The geographically proximate languages of Japanese (part of the Japonic languages) and Korean (part of the Koreanic languages) share considerable similarity in syntactic and morphological typology while having a small number of lexical resemblances. Observing the said similarities and probable history of Korean influence on Japanese culture, linguists have formulated different theories proposing a genetic relationship between them,[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8] though these studies either lack conclusive evidence or were subsets of theories that have largely been discredited (like versions of the well-known Altaic hypothesis that mainly attempted to group the Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic languages together).[9][10][11][12] There has been new research which has revived the possibility of a genealogical link, such as the Transeurasian hypothesis (a neo-Altaic proposal) by Robbeets et al., supported by computational linguistics and archaeological evidence, but this view has received significant criticism as well.[13][14]
Korean and Japanese have very different native scripts (Hangul and kana, respectively), although they both make use of Chinese characters to some extent; Kanji still are a core part of modern Japanese orthography, while Hanja were historically used to write Korean. Today, Hanja are only used in South Korea for limited academic, legal, media, stylistic and disambiguation purposes and are not used at all in North Korea. Although both Hangul and the two modern kana systems (katakana and hiragana) show syllable/mora boundaries, Hangul syllable blocks break down into a featural alphabet, while the kana are essentially pure syllabaries.
Overview
edit| Korean | Japanese | |
|---|---|---|
| Speakers | 83 million | 126.4 million |
| Countries |  South Korea North Korea China
|
 Japan Palau
|
| Family | Koreanic | Japonic |
| Writing | Hangul, Hanja (South Korea), Idu, Gugyeol, Hyangchal (formerly) |
Kana, Kanji, Man'yōgana (formerly) |
Grammar
editKorean and Japanese both have an agglutinative morphology in which verbs may function as prefixes[15] and a subject–object–verb (SOV) typology.[16][17][18] They are both topic-prominent, null-subject languages. Both languages extensively utilize turning nouns into verbs via the "to do" helper verbs (Japanese suru する; Korean hada 하다).
Vocabulary
editThe two languages have been thought to not share any cognates (other than loanwords),[4] for their vocabularies do not phonetically resemble each other.
However, a 2016 paper proposing a common lineage between Korean and Japanese traces around 500 core words thought to share a common origin.[19] Most resembling lexicon in the study has been observed between Middle Korean (15th century) and earlier Old Japanese (8th century), some of which is shown in the following table:
| Keyword | Middle Korean | Old Japanese | Proposed Proto-Japanese-Korean |
|---|---|---|---|
| abandons | stú ("scoops it out, removes a part from the whole") |
sute ("abandons it, throws it away") |
*sɨtu ("abandons it, throws it out") |
| adds | kwop ("doubles, increases it two-fold") |
kupape ("adds it") |
*kop ("increases it in number by adding") |
| (adjectivizer) | k ("adjectivizing suffix on nominals") |
ka ("property suffix on nominals") |
*k ("adjectivizing suffix on nominals") + *a ("deverbal") |
| avoids | skúy ("shuns, avoids; is unwilling") |
sake ("avoids, dodges") |
*səka ("avoids") |
| bamboo | táy ("bamboo") ?< *taGVy |
takey ("bamboo") |
*takəj |
| basket | kwulek ("[mesh] basket") |
kwo ("basket") |
*kura / *kuwa ("basket") |
| bear | kwom ("bear") < Proto-Korean *komá |
kuma ("bear") |
*koma ("bear") |
| below | aláy ("below") |
aye ("falls to the ground") |
*ar ("below") |
| bestows | kwomá ("reverence"), kwómáw ("honored, thankful") |
kubar / kumar ("apportions and bestows") |
*kuma ("bestows") |
| bird | say ("bird") |
sagi ("heron; suffix in bird names") |
*saŋi ("bird") |
| bites | kemelí ("leech"), kam-spol ("licks it up, sucks up food") |
kam ("bites") |
*kamɨ ("bites") |
| body | mwóm ("body") < Old Korean *muma |
mu- / mwi ("body") |
*mom ("body") |
| boils it | nóy ("smoke, vapor") |
ni ("boils it") |
*nəj ("boils it") |
| bottom | stáh ("ground") |
sita ("below, bottom") |
*sita ("bottom") |
| box | pakwoní ("basket") |
pakwo ("box") |
*pako ("box") |
| brings into life | wum ("a sprout, a shoot, a growth") |
um ("gives birth to, brings into life") |
*um ("brings into life") |
| bundles | mwusk ("binds it into a bundle") |
musub ("binds it into a bundle") |
*musu ("binds, bundles it") |
| buries it | wumúl ("well"), wúmh ("grain pit dug out of the ground"), wumwuk-ho ("is hollow") |
ume ("buries it in the ground") |
*umu ("buries it in the ground") |
| cage | wulí ("cage") |
wori ("cage") |
*orɨj ("cage") |
| carbon | swusk ("charcoal") |
susu ("soot") |
*susu ("soot; carbon") |
| carries on back | ep ("bears, carries on the back") |
op ("bears on the back") |
*əp ("carries on back") |
| carves a line | kuzu ("draws a line, rules") |
kizam ("carves"), kisage ("shaves stone") |
*kinsɨ ("carves, cuts a line") |
| cat | kwoy ("cat") |
nekwo ("cat") |
*ko ("cat") |
| ceremony | kwús ("exorcism, shamanistic ceremony") |
kusi ("is strange, mysterious, otherwordly") |
*kusuj ("shamanistic ceremony") |
| changes | kaph ("returns it, pays it back") |
kap ("buys it"), kape ("exchanges, changes it"), kapar ("it changes") |
*kap ("it changes, changes hands") |
| cheek | pwól ("cheek") |
popo < *po-po ("cheek") |
*por ("cheek") |
| chicken | tolk ("chicken") |
tori ("bird, chicken") |
*tərəŋ ("chicken") |
| closes it | tat ("closes it") |
tat ("interrupts, cuts off, finishes it") |
*tat ("closes it") |
| cloth | swowom ("cotton") |
swo ("clothing; cloth; hemp") |
*so ("cloth") |
| cloudy | skí ("gets dusty, cloudy") |
sike ("sky gets cloudy") |
*siki ("gets cloudy") |
| collects | kat ("collects it, gathers it in") |
kate ("joins it, mixes it, adds it in") |
*kat ("collects") |
| comes | ká ("goes") |
ko ("comes") |
*kə ("comes") |
| confines | kalm ("hides it, puts it away, keeps it, treasures it") |
karame ("arrests it, catches and confines it") |
*karama ("confines it") |
| congeals | kel ("thickens, congeals; is rich, thick") |
kor ("it thickens, congeals") |
*kərɨ ("it thickens, congeals") |
| correct | mac ("is correct"), maskaw ("is correct") |
masa ("correct, upright") |
*masa ("correct, upright") |
| countryside | wúy ánh ("countryside") |
wi naka ("countryside") |
*uj ("countryside") + inside |
| daytime | nác ("daytime; afternoon") < Early Middle Korean *nacay |
natu ("summer") |
*nacu ("daytime") |
| deep inside | swop / swok ("deep inside") ?< *swowók |
oku ("deep inside, interior") |
*owoku ("deep inside") |
| dissolves / lonely | súl ("disappears, dissolves, rusts"), sulgwú ("makes it dissolve, rusts"), sulphu ("is sad"), sulh ("is sad") |
sabwi ("rusts"), sabu, EMJ sabi ("is sad, lonely") |
*sɨr ("dissolves; sad, lonely") |
| drags | kuzu ("drags, draws, pulls") |
kozi ("pulls out by the roots") |
*kɨnsɨ ("drags out") |
| drawn in | pemúli ("gets drawn in"), pemúl ("surrounds, encircles"), pemúl ("intrudes in") |
pame ("throws it in, drops it in") |
*pamɨ ("it gets drawn in") |
| drops | twú ("keeps, leaves it as is, places it down") |
otos ("drops it"), oti ("it drops down"), otor ("is low") |
*ɨtɨ ("drops, puts down") |
| each | mata ("each one, every") |
mata ("again; every"), mata-si ("all, complete") |
*mata ("each, every") |
| edge | pask ("outside") |
pasi ("outside edge") |
*pasi ("edge") |
| empties | sku, pskú ("puts it out, turns off, extinguishes, quenches it") |
suk ("empties, is empty") |
*sukɨ ("empties") |
| end | patáng, modern korean patak ("sole, bottom") |
pate ("limit, end"), patas ("makes it an end") |
*pataŋ ("end") |
| enfolds | mek ("eats, holds in the mouth; harbors, takes in, has inside") |
mak ("enfolds, rolls up, encircles") |
*mek or *mak ("enfolds") |
| et cetera | (i)yá / (i)yé ("whether, or") |
ya ("also, and the like") |
*ja ("whether; et cetera") |
| evergreen | swól ("pine") |
sugwi ("cryptomeria [japanese cedar]") |
*suŋor ("evergreen") |
| exchanges | kaph ("repays") kaps ("price") < *kap ("exchanges") |
kap ("buys") |
*kap ("exchanges") |
| exhausts | cwuk ("dies") |
tukwi ("is exhausted, used up") tukus ("exhausts it, uses it up") |
*cuk ("is exhausted") + Proto-Japanese *wo ("active marker") |
| expresses emotion | noch ("face, expression") |
natuk ("expresses emotion; is fond of") |
*nəcuk ("expresses emotion") |
| extremity | kiph ("is deep") |
kipa ("extremity") |
*kipa ("depth, extremity") |
| faces | mwok ("neck") |
muk ("turn one"s head, faces") |
*mok ("faces") |
| faint | kaskaw ("is close to"), kezúy ("almost") |
kasu-ka ("faint"), kasu ("barely") |
*kasu ("faint") |
| farm field | path ("farm field") |
pata, patake ("farm field") |
*pata ("farm field") |
| fat | pwutúlew ("soft"), modern korean pwutwung ("chubby") |
putwo ("fat") |
*puto ("fat") |
| ferments | sek ("rots, ferments") |
saka / sakey ("alcohol, rice wine") |
*sek ("ripens, grows [rotten]") |
| fills | tam ("fills it up") |
tamar ("it fills up"), tame ("fills it") |
*tama ("fills it") |
| fire | púl ("fire") |
pwi / po ("fire") |
*pɨr ("fire") |
| flattens it | tatóm ("smooths cloth, trims it, rubs it together"), modern korean tatumicil ("beating cloth out to smooth it") |
tatam ("folds it up, layers it"), tatami ("mat, flattened thing") |
*tatəm ("folds, flattens it"), tatəm-i ("flattening") |
| fork | motoy ("joint, knuckle") |
mata ("fork, bend; crotch") |
*mataj or *mətaj ("fork, bend") |
| full | michu / micho ("reaches it") |
mit ("gets full, reaches its limit") |
*mica ("reaches, gets full") |
| gathers a crowd | múli / mwuli / mwúl ("crowd") |
mure ("gathers a crowd") |
*mur(u) ("gathers a crowd") |
| gets | et ("gets it") |
atar ("gets it") |
*atɨ ("gets it") |
| goes out | ná ("goes out; is born") |
nar ("becomes") |
*na ("goes out") |
| grabs | az ("grabs it") |
asar ("scavenges it") |
*asa ("grabs it") |
| harbors | phwúm ("embraces, harbors") |
pukum ("harbor, comprise, contain") |
*pukum ("embraces, harbors") |
| hatchet | nát ("sickle, scythe") |
nata ("machete; small, thick bladed instrument") |
*natə ("bladed instrument for chopping plants") |
| heart | kwokoyyang ("heart or core of vegetable, pith"), kwokáy ("head") |
kokoro ("seat of feeling / thought; emotion") |
*kəkərə ("the heart, core, essence") |
| heats with fire | tahí ("makes a fire, heats with fire") |
tak ("heats with fire") |
*taka ("heats with fire") |
| high | talak ("loft, attic") |
take / taka ("height") |
*takar ("height") |
| holds | motó, moti ("is long-lasting, is durable; keeps things") |
mot ("holds") |
*mətə ("holds") |
| hot | tew ("hot") tos / toso / tusu ("hot"), tusi ("warmly") |
atu-si ("hot") |
*ətu ("hot") |
| husk | kephí ("husk, bark") |
kabi ("husk") |
*kaŋpiri ("husk") |
| imposes | sikhó ("orders, commands"), sikpu ("wants [to do]") |
sik ("imposes, lays out, takes a position, commands") |
*sik ("makes, imposes") |
| indeed | kús ("certainly, without fail") |
koso ("indeed, verily, without fail") |
*kɨsə ("indeed") = *kɨ ("this") + *sə ("that, that thing") |
| inserts | pak ("inserts it, fills it") |
pak ("puts on, slips on [lower body clothing, footwear])" |
*pak ("puts it through") |
| (interrogative) | ká (interrogative suffix for yes/no questions) |
ka (interrogative suffix (kmp); distal demonstrative) | *ka ("that [distal]"; interrogative suffix problematizing an identification) |
| island | syem ("island") |
sima ("island"), sime ("closes it off") |
*sima ("enclosed area; island") |
| jar | twok ("jar, pot") |
tuki ("cup, saucer [for alcohol]") |
*toki ("jar") |
| just | tamón / tamóyn ("only, just") |
damwi ("just, about") |
*tam ("just") |
| late | nuc ("is late") |
noti ("later, afterwards") |
*nɨc ("is late") |
| loves | kwoy ("is loved") |
kwopwi ("loves") |
*kopo ("loves it") |
| lurks | swúm ("hides, lurks in (of animals)") |
sum ("lives, resides in") |
*sum ("lurks, resides") |
| magpie | kachí ("magpie") |
kasa-sagi ("magpie") |
*kacɨ ("magpie"), + *saŋi ("bird") |
| meshes | elk ("binds, ties up, meshes together"), modern korean wolk ("weaves together") |
or ("weaves") |
*ər ("ties with string, rope, meshes") |
| mold | kwomphwúy ("mildew, mold grows") |
kabwi ("mildew, mold") |
*kənpom |
| mother | émí / émanim ("mother") |
omo ("mother") |
*əmə ("mother") |
| mows | kal ("plows it, cultivates it") |
kar ("mows, harvests it") |
*kara ("mows it") |
| much | manhó ("is many") man ("only, just") |
mane-si, (s)amane-si ("many times, many") |
*mana ("much") + *i ("be") |
| now | imúy, imuysye ("already") |
ima ("now") |
*imaj / *ima ("being interval; now") |
| odor | kwusu ("is pleasantly odorous") |
kusa-si ("is smelly") |
*kusa ("odor") |
| only | spwun ("only, just") |
sapey ("if only, just") |
*sapɨn ("only, just") |
| opens | akwoy ("hole, place where things come open or come apart") |
ak ("it opens up") |
*ak ("it opens") |
| picks up | tul ("holds up, raises") |
tor ("picks up") |
*tɨr ("picks up") |
| pigeon | pitwulí, pitwulki ("pigeon") |
patwo ("pigeon") |
*pato ("pigeon") |
| place | tóy ("place") |
te ("place [suffix]") |
*təj ("place [suffix]") |
| prepares water | kóm ("bathes (a bath)") |
kum ("draws water") |
*kɨmo ("draws, prepares water") |
| proceeds | pek ("is next, is after") |
poka ("other, besides") |
*pək ("comes after"), *pəka ("that which has come after") |
| rain | *mah ("east-asian rainy season, rain") |
ama / ame ("rain") |
*əmaŋ ("rain") |
| raptor | may ("eagle; suffix in bird names") |
mey ("suffix in bird names") |
*mari ("predatory bird; suffix in bird names") |
| rubs | moncí, moní ("strokes, touches it") |
mom ("kneads, rubs") |
*məm ("touches, rubs") |
| same | kóthó, kót, kotho ("is similar, same") |
(no) goto si ("is similar, same") |
*kətə ("same") |
| sea | patáh ("sea") |
wata ("sea") |
*wat-a ("that which has been crossed; sea") |
| seaweed(1) | mól ("seaweed") |
mo, mey ("seaweed") |
*mər ("seaweed") |
| section | kic ("a divided share") |
kida / kita ("counter for cuts, sections; measurement of fabric and plots of land") |
*kinca ("a cut, section") |
| sent out | pwonáy ("releases, sends it") |
panas / panat ("releases it") |
*pə-na ("see + go out") |
| sets it down | swuy ("it rests") |
suwe ("sets it, sets it down") |
*suwu ("sets it down") |
| shape | kací ("kind, sort, variety") |
kata ("shape, form") |
*kacaj / kaca ("shape") |
| shines | pozóy ("is shiny, is dazzled") |
posi ("star") |
*pəsə ("shines") |
| shuts in | kóm ("shuts [the eyes], closes [the eyes]") |
komor ("is shut inside") |
*kəmə ("shuts it in) |
| sidelines | yehúy / yehoy ("be separated from (a loved one)") |
yoke ("avoids it, averts it") |
*jəkə-i ("sidelines; is aside") |
| (simple past tense) | ke ("perfective verb marker") |
ki ("simple past marker") |
*kə ("past tense verb marker"), < *kə ("comes") |
| situation | pa ("place, situation, condition") |
pa (conditional verb suffix; nominal topic/focus marker) | *pa ("place; situation") |
| skewers | kwoc ("skewers, stabs it") kwoc ("skewer") |
kusi ("skewer") |
*koc ("skewers it"), *koc-i ("a skewer") |
| skin | kaphól ("sheath"), kepcil ("bark") |
kapa ("skin") |
*kapa ("skin") |
| small bamboo | sasól ("bamboo branch, stick for drawing lots") |
sasa ("bamboo grass, small bamboo") |
*sasa ("small bamboo") |
| small piece | cwokak ("piece, shard") |
sukwo-si ("little bit") |
*cok ("is a small piece") |
| snake | póyyám / póyam ("snake") |
peymi ("snake") |
*pəjami ("snake") |
| soaks through | súmúy ("permeates it, soaks through it") |
some ("dyes it") |
*sɨmɨ ("it soaks through") |
| sour | soy, swuy ("turns sour") |
suyur ("turns sour") |
*sɨju ("turns sour") |
| speaks | íp ("mouth") |
ip ("says") |
*ip ("speaks") |
| spider | kemúy ("spider") |
kumo ("spider") |
*komo ("spider") |
| splits it | kask ("trims, cuts it") |
sak ("splits it") |
*sak ("splits it by cutting") |
| stale | kwut ("is hard") |
kutar ("gets old, stale, rotten") |
*kut ("gets stale, hard") |
| suits for use | psú ("uses it") |
pusap ("suits, is suitable") |
*pusa ("uses it; suits it for use") |
| sun | hóy ("sun; year") |
ka / key ("day"), koyomi ("calendar") |
*xəj ("sun") |
| swamp | nwup ("swamp, bog") |
numa ("swamp, bog") |
*nu ("swamp, wet") |
| swells | pulu / pull ("gets full, (stomach) swells") |
puye ("increases, swells", puyas ("makes it increase") |
*purɨr ("swells") |
| takes in | tothwó ("fights"), thi ("strikes"), tho ("takes in, receives") |
tatak ("strikes"), tatakap ("fights") |
*takə ("takes in, receives"), *ta(r)takə ("strikes") |
| that (mesial) | so ("the fact, the thing"; complementizer) |
so ("that [mesial]") |
*sə ("that [mesial]"; complementizer)) |
| this | ku ("that (mesial)") |
ko ("this (proximal)") |
*kɨ ("this (proximal)") |
| time period | woláy ("long time") |
wori ("period of time, time") |
*orɨj ("period of time") |
| time when | cek, cey ("time when") |
toki ("time when") |
*ceki ("time when") |
| together | tamós ("together") |
tomo ("together; companion") |
*təmə ("together") + pk *s ("substantive") |
| uproar | sa(g)wónaw ("is rough, wild, fierce") |
sawak ("is noisy, bustling"), sawa'-sawa ("noisy") |
*sawə ("uproarious") |
| vacant | pwuy ("is empty") |
pima ("open, spare time") |
*pi ("vacant") |
| valued | pum ("matters, bears a connection to") |
pome ("praises it") |
*pɨm ("is valued") |
| walks | ke:t- ("walks") | kati ("walking") |
*katu ("walks") |
| wasp | pátólí ("yellowjacket") |
pati ("bee") |
*pator ("wasp") |
| waterlogged | mol ("soaks it in liquid") |
mor ("leaks"), mor ("fills up") |
*mər ("gets filled with water, water-logged") |
| wears | kís ("lapel, collar; outer layer of cloth") |
ki ("wears on the body") |
*ki ("wears on the body") |
| weaves | pcó ("weaves together") |
pata ("loom; woven cloth") |
*pəca ("weaves") |
| wet highland | swúp, swuphúl, swúh ("forest") |
sapa ("swamp, mountain, marsh, glen") | *sɨpa ("wet highland") |
| what | musúk ("what") musu ("what, which [prenoun])") < *musuk |
mosi ("perchance"; adverb introducing polar interrogatives) |
*mɨsɨŋ ("which") |
| whether | na ("whether, or, although") |
na ("whether or, both, and") |
*na ("whether") |
| wild field | nwón ("wet field") |
nwo ("wild field, plain") |
*non or *no ("wild field") |
| wishes | pólá- ("wishes it") |
por- ("wishes it") |
*pə-ara- ("wishes it") |
| woman | myenól, myenólí, myenúlí ("daughterinlaw") |
mye ("woman, wife") < Proto-Japanese *me |
*me ("woman") |
| wood | kuluh ("tree stump") |
kwi ("tree, wood") < *kəj |
*kɨr ("wood") |
| word | kolochí ("instructs, teaches"), kol ("words, speaking"), ilkhot/l ("calls out") |
koto ("word; thing"), katar ("tells") |
*kətə ("word; thing [non-concrete]") |
| wraps | cwúm, cwumekwúy ("fist") |
tum ("grasps, wraps") |
*cum ("wraps, grasps in hand") |
Although fewer in number, there have been also comparisons between stages other than Old Japanese and Middle Korean:
| Keyword | Koreanic | Japonic | Proposed Proto-Japanese-Korean |
|---|---|---|---|
| (negative) | aní (verbal negative; negative copula) |
PJ *an (verbal negative) |
*an (negative) |
| deep | NK phwuk ("deeply, fully") |
OJ puka si ("is deep") |
*puka ("deep") |
| numb | ENK kwop ("is numb, stiff from cold") |
OJ kopor ("freezes") |
*kəpə ("is numb") |
| slope | ENK swok ("droops, becomes slanted down") |
OJ saka ("down slope") |
*səka ("slope") |
| soaks | ENK chwuk ("gets wet") |
OJ tuke ("soaks it") |
*cuku ("soaks") |
| traps | ENK kali ("fish trap") |
OJ kar ("traps, hunts, catches an animal") |
*kara ("traps, hunts") |
| ground | MK mith ("base, bottom") |
PJ *mita ("ground, dry earth") |
*mita ("ground") |
| (kin prefix) | PK *a ("kinship prefix") |
OJ a ("my; kinship prefix") |
*a ("my; kinship prefix") |
| land | PK *na ("land, ground") |
pre-OJ *na ("earth, land") |
*na ("land, ground") |
| deceived | MK swok ("is deceived"), swokí ("deceives it") |
MJ sukas ("deceives it") |
*sok ("is deceived") |
| dreams | MJ skwú ("dreams") |
MJ suk ("is infatuated, has passion"), suki ("refinement; lust, passion") |
*sɨku ("fantasizes, idealizes") |
In addition to the above, there may be a relation between the words for morning (朝, asa; 아침, achim). A historical variant in Korean may have been pronounced "asa" (see: Asadal).
There is a minority theory attributing the name of the city Nara to a loanword from Korean (see: Nara, Nara#Etymology).
Numerals
editSimilarities have been drawn between the four attested numerals of Goguryeo, an ancient Korean relative, and its equivalents in Old Japanese.[20][21]
| Numeral | Goguryeo | Old Japanese |
|---|---|---|
| 3 | mil | mi1 |
| 5 | uc | itu |
| 7 | na-nin | nana |
| 10 | dok | to2 / to2wo |
Note: See Jōdai Tokushu Kanazukai for information on Old Japanese subscript notation.
Writing
editBoth languages use, to some extent, a combination of native scripts and Chinese characters.
Korean is mostly written in the Korean featural alphabet (known as Hangul in South Korea and Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea). The traditional hanja (Chinese characters adapted for Korean) are sometimes used in South Korea, but only for specific purposes such as to clarify homophones (especially in TV show subtitles), linguistic or historic study, artistic expression, legal documents, and newspapers. Native Korean words do not use hanja anymore. In North Korea, the hanja have been largely suppressed in an attempt to remove Chinese influence, although they are still used in some cases and the number of hanja taught in North Korean schools is greater than that of South Korean schools.[22]
Japanese is written with a combination of kanji (Chinese characters adapted for Japanese) and kana (two writing systems representing the same sounds, composed primarily of syllables, each used for different purposes).[23][24] Unlike Korean hanja, however, kanji can be used to write both Sino-Japanese words and native Japanese words.
Historically, both Korean and Japanese were written solely with Chinese characters, with the writing experiencing a gradual mutation through centuries into its modern form.[25]
Honorifics
editBoth languages have similar elaborate, multilevel systems of honorifics, and furthermore both Korean and Japanese also separate the concept of honorifics from formality in speech and writing in their own ways (See Korean speech levels and Honorific speech in Japanese § Grammatical overview). They are cited as the two most elaborate honorific systems, perhaps unrivaled by any other languages.[26] It has been argued that certain honorific words may share a common origin.[27] Uniquely, the honorifics rely heavily on changing verb conjugations rather than only using t-v distinction or other common methods of signifying honorifics. See Korean honorifics and Japanese honorifics.
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ Andrew Logie (November 22, 2013). "Are Korean and Japanese related? The Altaic hypothesis continued". Koreanology. Retrieved February 17, 2016.
- ^ Kornicki, Peter. Aston, Cambridge and Korea Archived May 29, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Poppe 1965:137
- ^ a b Martin, Samuel (1990).
- ^ Whitman, John (1985).
- ^ E. Riley, Barbara (2004).
- ^ Starostin, Sergei (Moscow, 1991). The Altaic Problem and the Origins of the Japanese Language.
- ^ Georg et al. 1999:72, 74
- ^ "While 'Altaic' is repeated in encyclopedias and handbooks most specialists in these languages no longer believe that the three traditional supposed Altaic groups, Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic, are related." Lyle Campbell & Mauricio J. Mixco, A Glossary of Historical Linguistics (2007, University of Utah Press), pg. 7.
- ^ "When cognates proved not to be valid, Altaic was abandoned, and the received view now is that Turkic, Mongolian, and Tungusic are unrelated." Johanna Nichols, Linguistic Diversity in Space and Time (1992, Chicago), pg. 4.
- ^ "Careful examination indicates that the established families, Turkic, Mongolian, and Tungusic, form a linguistic area (called Altaic)...Sufficient criteria have not been given that would justify talking of a genetic relationship here." R.M.W. Dixon, The Rise and Fall of Languages (1997, Cambridge), pg. 32.
- ^ "...[T]his selection of features does not provide good evidence for common descent" and "we can observe convergence rather than divergence between Turkic and Mongolic languages--a pattern than is easily explainable by borrowing and diffusion rather than common descent", Asya Pereltsvaig, Languages of the World, An Introduction (2012, Cambridge) has a good discussion of the Altaic hypothesis (pp. 211-216).
- ^ Robbeets, Martine and Bouckaert, Remco. Bayesian phylolinguistics reveals the internal structure of the Transeurasian family Archived July 27, 2020, at the Wayback Machine, Robbeets, Martine et al. 2021 Triangulation supports agricultural spread of the Transeurasian languages, Nature 599, 616–621
- ^ Tian, Zheng; Tao, Yuxin; Zhu, Kongyang; Jacques, Guillaume; Ryder, Robin J.; de la Fuente, José Andrés Alonso; Antonov, Anton; Xia, Ziyang; Zhang, Yuxuan; Ji, Xiaoyan; Ren, Xiaoying; He, Guanglin; Guo, Jianxin; Wang, Rui; Yang, Xiaomin; Zhao, Jing; Xu, Dan; Gray, Russell D.; Zhang, Menghan; Wen, Shaoqing; Wang, Chuan-Chao; Pellard, Thomas (June 12, 2022), Triangulation fails when neither linguistic, genetic, nor archaeological data support the Transeurasian narrative, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, doi:10.1101/2022.06.09.495471, S2CID 249649524
- ^ Bernard Comrie: "Introduction", p. 7 and 9 in Comrie (1990).
- ^ S. Tomlin, Russell. Surveyed in the 1980s.
- ^ Introducing English Linguistics International Student Edition by Charles F. Meyer
- ^ Russell Tomlin, "Basic Word Order: Functional Principles", Croom Helm, London, 1986, page 22
- ^ Francis-Ratte, Alexander Takenobu (2016). Proto-Korean-Japanese: A New Reconstruction of the Common Origin of the Japanese and Korean Languages (Thesis). The Ohio State University.
- ^ Shinmura, Izuru (1916). "國語及び朝 鮮語の數詞について [Regarding numerals in Japanese and Korean]". Geibun. 7.2–7.4.
- ^ Yi, Ki-Mun (1972). "Kugosa Kaesol [Introduction to the history of Korean]". Seoul: Minjung Sogwan.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Hannas 1997: 68. "Although North Korea has removed Chinese characters from its written materials, it has, paradoxically, ended up with an educational program that teaches more characters than either South Korea or Japan, as Table 2 shows."
- ^ Advances in Psychology Research. Google Books. Books.google.co.uk. Retrieved on 2013-08-24.
- ^ Learning Japanese in the Network Society. Google Books. Books.google.co.uk. Retrieved on 2013-08-24.
- ^ The Handbook of Korean Linguistics By Jaehoon Yeon
- ^ Brown, Lucien (2008). "Contrasts Between Korean and Japanese Honorifics". Rivista Degli Studi Orientali. 81 (1/4): 369–385. JSTOR 41913346.
- ^ "Grammaticalization in Sentence-Final Politeness Marking in Korean and Japanese".