35°52′54″N 106°17′54″W / 35.88167°N 106.29833°W A criticality accident occurred on December 30, 1958, at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) in Los Alamos, New Mexico, in the United States. It is one of 60 known criticality events that have occurred globally outside the controlled conditions of a nuclear reactor or test; though it was the third such event that took place in 1958 after events on June 16[1] at the Y-12 Plant in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and on October 15 at the Vinča Nuclear Institute in Vinča, Yugoslavia. The accident involved plutonium compounds dissolved in liquid chemical reagents; within 35 hours, it killed chemical operator Cecil Kelley by severe radiation poisoning.
Context of the accident
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Cecil Kelley was a 38-year-old chemical operator with 11 years of experience; he had spent more than half of this time at LANL, where one of his duties was to operate a large, 1-m3 capacity, stainless-steel mixing tank. The tank contained residual plutonium-239 (239Pu) from other experiments and applications, along with various organic solvents and acids in aqueous solution for the purpose of recovery and reuse. In pure form and under normal temperature and pressure, plutonium is a solid, silvery metal. It tarnishes quickly when exposed to air and readily dissolves in concentrated hydrochloric, hydroiodic, and perchloric acids,[2] as well as others. On the day of the accident, the mixing tank was supposed to contain a "lean" concentration of dissolved plutonium (≤0.1 g of plutonium per liter of solution) in a bath of highly corrosive nitric acid and a caustic, stabilized, aqueous, organic emulsion.[3] The concentration of plutonium in the mixing tank was nearly 200 times higher than Kelley anticipated, however, as a result of at least two improper transfers of plutonium waste to the tank[4] from undetermined sources. Also, the plutonium was distributed unevenly, with the upper layer of solution containing especially high concentrations, amounting to a total of >3 kg of plutonium, dangerously close to criticality. When Kelley switched on the mixer, a vortex began to form. The denser aqueous layer within the tank was forced outward and upward forming a "bowl", and the less dense, plutonium-rich layer was drawn toward the vessel's center.[5]
Supercritical mass
editAmong other ideal characteristics, the optimal shape for any fissile substance to become supercritical is the shape of least surface area, a sphere. Although the plutonium-rich solution was not spherical, the vortex made it thicker in the center, and this, along with the corresponding increase in density and the neutron reflectivity of the aqueous layer surrounding it, caused the dissolved plutonium to reach and cross the criticality threshold in approximately one second: neutrons within the mixture began to bombard the nuclei of the solution's plutonium atoms with sufficient frequency to cause these atoms to break apart and release other neutrons in a sustained nuclear chain reaction lasting only 200 microseconds but releasing a huge burst of neutrons and gamma radiation. Such an uncontrolled release of nuclear energy is often referred to as an excursion.[5] Within 3 seconds, the layers in the mixture had become dispersed, and no further excursions were possible.
Events of the excursion
editKelley was standing on a ladder looking at the contents of the mixing tank through a viewing window when the excursion occurred. Two other technicians working in the laboratory witnessed a bright flash of blue light followed by a thud. The burst either caused Kelley to collapse or knocked him off the ladder, and he had fallen to the ground. He arose disoriented, and apparently switched the mixer off and then back on again before running out of the building. The other technicians found Kelley outdoors in a state of ataxia (uncoordinated muscle movement) and repeating the phrase, "I'm burning up! I'm burning up!"[5]
Because the possibility of an excursion in a mixing tank had been considered to be virtually non-existent, the technicians decided that Kelley must have somehow been exposed to either alpha radiation, the acid bath, or both, and one of them took him to a chemical shower while the other switched off the mixer. Other staff members arrived at the scene within minutes to find Kelley virtually unconscious. The bright pink color of his face indicated erythema (redness of the skin) brought on by cutaneous radiation syndrome.[5]
Any accident at Los Alamos involving a radioactive substance requires an immediate investigation by a team of radiation monitoring staff. Even before Kelley was taken to an emergency room, these staff members began examining the mixing room with radiation detectors capable of assessing the alpha radiation from escaped plutonium. Alpha activity would have been widespread if any of the plutonium mixture had escaped the tank, but none was found. Eighteen minutes later, the team began searching for gamma (γ) radiation, and were surprised to find intense γ radiation near the mixing tank, on the order of tens of rads per hour. Such intense γ radiation could only be produced by significant amounts of fission product; this, plus the otherwise inexplicable flash of light reported by the other two technicians, was enough to confirm that a criticality accident had occurred.[5]
Kelley's clinical course
editFor the first hour and forty minutes after the accident, Kelley was incoherent, and went through waves of intense vomiting and retching. He then stabilized, was once again able to converse normally, and was able to have his pulse taken and his blood drawn. The blood sample indicated that Kelley had been exposed to about 9 Gy from fast neutrons and 27 Gy from gamma rays; a total of 36 Gy. For an adult human, exposure to 2 Gy from an unfocused radiation source such as an excursion will cause radiation sickness but is not definitely lethal; about 4.5 to 5 Gy is the LD50, or median lethal dose; 8 Gy is the LD99.[6][7][8] Kelley had received more than 7 times the LD50. Although the medical staff in the emergency room took steps to ease his pain with pethidine and morphine, previous research on radiation exposure in animals indicated Kelley's death was inevitable. Within six hours his lymphocytes were all but gone. A bone biopsy 24 hours after the incident produced bone marrow that was watery and contained no red blood cells. Numerous blood transfusions had no lasting helpful effect: Only 35 hours after his initial exposure and after a final bout of intense restlessness, agitation, sweating, becoming ashen-skinned, and having an irregular pulse, Kelley died of heart failure.[9][10]
Implications
editAn investigation into the circumstances of the accident never resulted in a public explanation of how the mixing tank became filled with such a high concentration of plutonium; initially, the blame was placed on Kelley himself.
Robert L. Nance, a colleague of Kelley, was the chemist assigned to recover the remaining plutonium in the tank. This task revealed to him that the solvent in the tank was not as potent as expected (possibly broken down by extended exposure to radiation), so there may have been a buildup to a higher concentration for that reason. The report prepared by Nance was not approved to be published.[11]
Although Kelley had neither ingested nor inhaled any plutonium during the accident, he, like many laboratory technicians at Los Alamos, had been exposed to minute particles of airborne plutonium over the course of several years. An event such as this was therefore considered an "experiment of opportunity."[4] Careful records were kept of every moment of Kelley's life from accident through death and onto the autopsy table. His organs were kept for pathological examination and their plutonium levels analyzed. The results of these tissue analyses were considered fundamental to understanding what would happen to a population during a nuclear attack and impossible to obtain any other way. Although the bone marrow biopsy of Kelley's sternum was performed under the premise that the physicians wished to determine if he were a candidate for a bone marrow transplant, Kelley's death was inevitable, and an actual transplant was not seriously considered.[4]
Court case
editKelley's death left a widow, Doris Kelley, and two children, then age 8 years and 18 months. Doris was not notified while he was still alive that her husband had been irradiated, and only learned of his death from the laboratory authority when representatives visited her at her home shortly afterward. Assuring her verbally that they would provide her with financial compensation for her husband's death, they convinced her not to file any lawsuits against the laboratory. Despite such assurances, the only compensation Doris received was a lifetime-level position working for the lab itself at near-poverty levels, until she had to retire for health reasons.[citation needed]
In 1996, Doris Kelley and her daughter, Katie Kelley-Mareau, filed a lawsuit against Clarence Lushbaugh, the pathologist who performed the autopsy on Cecil Kelley.[12][13] The case alleged the misconduct of doctors, the hospital, and the administration of Los Alamos in removing organs from the deceased without consent from next-of-kin over a span of many years (1958–1980).[14][15] Kelley's autopsy was the first instance of this type of post-mortem analysis, but there were many more performed by Lushbaugh and others in later years at Los Alamos.[13] During a deposition for the case, Lushbaugh, when asked who gave him the authority to take eight pounds (3.6 kilograms) of organs and tissue from Kelley's body, said, "God gave me permission." The class action suit was settled by the defendants for about $9.5 million in 2002 and an additional $800,000 in 2007. None of the defendants admitted any wrongdoing.
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ Accidental Radiation Excursion at the Y-12 Plant (PDF) (Report). 1958. Y-1234.
- ^ Miner, William N.; Schonfeld, Fred W. (1968). "Plutonium". In Clifford A. Hampel (ed.). The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. New York: Reinhold Book Corporation. pp. 540–546. LCCN 68-29938.
- ^ McLaughlin, Thomas P.; Monahan, Sean P.; Pruvost, Normal L. (May 2000). A review of criticality accidents: 2000 revision (PDF). Los Alamos, New Mexico: Los Alamos National Laboratory. p. 16.
- ^ a b c Welsome, Eileen (1999). The plutonium files: America's secret medical experiments in the Cold War. New York: Dell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-307-76733-2.
- ^ a b c d e McInroy, James F. (1995). "A true measure of plutonium exposure: the human tissue analysis program at Los Alamos" (PDF). Los Alamos Science. 23: 235–255.
- ^ "European Nuclear Society". European Nuclear Society. 5 June 2019.
- ^ "United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission". United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
- ^ Harold, Catherine, ed. (2009). Professional guide to diseases (9th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-0-7817-7899-2. OCLC 475981026.
- ^ Shipman, T.L. (1961). Diagnosis and treatment of acute radiation injury. New York: International Documents Service. pp. 113–133. OCLC 2717622.
- ^ "The Cecil Kelley Criticality Accident: The Origin of the Los Alamos Human Tissue Analysis Program" (PDF). Los Alamos Science. 23: 250–251. 1995.
- ^ Private conversation with R. L. Nance
- ^ Doris E. Kelley, et al. v Regents of the University of California, et al, settled (Santa Fe County District Court, New Mexico 1996). SF-96-2430. This case was settled by all defendants.
- ^ a b Tucker, Todd (2009). Atomic America: How a Deadly Explosion and a Feared Admiral Changed the Course of Nuclear History. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-1-4165-4433-3. See summary: [1]
- ^ Andrews, L; Nelkin, D (1998). "Whose body is it anyway? Disputes over body tissue in a biotechnology age" (PDF). Lancet. 351 (9095): 53–7. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)78066-1. PMID 9433437. S2CID 27318908. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-08-09. Retrieved 2011-02-04.
- ^ See Stewart Settlement Archived 2011-02-07 at the Wayback Machine, the second of 2 settlements in this case.