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China–Syria relations

China–Syria relations are foreign relations between China and Syria. The nationalist government of China recognized Syria in 1946. Diplomatic relations between both countries were established on August 1, 1956. China has an embassy in Damascus and Syria has an embassy in Beijing, the two governments generally maintaining a friendly political and economic relationship for the last several decades, which continues to endure despite the Syrian civil war.[a]

Chinese–Syrian relations
Map indicating locations of China and Syria

China
Syria
Diplomatic mission
Embassy of China in DamascusEmbassy of Syria in Beijing
Envoy
Ambassador Shi Hongwei and Special Envoy on the Middle East Zhai JunAmbassador Mohammad Hassaneh Khalil Haddam

Diplomatic ties

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See also: China–Arab States Cooperation Forum and China's Special Envoy on the Middle East Issue

Syria did not recognize the People's Republic of China when it was founded in 1949.[2] Following the Bandung Conference in 1955 their diplomatic relations improved which led to the sign of trade agreements.[2] Next year Syria recognized China.[2]

In addition to more typical diplomatic ties, in the early stages of the Syrian civil war, China's Special Envoy on the Middle East Issue Wu Sike dealt with Syrian issues.[3] His successor Gong Xiaosheng continued to make Syrian diplomatic issues a priority until 2016, when China appointed a separate Special Envoy for the Syrian Crisis, Xie Xiaoyan.[4][5] On 2 September 2019, Zhai Jun was appointed as the Chinese Special Envoy to the Middle East Issue, succeeding Gong Xiaosheng.[6] [7]

Syria participates in the China-Arab States Cooperation Forum (CASCF), which is the primary multilateral cooperation body between China and the Arab states.[8] Although the Arab states primarily coordinate in CASCF through the Arab League, Syria coordinated individually between 2011 and 2023 due to the suspension of its Arab League membership.[9] In 2023, Syria participated on CASCF summit in Chengdu as member of Arab League for the first time since 2011.[10][11] On 22 September 2023, China and Syria jointly announced the establishment of a strategic partnership.[12][better source needed]

In 2004, Syrian President Bashar al-Assad visited China, the first visit by a Syrian head of state since the establishment of diplomatic relations.[13]

President Assad made his second official visit to China between 21 and 26 September 2023, the first high-level encounter since the civil war. Assad alongside his wife Asma al-Assad attended the opening ceremony of the 19th Asian Games in Hangzhou. The next day he met CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping for in-depth talks, and also led a delegation of Syrian officials to discuss economic relations to rebuild war-torn Syria. Xi said relations between the two countries "have withstood the test of international changes" and China's foreign ministry remarked that Assad's visit will take bilateral relations to a "new level".[13]

Economic relations

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China and Syria have significant trade relations. The total volume of import and export between China and Syria in 2001 was US$223,190,000, of which the Chinese export was US$223,180,000, and import US$10,000. China has helped Syria in building some projects such as textile mill and stadium. China currently has contracted to build a hydraulic power station and a rubber tire factory.

In 2009, mutual trade between the two countries was worth nearly $2.2 billion according to figures from the International Monetary Fund, and similar trade volumes were expected by the Syrian Ministry of Economy for 2010. The trade, however, is almost entirely one way. Exports from Syria to China made up less than 1 percent of the total trade volume at $5.6 million, while exports from China to Syria were worth $2.2 billion making China Syria's main importer.[14][15][16] China is actively involved in Syria's oil industry. China National Petroleum Corporation is a joint venture partner with Syria's national oil company and Royal Dutch Shell in the Al-Furat Petroleum Company, the main oil producing consortium in the country.[17] The Al-Furat consortium produces some 100,000 barrels per day (bpd).[18] Sinochem is another Chinese oil company that has been very active in recent oil exploration tenders. China's CNPC and Sinopec are helping to revive output under rehabilitation contracts for small mature oil fields in Syria.[17]

In 1991 China sold a miniature neutron source reactor called SRR-1 to Syria.[19] In 2015 Syria stated its willingness to send back the uranium to China in the aftermath of its disarmament of its chemical weapons.[20] 10 July 2018, CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping pledged to provide CN¥600 million ($91 million) in financial aid to Jordan, Lebanon, Syria and Yemen, as part of a model "oil and gas plus" to revive economic growth in the Middle East.[21] By 2021, China's share of Syrian exports was minimal.[22] In 2021, China was the second biggest import partner of Syria with a share of 11.1%.[22]

After over a decade of civil war in Syria, the question of who will be in charge of the reconstruction has arisen over and over again (though any practical activity in that direction was suspended during the acute stage of the coronavirus crisis). China's position on this issue can be discerned by looking at its prewar relations with Syria and the way it has behaved during the war.[23][24]

Following the Chinese-led normalisation of ties between Iran, Saudi Arabia and other Arab states of the Persian Gulf in March 2023, and the readmission of Syria to the Arab League, Syria is following the trend to end its isolation from other Middle Eastern and Asian countries and already joined China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in January 2022.[25]

After the comprehensive strategic partnership agreement, Sino-Syrian relations will primarily focus on economic cooperation to execute challenging infrastructure projects including electric power generation, gas sector, technology, trade, industries, housing and agriculture in various fields. China will also "support the government's economic, social and infrastructure reconstruction efforts".[26]

Military relations

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Chinese Muslims fought against Japan in World War II. In order to gain backing for China in Muslim countries, Egypt, Syria, and Turkey was visited by Hui Muslim Ma Fuliang (馬賦良)[27] and Uyghur Muslim Isa Yusuf Alptekin in 1939.[28] The Hindu leaders Tagore and Gandhi and Muslim Jinnah both discussed the war with the Chinese Muslim delegation under Ma Fuliang while in Turkey İsmet İnönü met with the Chinese Muslim delegation.[29] Newspapers in China reported the visit.[30] Ma Fuliang and Isa were working for Zhu Jiahua.[31]

The bombardment of Chinese Muslims by the warplanes of the Japanese was reported in the newspapers of Syria. Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon were all toured by the delegation. The Foreign Minister, Prime Minister, and President of Syria met with the Chinese Muslim delegation after they came via Egypt in May 1939. Gandhi and Jinnah met with the Hui Ma Fuliang and Uyghur Isa Alptekin as they denounced Japan.[32] Ma Fuliang, Isa Alptekin, Wang Zengshan, Xue Wenbo, and Lin Zhongming all went to Egypt to denounce Japan in front of the Arab and Islamic words.[33]

In 1969, then chief of staff Mustafa Tlass led a military mission to Beijing, and secured weapons deals with the Chinese government.[34][35][36] In a move calculated to deliberately antagonize the Soviets to stay out of the succession dispute then going on in Syria, Mustafa Tlass allowed himself to be photographed waving Mao Zedong's Little Red Book, just two months after bloody clashes between Chinese and Soviet armies on the Ussuri river.[37][38] The Soviet Union then agreed to back down and sell Syria weapons.

In May 1989, Libya has agreed to finance Syria's purchase of M-9 and M-11 missiles from China. In December 1989, it was reported that Syria and China have signed a contract for 140 M-9 and M-11 missiles to Syria for $170 million.[39] Missile sales to Syria were cancelled under U.S. pressure in 1991.[40][41] In 1992 and 1996, China was reported to be assisting Syrian ballistic missile programs.[42][43]

On October 19, 1999, Defence Minister of China, General Chi Haotian, met with Syrian Defence Minister Mustafa Tlass in Damascus, Syria, to discuss expanding military ties between Syria and China.[44]

In August 2016 Guan Youfei, Director of the Office for International Military Cooperation of China's Central Military Commission, stated that: "The Chinese and Syrian militaries traditionally have a friendly relationship, and the Chinese military is willing to keep strengthening exchanges and cooperation with the Syrian Armed Forces".[45]

By 2022, Chinese military advisors were reportedly in Syria to rebuild its military installations and to train their Syrian counterparts on a wide range of weapons purchased from China, including rocket launchers, machine guns and sniper rifles. It also included further cooperation between SSRC and China over Syria's ballistic missile program.[46]

Security cooperation

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Syrian Civil War

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Since his appointment to the newly created position in 2016, China's Special Envoy for the Syria Crisis Xie Xiaoyan has focused on diplomatic efforts including: achieving a cease fire, facilitating a political resolution to the conflict, humanitarian assistance, counterterrorism activities, reconstruction, and condemning chemical weapons use.[47] Xie emphasizes the need for a full investigation of alleged chemical weapons use by the Assad government.[47] Xie also states that the world must learn from the experiences of Iraq and Syria and avoid regime change via foreign intervention.[48] As its Special Envoy emphasizes, China's position is that a political solution must be reached that respects Syria's sovereignty and rights to noninterference and nonintervention, consistent with China's Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence.[49]

China also views counter-terrorism as a major concern to be addressed in the context of the Syrian crisis.[50] In China's view, some of the Syrian opposition groups (for example, the Turkistan Islamic Party, or TIP) are terrorists.[51] China attributes the uptick in terror in China from 2012 to 2015 as partially due to TIP, particularly via its ties to Uyghurs in Xinjiang.[52] China frames Russia's military intervention in Syria in terms of counter-terrorism operations.[52]

China has also cooperated with Syria on the issue of Uyghur militants joining the Syrian opposition in fighting Assad's government, with estimates of hundreds to several thousand Uyghur fighters in Syria and some working with Tahrir al-Sham.[53][54][55][56] China has also allegedly increased direct military links to Syria's government, although more discreetly than Russia has done.[57] Although China claims it has no military presence in Syria, there were reports of military cooperation in 2016, 2017, and 2018.[58]

In its position as a permanent member of the UN Security Council, China vetoed ten resolutions regarding Syria between 2010 and 2020, consistent with China's trend towards a more vocal position at the UN regarding matters of sovereignty.[59] Syria under Assad was one of 53 countries that backed the Hong Kong national security law at the United Nations in June 2020.[60] The Assad government supported the Chinese government's policies in Xinjiang.[61]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Territories under the control of the Republic of China (ROC): Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu Islands are recognised by the Syrian Arab Republic as part of the PRC.[1]

References

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  1. ^ "Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China". Retrieved 5 November 2021.
  2. ^ a b c David Perez-Des Rosiers (2019). "A Comparative Analysis of China's Relations with Lebanon and Syria". Sociology of Islam. 7 (2–3): 191–192. doi:10.1163/22131418-00702006. S2CID 211308057.
  3. ^ Murphy 2022, p. 108.
  4. ^ "China appoints first special envoy for Syria crisis". Reuters. 29 March 2016. Retrieved 7 August 2022.
  5. ^ Murphy 2022, p. 109.
  6. ^ "Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Geng Shuang's Regular Press Conference on September 2, 2019". Consulate of the People's Republic of China in Belfast. Retrieved 2023-05-01.
  7. ^ Wang, Jin (2019-12-05). "Can China's 'New Idea' Work in the Middle East?". The Diplomat. Retrieved 2023-05-01.
  8. ^ Murphy 2022, p. 56–58.
  9. ^ Murphy 2022, p. 58.
  10. ^ "Syria participates in Arab-Chinese Cooperation Forum in Chengdu, China". SANA. 29 May 2023. Retrieved 30 May 2023.
  11. ^ "بمشاركة سورية.. منتدى التعاون العربي – الصيني والحوار السياسي الإستراتيجي ينطلق غداً". Al Watan Newspaper. 28 May 2023. Retrieved 30 May 2023.
  12. ^ Xinhua. "Xi, Assad jointly announce China-Syria strategic partnership-Xinhua". english.news.cn. Retrieved 2023-09-22.
  13. ^ a b Cash, Joe (2023-09-21). "Syria's Assad in China, seeks exit from diplomatic isolation". Reuters. Retrieved 2023-09-22.
  14. ^ Kassab, Dana (December 2010). "Enter the Dragon". Syria Today. Retrieved 18 September 2011.[permanent dead link‍]
  15. ^ "Syria: EU Bilateral Trade and Trade with the World" (PDF). European Commission. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 August 2017. Retrieved 18 September 2011.
  16. ^ "The World Factbook". CIA. Retrieved 17 September 2011.
  17. ^ a b "Factbox - Syria's energy sector". Reuters. 5 September 2011. Retrieved 18 September 2011.[permanent dead link‍]
  18. ^ Syria, 2010. London: Oxford Business Group. 2010. p. 103. ISBN 978-1-907065-16-3.
  19. ^ "SRR-1 - Facilities - NTI". Archived from the original on 20 October 2015. Retrieved 17 April 2017.
  20. ^ Slavin, Barbara (22 April 2015). "Syria agrees to return highly enriched uranium to China". Al-Monitor. Retrieved 17 April 2017.
  21. ^ "China's Xi pledges $20 billion in loans to revive Middle East". Reuters. 10 July 2018. Retrieved 10 March 2022.
  22. ^ a b "Foreign trade partners of Syria". The Observatory of Economic Complexity. Retrieved 19 July 2022.
  23. ^ Yellinek, Roie (2020-04-01). "Will China Rebuild Syria?". Begin-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies. Retrieved 2020-05-08.
  24. ^ Yellinek, Roie (23 March 2020). "Opinion – China and the Rebuilding of Syria". E-International Relations. Retrieved 2020-05-08.
  25. ^ Sharma V (4 February, 2022). "Syria Joins China’s Belt and Road Initiative" diplomatist.ch. Accessed Sep 23 2023.
  26. ^ "China's Xi offers to help Assad rebuild Syria, regain regional status". Nikkei Asia. 22 September 2023. Retrieved 22 September 2023.
  27. ^ Hsiao-ting Lin (13 September 2010). Modern China's Ethnic Frontiers: A Journey to the West. Routledge. pp. 126–. ISBN 978-1-136-92393-7.
  28. ^ Hsiao-ting Lin (4 August 2010). Modern China's Ethnic Frontiers: A Journey to the West. Taylor & Francis. pp. 90–. ISBN 978-0-203-84497-7.
  29. ^ huizu360.com. "回族知识条目-中国回族文献库". Archived from the original on 19 September 2016. Retrieved 17 April 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  30. ^ "歡迎艾沙馬賦良 暨近東各國新疆歸國學生 葉朱二氏昨舉行茶會 :: 民國38年前重要剪報資料庫". Retrieved 17 April 2017.
  31. ^ "国民党派系在青海的斗争". Archived from the original on 13 May 2016. Retrieved 17 April 2017.
  32. ^ "西北回族在抗战中的贡献". Archived from the original on 2017-08-27. Retrieved 2016-08-24.
  33. ^ 中国论文网. "中国首批留埃学生林仲明_中国论文网". Retrieved 17 April 2017.
  34. ^ Peter Mansfield, Royal Institute of International Affairs. Information Dept (1973). The Middle East: a political and economic survey. Oxford University Press. p. 480. ISBN 0-19-215933-X. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  35. ^ George Meri Haddad, Jūrj Marʻī Ḥaddād (1973). Revolutions and Military Rule in the Middle East: The Arab states pt. I: Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and Jordan, Volume 2. R. Speller. p. 380. ISBN 9780831500603. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  36. ^ Europa Publications Limited (1997). The Middle East and North Africa, Volume 43. Europa Publications. p. 905. ISBN 1-85743-030-1. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  37. ^ Robert Owen Freedman (1982). The Soviet policy toward the Middle East since 1970. Praeger. p. 34. ISBN 9780030613623. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  38. ^ Robert Owen Freedman (1991). Moscow and the Middle East: Soviet policy since the invasion of Afghanistan. CUP Archive. p. 40. ISBN 0-521-35976-7. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  39. ^ FAS Syria
  40. ^ 2004. REPORT TO CONGRESS of the. U.S.-CHINA ECONOMIC AND. SECURITY REVIEW COMMISSION. p.145
  41. ^ “Future of United States-China Policy”. May 20, 1993. Washington, D.C. p.162
  42. ^ Dinshaw Mistry (2005). Containing Missile Proliferation: Strategic Technology, Security Regimes, and International Cooperation in Arms Control. University of Washington Press. p. 106. ISBN 0-295-98507-0. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  43. ^ Anthony H. Cordesman (1999). Containing Iran's military forces in transition: conventional threats and weapons of mass destruction. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 262. ISBN 0-275-96529-5. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  44. ^ "China defense minister visits Israel". Archived 2012-05-30 at the Wayback Machine World Tribune. Thursday, October 21, 1999
  45. ^ "China says seeks closer military ties with Syria". Reuters. 2016-08-16. Retrieved 2023-10-19.
  46. ^ "New Chinese aid for Syria sets off alarms in Israel". Breaking Defense. 28 July 2022. Retrieved 10 August 2024.
  47. ^ a b Murphy 2022, p. 116.
  48. ^ Murphy 2022, p. 116–117.
  49. ^ Murphy 2022, p. 117–118.
  50. ^ Murphy 2022, p. 118–119.
  51. ^ Murphy 2022, p. 118.
  52. ^ a b Murphy 2022, p. 119.
  53. ^ Al-Ghadhawi, Abdullah (2020-03-18). "Uighur Jihadists in Syria". New Lines Institute. Retrieved 2024-12-10.
  54. ^ Duchatel, Mathieu (2019-01-25). "China's Foreign Fighters Problem". War on the Rocks. Retrieved 2024-12-10.
  55. ^ Blanchard, Ben (August 20, 2018). "China envoy says no accurate figure on Uighurs fighting in Syria". Reuters. Retrieved February 27, 2021.
  56. ^ Shih, Gerry (December 23, 2017). "AP Exclusive: Uighurs fighting in Syria take aim at China". AP News. Retrieved February 27, 2021.
  57. ^ Pauley, Logan; Marks, Jesse (August 20, 2018). "Is China Increasing Its Military Presence in Syria?". The Diplomat. Retrieved February 27, 2021.
  58. ^ Murphy 2022, p. 120.
  59. ^ Murphy 2022, p. 207.
  60. ^ Lawler, Dave (2 July 2020). "The 53 countries supporting China's crackdown on Hong Kong". Axios. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
  61. ^ Colville, Alex (2023-10-03). "China brings Syria back on to the world stage with a red carpet welcome". The China Project. Retrieved 2024-12-08.

Bibliography

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