The St. Croix Labor Riot of 1878, also known as the Fireburn, was a crucial historical event of resistance and labor hardship in the Danish West Indies, illustrating the lasting effects of the slavery and systematic exploitation of liberated laborers. Even after emancipation was declared in 1848, former enslaved peoples of African descent were forced into contracts that would keep them working and living in harsh conditions. On October 1, 1878, Contract Day, a protest against these injustices erupted into a rebellion, led by the three women dubbed the "Four Queens": Mary Thomas, Axelene "Agnes" Salomon, and Mathilda Mcbean, Susana Abramsen. This uprising is still remembered today as a symbol of resistance to systematic oppression.[1]
| Fireburn | |||
|---|---|---|---|
 Illustration from Illustreret Tidende, November 1878. | |||
| Date | 1 October – mid-October 1878 | ||
| Location | Danish West Indies, modern day US Virgin Islands | ||
| Caused by | Lack of freedom for the laborers, debt peonage | ||
| Goals | More freedom to the laborers | ||
| Methods | Deadly riots, protests | ||
| Resulted in | Revolt suppressed 879 acres burned | ||
| Parties | |||
| |||
| Lead figures | |||
"Queen Mary" Thomas | |||
| Casualties and losses | |||
| |||
| 14 women 60 laborers | |||
Events leading up to the riot
editDuring this period, St. Croix was controlled by white Danish colonials, however, a large portion of the population consisted of both enslaved Indigenous people, who were descendants of Arawak and Carib Indians, and slaves imported from Africa by the settlers.[2] The Indigenous population, though marginalized and displaced by colonial practices, played a crucial role in shaping the cultural landscape of St. Croix. The integration between both indigenous and colonial cultures was not merely a sign of oppression but also showcased resiliency and identity formation for the enslaved peoples, showcasing how both people of African descent and the colonized native born people of St. Croix resisted complete creolization. This is especially important to recognize due to the fact that the opposition towards fully adapting colonial ideals directly relates to also resisting the hierarchal makeup of the region.[3] Throughout the pre-emancipation period, Danish colonials enforced these frameworks by using "space to reinforce the social order, make claims to identity, and impose meanings on the cultural categories that people create" which heavily influenced the hierarchal structures that became embedded in the frameworks of not only the government, but the country as a whole.[4] St. Croix was a place that was entirely built on the basis of slave labor and racial inequalities, serving as a microcosm of colonial exploitation where the intersections of race, labor, and power perpetuated systemic oppression.
However, in July 1848, the slaves of the Danish West Indies staged a large-scale uprising against the oppressive government. This was mainly influenced by both the Haitian Revolution and a revolution in nearby Martinique, where in both, enslaved peoples gained freedom from France. This revolt was led by a man called John Gottlieb, better known by fellow enslaved individuals as "Buddahoe", who marched with thousands of enslaved people to Frederiksted, demanding immediate freedom. These efforts culminated in then Governor-General Peter von Scholten announcing emancipation, declaring all people in the Danish West Indies as free.[6] For many laborers this freedom was short-lived, as plantation owners, who sought to maintain control, quickly began devising new regulations. Governor-General Hansen held a conference in fear that the newly freed people would not work or would want better wages. This resulted in the Labor Act,[7] effective January 1849. The now free laborers were forced by law to sign contracts that bound them and their families to the same plantations where they had previously worked, causing the now free laborers to become debt peon slaves again in all but name, in turn reinforcing a 'slave-master relationship'.[8] These contracts enforced the already present racial hierarchies put in place in the Virgin Islands, where the free people of color navigated a complex landscape that mitigated their ability to gain social and political standing. This system stems from the inherent marginalization of the Indigenous people by Danish settler colonials, and the existence of a category of free indigenous people disrupted the system created in which "white was virtually a synonym for freedom, power, and privilege."[4]
The Labor Act also created fixed salaries and labor conditions for all plantation workers, eliminating any opportunities for bargaining. As plantation work became increasingly unattractive, many workers left the island to seek better opportunities. In response, the government made it harder for workers to leave the island, such as charges fees for passports and demanded health certificates. In the fall of 1878, workers demands for increased wages and labor conditioners were once again denied and increasingly strict laws for traveling were imposed.[8][9][7]
Contract Day
editIn October 1878 during Contract Day, an annual holiday,[10] laborers gathered in Frederiksted to demand higher wages and better working conditions. Although it was initially a peaceful gathering, the crowd began to become violent after rumors circulated, including a rumor that a laborer had been hospitalized, but was mistreated and died in police custody. The rioters threw stones and the Danish soldiers retaliated with gunfire. As violence escalated, the soldiers barricaded themselves inside a fort. Unable to scale the gates to access the fort, the rioters turned their focus on the town and began looting it, using torches to burn many buildings and plantations.
On October 4, British, French, and American warships arrived and offered to help stop the riot. But Governor Garde was confident he and his men had the situation under control and turned the ships away, though some soldiers borrowed guns from the British ships. The next day, Garde ordered all laborers to return to their plantations or be declared "rebels". Laborers were forbidden to leave their plantations without written permission from the plantation owner. By mid-October, the riot had died down and peace was returning to the islands.[11][12]
Queens of the Fireburn
editAmong the prominent leaders of the riot were three women, Mary "Queen Mary" Thomas, "Queen Agnes", and "Queen Mathilda." The three were sentenced to prison, and served their terms in Denmark. A folk song from the 1880s, "Queen Mary", was written about Mary's role in the riot.[11][13]
In 2004, historian Wayne James uncovered Danish documents, including photographs of the prison where the women served their sentences, a storybook they wrote, and "a host of other historically significant documents and photos." According to him, these documents reveal the existence of a fourth "queen", Susanna Abramsen, who was known as "Bottom Belly."[14]
Mary Thomas is often regarded as the most prominent leader in the rebellion and an icon to this day. At the time of Fireburn, Mary was in her forties and had three children.[15] Prior to the revolt, Mary had controversial sentences for theft and child mistreatment which historians suggest were used by authorities as a sort of oppression for anyone that opposed their rule.
While not as famous as Queen Mary, Queen Agnes played a prominent role in rallying the workers, particularly in the southern part of the island. The youngest of the queens, Queen Mathilda was only 21 at the time of the rebellion. Along with Queen Agnes, she performed rituals and celebrations during the uprising. Although not known about until recent research brought her name to light, Queen Susanna was another leading figure in the revolt. She was given the nickname "Bottom Belly" which symbolized her strength and resilience.[15]
Aftermath
editThe riots caused great destruction to property on the islands. 879 acres were burned, and the damage caused was estimated at hundreds of thousands of dollars. Direct casualties of the riot include the deaths of 60 black laborers and two soldiers, and 14 women who died in an explosion. In addition, 12 laborers were condemned to death and hanged on October 5, 1878.[12] All 4 of the queens were also incarcerated and imprisoned for their involvement in the riot.[16] A year after Fireburn, in October 1879, new contracts were written that would supposedly increase laborers' wages, but the contracts were weighted in favor of the plantation owners.[17]
The three most significant results of the riots were that the labor contracts would no longer be enforced, laborers could buy land, and labor unions were formed.[18]
Legacy
editThe folk song titled "Queen Mary" is still popularly sung by schoolchildren and musicians across the Virgin Islands, encompassing the lyrics "don't ask me nothing at all, just pass me the match and oil".[15]
In 2018 artists Jeannette Ehlers and La Vaughn Belle unveiled a 7-metre-tall (23 ft) statue of Mary Thomas, titled "I am Queen Mary,"[19] where she is seen seated on a throne with a cane knife and torch. Its installation in Copenhagen made the statue Denmark's first public monument to a black woman.[20] Many aspects of it come from her Afro-Crucian background, where the statues base was built from coral cuts made by enslaved people from St. Croix and her face being formed from facial scans of the artists. The statue itself was the first public monument in Denmark and was created to be used as a form of remembrance of the Fireburn and what happened in St. Croix.[21]
Angela Golden Bryan published a book in 2018 titled: Fireburn The Screenplay, which pays homage to the laborers who participated in the uprising as well as raises awareness of historical injustices.
-
The Three Queens Fountain at Blackbeard's Castle, St. Thomas honors Queens Mary, Agnes, and Mathilda -
T-shirt with Fireburn and Three Queens motif, St. Croix 2015
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ Dixon, Euella (September 12, 2020). "The Fireburn Labor Riot, Virgin Islands (1878)". BlackPast.
- ^ "Virgin Islands - Caribbean, Colonization, Trade | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2024-12-06.
- ^ Lenik, Stephan (2009). "Considering Multiscalar Approaches to Creolization Among Enslaved Laborers at Estate Bethlehem, St. Croix, US Virgin Islands". International Journal of Historical Archaeology. 13 (1): 12–26. doi:10.1007/s10761-008-0070-x. ISSN 1092-7697. JSTOR 20853179.
- ^ a b Wood, Margaret C. (2012). "Mapping the Complexities of Race on the Landscape of the Colonial Caribbean, United States Virgin Islands, 1770-1917". Historical Archaeology. 46 (4): 112–134. doi:10.1007/BF03376881. ISSN 0440-9213. JSTOR 43491349.
- ^ Archives, Danish National (2008-07-09), English: Governor-General Peter von Scholten had this bilingual poster printed immediately on the night of July 3-4, 1848, publicizing his decision to abolish slavery effective immediately. The poster was put up everywhere in the Danish West Indies in the days to come. (The Danish National Archives)., retrieved 2024-12-09
- ^ "The 1848 Story". USVI 175th Emancipation. Retrieved 2024-12-06.
- ^ a b "A historical account of St. Thomas, W. I. : with its rise and progress in commerce, missions and churches, climate and its adaptation to invalids, geological structure, natural history, and botany: and incidental notices of St. Croix and St. Johns, slave insurrections in these islands, emancipation and present condition of the laboring classes | Library of Congress". www.loc.gov. Retrieved 2024-12-07.
- ^ a b Marsh, Clifton E. (1981). "A Socio-Historical Analysis of the Labor Revolt of 1878 in the Danish West Indies". Phylon (1960-). 42 (4): 335–345. doi:10.2307/275012. ISSN 0031-8906. JSTOR 275012.
- ^ Dixon, Euella (September 12, 2020). "The Fireburn Labor Riot, Virgin Islands (1878)". BlackPast.
- ^ Marsh, Clifton E. (1981). "A Socio-Historical Analysis of the Labor Revolt of 1878 in the Danish West Indies". Phylon. 42 (4): 335–345. doi:10.2307/275012. ISSN 0031-8906. JSTOR 275012.
- ^ a b Potter, Susanna. "Danish West Indies after emancipation". Archived from the original on 24 November 2012. Retrieved 11 January 2012.
- ^ a b Dookhan, Isaac (1974). A History of the Virgin Islands of the United States. Canoe Press. pp. 230–231.
- ^ Bastian, Jeannette Allis (30 August 2003). Owning Memory: How a Caribbean Community Lost Its Archives and Found Its History. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. p. 12.
Virgin Islands oral tradition is filled with such heroic, history-telling folk songs as 'Queen Mary,' [...] which celebrates the courageous and semi-mythical woman Mary Thomas, who led the 'Fireburn,' the St. Croix Labor Revolt of 1878.
- ^ "Wayne James Says He's Found a 4th Fireburn 'Queen'". St. Croix Source. St. Croix. 4 August 2004. Retrieved 6 January 2015.
- ^ a b c Marronage (2019-12-02). "Marronage is Resistance Against the Colonizer's Construction of History". Nordisk Tidsskrift for Informationsvidenskab og Kulturformidling. 8 (2): 92–97. doi:10.7146/ntik.v7i2.118484. ISSN 2245-294X.
- ^ Belle, La Vaughn; Navarro, Tami; Sewer, Hadiya; Yanique, Tiphanie (2019-12-02). "Ancestral Queendom: Reflections on the Prison Records of the Rebel Queens of the 1878 Fireburn in St. Croix, USVI (formerly the Danish West Indies)". Nordisk Tidsskrift for Informationsvidenskab og Kulturformidling. 8 (2): 19–36. doi:10.7146/ntik.v7i2.118478. ISSN 2245-294X.
- ^ Jensen, Peter (1998). From Serfdom to Fireburn and Strike: The History of Black Labor in the Danish West Indies 1848-1917. Christiansted, St. Croix: Antilles Press. p. 139.
The liberalization of labor conditions in the 1879, then, did not necessarily result in any improvements in the laborers' conditions, on balance, since it was obtained on the planters' and not the laborers' terms.
- ^ Marsh, Clifton E. (1981). "A Socio-Historical Analysis of the Labor Revolt of 1878 in the Danish West Indies". Phylon (1960-). 42 (4): 335–345. doi:10.2307/275012. ISSN 0031-8906. JSTOR 275012.
- ^ Magazine, Smithsonian; Katz, Brigit. "New Statue Immortalizes Mary Thomas, Who Led a Revolt Against Danish Colonial Rule". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2024-12-09.
- ^ Sorensen, Martin Selsoe (31 March 2018). "Denmark Gets Statue of a 'Rebel Queen' Who Led Fiery Revolt Against Colonialism". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 April 2018.
- ^ White, William A. (2023-01-02). "Remembering Queen Mary: Heritage Conservation, Black People, Denmark, and St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands". Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage. 12: 32–55. doi:10.1080/21619441.2022.2034365. ISSN 2161-9441.
