agricultural land unusable and contaminate freshwater drinking supplies. Flooding and rising sea levels also directly threaten populations, and in some cases may be a threat to the entire existence of the island.[21]

Others

edit

Other impacts on small islands include:[22]

  • deterioration in coastal conditions, such as beach erosion and coral bleaching, which will likely affect local resources such as fisheries, as well as the value of tourism destinations.
  • reduction of already limited water resources to the point that they become insufficient to meet demand during low-rainfall periods by mid-century, especially on small islands (such as in the Caribbean and the Pacific Ocean)
  • invasion by non-native species increasing with higher temperatures, particularly in mid- and high-latitude islands.

Adaptation

edit
Main article: Climate change adaptation

Governments face a complex task when combining grey infrastructure with green infrastructure and nature-based solutions to help with disaster risk management in areas such as flood control, early warning systems, and integrated water resource management.[23]

Relocation and migration

edit
Further information: Climate migration

Climate migration has been discussed in popular media as a potential adaptation approach for the populations of islands threatened by sea level rise. These depictions are often sensationalist or problematic, although migration may likely form a part of adaptation. Mobility has long been a part of life in islands, but could be used in combination with local adaptation measures.[3]

A study that engaged the experiences of residents in atoll communities found that the cultural identities of these populations are strongly tied to these lands.[24] Human rights activists argue that the potential loss of entire atoll countries, and consequently the loss of national sovereignty, self-determination, cultures, and indigenous lifestyles cannot be compensated for financially.[25][26] Some researchers suggest that the focus of international dialogues on these issues should shift from ways to relocate entire communities to strategies that instead allow for these communities to remain on their lands.[25][24]

Climate resilient economies

edit

Many SIDS now understand the need to move towards low-carbon, climate resilient economies, as set out in the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) implementation plan for climate change-resilient development. SIDS often rely heavily on imported fossil fuels, spending an ever-larger proportion of their GDP on energy imports. Renewable technologies have the advantage of providing energy at a lower cost than fossil fuels and making SIDS more sustainable. Barbados has been successful in adopting the use of solar water heaters (SWHs). A 2012 report published by the Climate & Development Knowledge Network showed that its SWH industry now boasts over 50,000 installations. These have saved consumers as much as US$137 million since the early 1970s. The report suggested that Barbados' experience could be easily replicated in other SIDS with high fossil fuel imports and abundant sunshine.[27]

International cooperation

edit
 
International meeting of Small Island Developing States in 2014.
 
Maldives President Mohamed Nasheed speaks at the launch of the Climate Vulnerability Monitor in 2010.

The governments of several island nations have made political advocacy for greater international ambition on climate change mitigation and climate change adaptation a component of their foreign policy and international alliances.[2]

The Alliance of Small Island States (ASIS) has been a strong negotiating group in the UNFCCC, highlighting that although they are negligible contributors to anthropogenic climate change, they are among the most vulnerable to its impacts.[2] The 43 members of the alliance have held the position of limiting global warming to 1.5°C, and advocated for this at the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference, influencing the goals of the Paris Agreement.[28][29] Marshall Islands Prime Minister Tony deBrum was central in forming the High Ambition Coalition at the conference.[30] Meetings of the Pacific Islands Forum have also discussed the issue.[31]

The Maldives and Tuvalu particularly have played a prominent role on the international stage. In 2002, Tuvalu threatened to sue the United States and Australia in the International Court of Justice for their contribution to climate change and for not ratifying the Kyoto Protocol.[32] The governments of both of these countries have cooperated with environmental advocacy networks, non-governmental organisations and the media to draw attention to the threat of climate change to their countries. At the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference, Tuvalu delegate Ian Fry spearheaded an effort to halt negotiations and demand a comprehensive, legally binding agreement.[32]

As of March 2022, the Asian Development Bank has committed $3.62 billion to help small island developing states with climate change, transport, energy, and health projects.[33]

By country and region

edit

Caribbean

edit
This section is an excerpt from Climate change in the Caribbean.[edit]
 
Graph showing historic temperature change globally and in the Caribbean region.
Climate change in the Caribbean poses major risks to the islands in the Caribbean. The main environmental changes expected to affect the Caribbean are a rise in sea level, stronger hurricanes, longer dry seasons and shorter wet seasons.[34] As a result, climate change is expected to lead to changes in the economy, environment and population of the Caribbean.[35][36][37] Temperature rise of 2°C above preindustrial levels can increase the likelihood of extreme hurricane rainfall by four to five times in the Bahamas and three times in Cuba and the Dominican Republic.[38] A rise in sea level could impact coastal communities of the Caribbean if they are less than 3 metres (10 ft) above the sea. In Latin America and the Caribbean, it is expected that 29–32 million people may be affected by the sea level rise because they live below this threshold. The Bahamas is expected to be the most affected because at least 80% of the total land is below 10 meters elevation.[39][40]

East Timor

edit

East Timor, or Timor-Leste, faces numerous challenges as a result of climate change and increased global temperatures. As an island country, rising sea levels threaten its coastal areas, including the capital city Dili.[41] The country is considered highly vulnerable and is expected to experience worsening cyclones, flooding, heatwaves, and drought. As a large percentage of the population is dependent on local agriculture, these changes are expected to impact industry in the country as well.[42]

 
September 2019 climate strikes in Dili, East Timor.

Maldives

edit
This section is an excerpt from Climate change in the Maldives.[edit]
 
The Maldives government have adapted infrastructure in capital city Malé to the threats of climate change, including beginning to build a wall around the city.
Climate change is a major issue for the Maldives. As an archipelago of low-lying islands and atolls in the Indian Ocean, the existence of the Maldives is severely threatened by sea level rise. By 2050, 80% of the country could become uninhabitable due to global warming.[43] According to the World Bank, with "future sea levels projected to increase in the range of 10 to 100 centimeters by the year 2100, the entire country could be submerged".[44] The Maldives is striving to adapt to climate change, and Maldivian authorities have been prominent in international political advocacy to implement climate change mitigation.

Pacific islands

edit

Fiji

edit
This section is an excerpt from Climate change in Fiji.[edit]
 
Temperature change in Fiji, 1901 to 2020.

Climate change in Fiji is an exceptionally pressing issue for the country - as an island nation, Fiji is particularly vulnerable to rising sea levels, coastal erosion and extreme weather.[45] These changes, along with temperature rise, will displace Fijian communities and will prove disruptive to the national economy - tourism, agriculture and fisheries, the largest contributors to the nation's GDP, will be severely impacted by climate change causing increases in poverty and food insecurity.[45] As a party to both the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Climate Agreement, Fiji hopes to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050 which, along with national policies, will help to mitigate the impacts of climate change.[46]

The Human Rights Measurement Initiative finds that the climate crisis has worsened human rights conditions moderately (4.6 out of 6) in Fiji.[47]

Kiribati

edit
Further information: Environmental issues in Kiribati

The existence of the nation of Kiribati is imperilled by rising sea levels, with the country losing land every year.[48] Many of its islands are currently or becoming inhabitable due to their shrinking size. Thus, the majority of the country's population resides in only a handful of islands, with more than half of its residents living on one island alone, Tarawa. This leads to other issues such as severe overcrowding in such a small area.[49] In 1999, the uninhabited islands of Tebua Tarawa and Abanuea both disappeared underwater.[50] The government's Kiribati Adaptation Program was launched in 2003 to mitigate the country's vulnerability to the issue.[51] In 2008, fresh water supplies began being encroached by seawater, prompting President Anote Tong to request international assistance to begin relocating the country's population elsewhere.[52]

Marshall Islands

edit
This section is an excerpt from Climate change in the Marshall Islands.[edit]
 
Image of Majuro, Marshall Islands
Climate change in the Marshall Islands is a major issue for the country. As with many countries made up of low-lying islands, the Marshall Islands is highly vulnerable to sea level rise and other impacts of climate change. The atoll and capital city of Majuro are particularly vulnerable, and the issue poses significant implications for the country's population. These threats have prompted Marshallese political leaders to make climate change a key diplomatic issue, who have responded with initiatives such as the Majuro Declaration. The Human Rights Measurement Initiative[53] finds that the climate crisis has worsened human rights conditions in the Marshall Islands greatly (5.0 out of 6). [54] Human rights experts reported that the climate crisis has negatively impacted the economy, increased rates of unemployment, and lead to relocations to higher areas or migrations to other countries. [54]

Palau

edit
This section is an excerpt from Environment of Palau § Climate.[edit]

The Palau government are concerned about the effects of climate change on the island nation. In 2008 Palau requested that the UN Security Council consider protection against rising sea levels due to climate change.[55]

Tommy Remengesau, the president of Palau, has said:[56]

Palau has lost at least one third of its coral reefs due to climate change related weather patterns. We also lost most of our agricultural production due to drought and extreme high tides. These are not theoretical, scientific losses -- they are the losses of our resources and our livelihoods.... For island states, time is not running out. It has run out. And our path may very well be the window to your own future and the future of our planet.

Solomon Islands

edit
Further information: Climate change in the Solomon Islands

Between 1947 and 2014, six islands of the Solomon Islands disappeared due to sea level rise, while another six shrunk by between 20 and 62 per cent. Nuatambu Island was the most populated of these with 25 families living on it; 11 houses washed into the sea by 2011.[57]

The Human Rights Measurement Initiative[58] finds that the climate crisis has worsened human rights conditions in the Solomon Islands greatly (5.0 out of 6).[59] Human rights experts provided that the climate crisis has contributed to conflict in communities, negative future socio-economic outlook, and food instability.[59]

Tuvalu

edit
Main article: Climate change in Tuvalu
 
Temperature change in Tuvalu, 1901 to 2020.
 
Satellite Image of Funafuti Atoll, Tuvalu

Tuvalu is a small Polynesian island nation located in the Pacific Ocean. It can be found about halfway between Hawaii and Australia. It is made up of nine tiny islands, five of which are coral atolls while the other four consists of land rising from the sea bed. All are low-lying islands with no point on Tuvalu being higher than 4.5m above sea level.[60] The analysis of 15+1⁄2 years of sea level data from Funafuti, identified that the sea level rise rate was 5.9 mm per year (in the 15+1⁄2 years to September 2008) and the sea level in the Funafuti area rose approximately 9.14 cm during that period of time.[61] As well as this, the dangerous peak high tides in Tuvalu are becoming higher causing greater danger. In response to sea level rise, Tuvalu is considering resettlement plans in addition to pushing for increased action in confronting climate change at the UN.[62] On 10 November 2023, Tuvalu signed the Falepili Union, a bilateral diplomatic relationship with Australia, under which Australia will provide a pathway for citizens of Tuvalu to migrate to Australia, to enable climate-related mobility for Tuvaluans.[63][64]

São Tomé and Príncipe

edit
This section is an excerpt from Geography of São Tomé and Príncipe § Climate change.[edit]
 
Annual temperature anomaly in São Tomé and Príncipe, 1901 to 2020.
Between 1950 and 2010, São Tomé and Príncipe experienced an increase of 1.5 °C in average annual temperature due to climate change.[65] The country is considered highly vulnerable to its impacts. Climate change is projected to lead to an increased number of warm days and nights, hotter temperatures and increased precipitation.[66] Sea level rise and saltwater intrusion will be major issues for the islands[66] and climate change will have major impacts on agriculture in the country.[67] The government began developing a National Adaptation Plan in 2022 to implement climate adaptation efforts, with support from the United Nations Environment Programme.[68]

Seychelles

edit

In the Seychelles, the impacts of climate change were observable in precipitation, air temperature and sea surface temperature by the early 2000s. Climate change poses a threat to its coral reef ecosystems, with drought conditions in 1999 and a mass bleaching event in 1998. Water management will be critically impacted.[5]

Singapore

edit
This section is an excerpt from Climate change in Singapore.[edit]

Singapore adopts a proactive long-term effort in addressing rising sea-levels, temperature increases due to global warming, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

 
Singapore's 2021 emissions profile
As of 2022 compared to other ASEAN countries Singapore has the second highest per capita CO2 emissions per capita at 8.9 tonnes per person and ranks 6th in total Annual CO2 emissions at 53.25 million tonnes.[69]

See also

edit


References

edit
  1. ^ Mycoo, M., M.Wairiu, D. Campbell, V. Duvat, Y. Golbuu, S. Maharaj, J. Nalau, P. Nunn, J. Pinnegar, and O.Warrick, 2022: "Chapter 15: Small Islands". In: "Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change" [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2043–2121, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.017.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Thomas, Adelle; Baptiste, April; Martyr-Koller, Rosanne; Pringle, Patrick; Rhiney, Kevon (17 October 2020). "Climate Change and Small Island Developing States". Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 45 (1): 1–27. doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-012320-083355. ISSN 1543-5938.   Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
  3. ^ a b c d Betzold, Carola (1 December 2015). "Adapting to climate change in small island developing states". Climatic Change. 133 (3): 481–489. Bibcode:2015ClCh..133..481B. doi:10.1007/s10584-015-1408-0. ISSN 1573-1480. S2CID 153937782.
  4. ^ https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/coastline-eastern-us-changesslowly#:~:text=During%20the%20last%20ice%20age%20glaciers%20covered%20almost%20one-third,122%20meters)%20lower%20than%20today.
  5. ^ a b Payet, Rolph; Agricole, Wills (June 2006). "Climate Change in the Seychelles: Implications for Water and Coral Reefs". Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment. 35 (4): 182–189. doi:10.1579/0044-7447(2006)35[182:CCITSI]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0044-7447. PMID 16944643. S2CID 39117934.
  6. ^ Wong, Poh Poh (27 September 2010). "Small island developing states". WIREs Climate Change. 2 (1): 1–6. doi:10.1002/wcc.84. ISSN 1757-7780. S2CID 130010252.
  7. ^ Chen, Ying-Chu (2017). "Evaluation of greenhouse gas emissions from waste management approaches in the islands". Waste Management & Research. 35 (7): 691–699. Bibcode:2017WMR....35..691C. doi:10.1177/0734242X17707573. PMID 28553773. S2CID 20731727. Retrieved 20 October 2022.
  8. ^ "Climate Change Indicators: Sea Level / Figure 1. Absolute Sea Level Change". EPA.gov. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). July 2022. Archived from the original on 4 September 2023. Data sources: CSIRO, 2017. NOAA, 2022.
  9. ^ Simon Albert; Javier X Leon; Alistair R Grinham; John A Church; Badin R Gibbes; Colin D Woodroffe (1 May 2016). "Interactions between sea-level rise and wave exposure on reef island dynamics in the Solomon Islands". Environmental Research Letters. 11 (5): 054011. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/11/5/054011. ISSN 1748-9326. Wikidata Q29028186.
  10. ^ Leatherman, Stephen P.; Beller-Simms, Nancy (1997). "Sea-Level Rise and Small Island States: An Overview". Journal of Coastal Research: 1–16. ISSN 0749-0208. JSTOR 25736084.
  11. ^ Neumann, Barbara; Vafeidis, Athanasios T.; Zimmermann, Juliane; Nicholls, Robert J. (11 March 2015). "Future Coastal Population Growth and Exposure to Sea-Level Rise and Coastal Flooding - A Global Assessment". PLOS ONE. 10 (3): e0118571. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1018571N. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0118571. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4367969. PMID 25760037.
  12. ^ Sutter, John D. "Life in a Disappearing Country." CNN. Cable News Network, undated, accessed 28 January 2016. http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2015/06/opinions/sutter-two-degrees-marshall-islands/
  13. ^ a b c Fox-Kemper, B.; Hewitt, Helene T.; Xiao, C.; Aðalgeirsdóttir, G.; Drijfhout, S. S.; Edwards, T. L.; Golledge, N. R.; Hemer, M.; Kopp, R. E.; Krinner, G.; Mix, A. (2021). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A.; Connors, S. L.; Péan, C.; Berger, S.; Caud, N.; Chen, Y.; Goldfarb, L. (eds.). "Chapter 9: Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change" (PDF). Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, US. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 October 2022. Retrieved 18 October 2022.
  14. ^ "WMO annual report highlights continuous advance of climate change". World Meteorological Organization. 21 April 2023. Archived from the original on 17 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2023. Press Release Number: 21042023.
  15. ^ a b c IPCC, 2021: Summary for Policymakers Archived 2021-08-11 at the Wayback Machine. In: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Archived 2023-05-26 at the Wayback Machine Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M. I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J. B. R. Matthews, T. K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, US, pp. 3−32, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.001.
  16. ^ WCRP Global Sea Level Budget Group (2018). "Global sea-level budget 1993–present". Earth System Science Data. 10 (3): 1551–1590. Bibcode:2018ESSD...10.1551W. doi:10.5194/essd-10-1551-2018. hdl:20.500.11850/287786. This corresponds to a mean sea-level rise of about 7.5 cm over the whole altimetry period. More importantly, the GMSL curve shows a net acceleration, estimated to be at 0.08mm/yr2.
  17. ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2011). "Synopsis". Climate Stabilization Targets: Emissions, Concentrations, and Impacts over Decades to Millennia. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. p. 5. doi:10.17226/12877. ISBN 978-0-309-15176-4. Archived from the original on 30 June 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2022. Box SYN-1: Sustained warming could lead to severe impacts
  18. ^ Barnett, Jon (1 March 2011). "Dangerous climate change in the Pacific Islands: food production and food security". Regional Environmental Change. 11 (1): 229–237. Bibcode:2011REnvC..11S.229B. doi:10.1007/s10113-010-0160-2. ISSN 1436-378X. S2CID 155030232.
  19. ^ "Climate Change Impacts - Pacific Islands -." The Global Mechanism (n.d.): n.pag. IFAD. Web. 21 February 2016. http://www.ifad.org/events/apr09/impact/islands.pdf Archived 23 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
  20. ^ a b giz. "Coping with climate change in the Pacific island region". www.giz.de. Retrieved 24 July 2022.
  21. ^ "Climate change and its impact on health on small island developing states". World Health Organization. Retrieved 22 October 2022.
  22. ^   This article incorporates public domain material from International Impacts & Adaptation: Climate Change: US EPA. US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). 14 June 2012.
  23. ^ "ADB's Work on Climate Change and Disaster Risk Management". Asian Development Bank. 11 November 2020. Retrieved 3 October 2022.
  24. ^ a b Mortreux, Colette; Barnett, Jon (2009). "Climate change, migration and adaptation in Funafuti, Tuvalu". Global Environmental Change. 19 (1): 105–112. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.09.006.
  25. ^ a b Tsosie, Rebecca (2007). "Indigenous People and Environmental Justice:The Impact of Climate Change". University of Colorado Law Review. 78: 1625.
  26. ^ Barnett, Jon; Adger, W. Neil (December 2003). "Climate Dangers and Atoll Countries". Climatic Change. 61 (3): 321–337. doi:10.1023/B:CLIM.0000004559.08755.88. S2CID 55644531.
  27. ^ Seizing the sunshine – Barbados' thriving solar water heater industry, Climate & Development Knowledge Network, 17 September 2012.
  28. ^ "A tiny island in the Pacific Ocean is about to be completely destroyed". The Independent. 2 December 2015. Retrieved 25 July 2022.
  29. ^ "This is why these Pacific islands need the Paris climate change deal to succeed". The Independent. 12 December 2015. Retrieved 25 July 2022.
  30. ^ "How the historic Paris deal over climate change was finally agreed". the Guardian. 13 December 2015. Retrieved 25 July 2022.
  31. ^ "Pacific islands demand climate action as China, US woo region". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 25 July 2022.
  32. ^ a b Jaschik, Kevin (1 March 2014). "Small states and international politics: Climate change, the Maldives and Tuvalu". International Politics. 51 (2): 272–293. doi:10.1057/ip.2014.5. ISSN 1740-3898. S2CID 145290890.
  33. ^ "ADB's Work in FCAS and SIDS". Asian Development Bank. 30 March 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2022.
  34. ^ Beckford, Clinton L.; Rhiney, Kevon (2016). "Geographies of Globalization, Climate Change and Food and Agriculture in the Caribbean". In Clinton L. Beckford; Kevon Rhiney (eds.). Globalization, Agriculture and Food in the Caribbean. Palgrave Macmillan UK. doi:10.1057/978-1-137-53837-6. ISBN 978-1-137-53837-6.
  35. ^ Ramón Bueno; Cornella Herzfeld; Elizabeth A. Stanton; Frank Ackerman (May 2008). The Caribbean and climate change: The costs of inaction (PDF).
  36. ^ Winston Moore; Wayne Elliot; Troy Lorde (1 April 2017). "Climate change, Atlantic storm activity and the regional socio-economic impacts on the Caribbean". Environment, Development and Sustainability. 19 (2): 707–726. doi:10.1007/s10668-016-9763-1. ISSN 1387-585X. S2CID 156828736.
  37. ^ Sealey-Huggins, Leon (2 November 2017). "'1.5°C to stay alive': climate change, imperialism and justice for the Caribbean". Third World Quarterly. 38 (11): 2444–2463. doi:10.1080/01436597.2017.1368013.
  38. ^ BERARDELLI, JEFF (29 August 2020). "Climate change may make extreme hurricane rainfall five times more likely, study says". CBC News. Retrieved 30 August 2020.
  39. ^ Clement Lewsey; Gonzalo Cid; Edward Kruse (1 September 2004). "Assessing climate change impacts on coastal infrastructure in the Eastern Caribbean". Marine Policy. 28 (5): 393–409. doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2003.10.016.
  40. ^ Borja G. Reguero; Iñigo J. Losada; Pedro Díaz-Simal; Fernando J. Méndez; Michael W. Beck (2015). "Effects of Climate Change on Exposure to Coastal Flooding in Latin America and the Caribbean". PLOS ONE. 10 (7): e0133409. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1033409R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0133409. PMC 4503776. PMID 26177285.
  41. ^ Barnett, Jon; Dessai, Suraje; Jones, Roger N. (July 2007). "Vulnerability to Climate Variability and Change in East Timor". Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment. 36 (5): 372–378. doi:10.1579/0044-7447(2007)36[372:VTCVAC]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0044-7447. PMID 17847801. S2CID 29460148.
  42. ^ "World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal". climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org. Retrieved 1 March 2024.
  43. ^ "Facing dire sea level rise threat, Maldives turns to climate change solutions to survive". ABC News. Retrieved 24 July 2022.
  44. ^ "Climate Change in the Maldives!". World Bank. Archived from the original on 9 June 2016. Retrieved 21 February 2016.
  45. ^ a b COP23. "How Fiji is Affected by Climate Change". Cop23. Archived from the original on 28 August 2022. Retrieved 17 July 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  46. ^ UN Climate Change News (5 March 2019). "Fiji Submits Long-Term National Climate Plan". unfccc.int. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
  47. ^ "Fiji - HRMI Rights Tracker". rightstracker.org. Retrieved 1 May 2023.
  48. ^ ABC News. "Kiribati's President: "Our Lives Are At Stake"". ABC News. Retrieved 22 July 2022.
  49. ^ Storey, Donovan; Hunter, Shawn (2010). "Kiribati: an environmental 'perfect storm". Australian Geographer. 41 (2): 167–181. doi:10.1080/00049181003742294. S2CID 143231470. Retrieved 23 October 2022.
  50. ^ "BBC News | Sci/Tech | Islands disappear under rising seas". news.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 23 July 2022.
  51. ^ "Kiribati Adaptation Program (KAP) | Climate Change". Archived from the original on 28 July 2022. Retrieved 22 July 2022.
  52. ^ "Paradise lost: climate change forces South Sea islanders to seek". The Independent. 5 June 2008. Retrieved 22 July 2022.
  53. ^ "Human Rights Measurement Initiative – The first global initiative to track the human rights performance of countries". humanrightsmeasurement.org. Retrieved 1 May 2023.
  54. ^ a b "Marshall Islands - HRMI Rights Tracker". rightstracker.org. Retrieved 1 May 2023.
  55. ^ "Palau seeks Security Council protection on climate change". Global Dashboard. 16 February 2008. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  56. ^ "Palau president challenges Hawai'i to take action against global warming". Hawaii Independent. 14 October 2008. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  57. ^ "Five Pacific islands vanish from sight as sea levels rise". New Scientist. Retrieved 25 July 2022.
  58. ^ "Human Rights Measurement Initiative – The first global initiative to track the human rights performance of countries". humanrightsmeasurement.org. Retrieved 1 May 2023.
  59. ^ a b "Solomon Islands - HRMI Rights Tracker". rightstracker.org. Retrieved 1 May 2023.
  60. ^ "Tuvalu country profile". BBC. 24 August 2017.
  61. ^ Than Aung, Awnesh Singh and Uma Prasad (2009). "Sea Level Threat in Tuvalu" (PDF). American Journal of Applied Sciences. 9 (6): 1169–1174. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
  62. ^ Patel, Samir S. (2006). "Climate science: A sinking feeling". Nature. 440 (7085): 734–6. Bibcode:2006Natur.440..734P. doi:10.1038/440734a. PMID 16598226. S2CID 1174790.
  63. ^ "Australia-Tuvalu Falepili Union treaty". Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Retrieved 12 November 2023.
  64. ^ "Joint Statement on the Falepili Union between Tuvalu and Australia". Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. 10 November 2023. Retrieved 13 November 2023.
  65. ^ "World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal". climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org. Retrieved 6 May 2022.
  66. ^ a b Chou, Sin Chan; de Arruda Lyra, André; Gomes, Jorge Luís; Rodriguez, Daniel Andrés; Alves Martins, Minella; Costa Resende, Nicole; da Silva Tavares, Priscila; Pereira Dereczynski, Claudine; Lopes Pilotto, Isabel; Martins, Alessandro Marques; Alves de Carvalho, Luís Felipe; Lima Onofre, José Luiz; Major, Idalécio; Penhor, Manuel; Santana, Adérito (1 May 2020). "Downscaling projections of climate change in Sao Tome and Principe Islands, Africa". Climate Dynamics. 54 (9): 4021–4042. doi:10.1007/s00382-020-05212-7. ISSN 1432-0894. S2CID 215731771.
  67. ^ Costa Resende Ferreira, Nicole; Martins, Minella; da Silva Tavares, Priscila; Chan Chou, Sin; Monteiro, Armando; Gomes, Ludmila; Santana, Adérito (11 February 2021). "Assessment of crop risk due to climate change in Sao Tome and Principe". Regional Environmental Change. 21 (1): 22. doi:10.1007/s10113-021-01746-6. ISSN 1436-378X. S2CID 231886512.
  68. ^ "São Tomé and Príncipe develops National Adaptation Plan for climate change | Global Adaptation Network (GAN)". www.unep.org. Retrieved 18 August 2022.
  69. ^ Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max; Rosado, Pablo (27 October 2022). "Energy". Our World in Data.
edit
  • Chapter 15: Small Islands in IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, Working Group 2: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability

Retrieved from "https://en.wiki.x.io/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_climate_change_on_small_island_countries&oldid=1258715716"