The voiceless velar fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. It was part of the consonant inventory of Old English and can still be found in some dialects of English, most notably in Scottish English, e.g. in loch, broch or saugh (willow).
| Voiceless velar fricative | |
|---|---|
| x | |
| IPA number | 140 |
| Audio sample | |
| Encoding | |
| Entity (decimal) | x |
| Unicode (hex) | U+0078 |
| X-SAMPA | x |
| Braille |  |
The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨x⟩, the Latin letter x. It is also used in broad transcription instead of the symbol ⟨χ⟩, the Greek chi, for the voiceless uvular fricative.
There is also a voiceless post-velar fricative (also called pre-uvular) in some languages, which can be transcribed as [x̠] or [χ̟]. For voiceless pre-velar fricative (also called post-palatal), see voiceless palatal fricative.
Some scholars also posit the voiceless velar approximant distinct from the fricative, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɰ̊⟩, but this symbol is not suitable in case of the voiceless velar approximant that is unspecified for rounding (the sound represented by the symbol ⟨ɰ̊⟩ is specified as unrounded), which is best transcribed as ⟨x̞⟩, ⟨ɣ̞̊⟩ or ⟨ɣ̊˕⟩ - see voiced velar approximant. The velar approximant can in many cases be considered the semivocalic equivalent of the voiceless variant of the close back unrounded vowel ⟨ɯ̊⟩.
Features
edit
Features of the voiceless velar fricative:
- Its manner of articulation is fricative, which means it is produced by constricting air flow through a narrow channel at the place of articulation, causing turbulence.
- Its place of articulation is velar, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue (the dorsum) at the soft palate.
- Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless; in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds.
- It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
- It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
- Its airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most sounds.
Varieties
edit| IPA | Description |
|---|---|
| x | plain velar fricative |
| xʷ | labialised |
| xʼ | ejective |
| xʷʼ | ejective labialised |
| x̜ʷ | semi-labialised |
| x̹ʷ | strongly labialised |
| xʲ | palatalised |
| xʲʼ | ejective palatalised |
Occurrence
editThe voiceless velar fricative and its labialized variety are postulated to have occurred in Proto-Germanic, the ancestor of the Germanic languages, as the reflex of the Proto-Indo-European voiceless palatal and velar stops and the labialized voiceless velar stop. Thus Proto-Indo-European *ḱr̥nom "horn" and *kʷód "what" became Proto-Germanic *hurnan and *hwat, where *h and *hw were likely [x] and [xʷ]. This sound change is part of Grimm's law.
In Modern Greek, the voiceless velar fricative (with its allophone, the voiceless palatal fricative [ç], occurring before front vowels) originated from the Ancient Greek voiceless aspirated stop /kʰ/ in a sound change that lenited Greek aspirated stops into fricatives.
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Abaza | хьзы /xzë | [xʲzə] | 'name' | ||
| Adyghe | хы /xë | 'six' | |||
| Afrikaans | groot | [χrʊət] | 'big' | ||
| Albanian | gjuha | [ɟuxɑ] | 'language' | Allophone of /h/. See Albanian phonology | |
| Aleut | Atkan dialect | alax | [ɑlɑx] | 'two' | |
| Arabic | Modern Standard | ﺧﻀراء | [xadˤraːʔ] | 'green' (f.) | May be velar, post-velar or uvular, depending on dialect.[1] See Arabic phonology |
| Armenian | խրոխտ/xëroxt | [χəˈɾoχt] | 'brave' | ||
| Assamese | অসমীয়া/oxomia | [ɔxɔmia] | 'Assamese' | ||
| Assyrian | ܚܡܫܐ xemša | [xεmʃa] | 'five' | ||
| Avar | чeхь / čex | [tʃex] | 'belly' | ||
| Azerbaijani | xoş / хош/ﺧﻮش | [xoʃ] | 'pleasant' | ||
| Basque | Some speakers[2] | jan | [xän] | 'to eat' | Either velar or post-velar.[2] For other speakers it's [j ~ ʝ ~ ɟ].[3] |
| Blackfoot[4] | ᖻᖳᐦᓭ / naaáhsa | [naːáxsʌ] | 'my grandparents' | Sometimes /x/ becomes allophone /h/ in beginning of words like "hánnia!" Really! Or becomes allphone /ç/ after i/ii like ihkitsika seven. | |
| Brahui[5] | ﺧﻦ | [xan] | 'eye' | Corresponds to /x/ in Kurukh and /q/ in Malto. | |
| Breton | hor c'hi | [hor xiː] | 'our dog' | ||
| Bulgarian | тихо / tiho | 'quietly' | Described as having "only slight friction" ([x̞]).[6] | ||
| Catalan | kharja | [ˈxɑɾ(d)ʑɐ] | 'kharjah' | Found in loanwords and interjections. See Catalan phonology | |
| Chechen | хан / xan | [xɑːn] | 'time' | ||
| Chinese | Mandarin | 河 / hé | [xɤ˧˥] | 'river' | See Standard Chinese phonology |
| Czech | chlap | [xlap] | 'guy' | See Czech phonology | |
| Danish | Southern Jutlandic | kage | [ˈkʰaːx] | 'cake' | See Sønderjysk dialect |
| Dutch | Standard Belgian[7][8] | acht | [ɑxt] | 'eight' | May be post-palatal [ç̠] instead. In dialects spoken above the rivers Rhine, Meuse and Waal the corresponding sound is a postvelar-uvular fricative trill [ʀ̝̊˖].[8] See Dutch phonology and Hard and soft G in Dutch |
| Southern Netherlands accents[8][9] | |||||
| English | Scottish | loch | [ɫɔx] | 'loch' | Younger speakers may merge this sound with /k/.[10][11] See Scottish English phonology |
| Irish | lough | [lɑx] | 'lough' | Occurs only in Gaelic borrowings. See Irish English phonology | |
| Scouse[12] | book | [bʉːx] | 'book' | A syllable-final allophone of /k/ (lenition). | |
| Esperanto | monaĥo | [moˈnaxo] | 'monk' | See Esperanto phonology | |
| Estonian | jah | [jɑx] | 'yes' | Allophone of /h/. See Estonian phonology | |
| Eyak | duxł | [tʊxɬ] | 'traps' | ||
| Finnish | kahvi | [ˈkɑxʋi] | 'coffee' | Allophone of /h/. See Finnish phonology | |
| French | jota | [xɔta] | 'jota' | Occurs only in loanwords (from Spanish, Arabic, Chinese, etc.). See French phonology | |
| Georgian[13] | ჯოხი / joxi | [ˈdʒɔxi] | 'stick' | ||
| German | Buch | 'book' | See Standard German phonology | ||
| Greek | τέχνη / téchnî | [ˈte̞xni] | 'art' | See Modern Greek phonology | |
| Hebrew | Biblical | מִיכָאֵל/Michael | [mixaʔel] | 'Michael' | See Biblical Hebrew phonology |
| Hindustani | Hindi | ख़ुशी/xuší | [xʊʃiː] | 'happiness' | Occurs only in loanwords. May be replaced in Hindi with /kʰ/. See Hindustani phonology |
| Urdu | ﺧﻮشی/xuşi | ||||
| Hungarian | sahhal | [ʃɒxːɒl] | 'with a shah' | See Hungarian phonology | |
| Icelandic | október | [ˈɔxtoːupɛr̥] | 'October' | See Icelandic phonology | |
| Indonesian | khas | [xas] | 'typical' | Occurs in Arabic loanwords. Often pronounced as [h] or [k] by some Indonesians. See Indonesian phonology | |
| Irish | deoch | [dʲɔ̝̈x] | 'drink' | See Irish phonology | |
| Japanese | マッハ / mahha | [maxːa] | 'Mach' | Allophone of /h/.[14] See Japanese phonology | |
| Kabardian | хы / khy | 'sea' | |||
| Kazakh | ханзада / hanzada | [xanzada] | 'prince' | ||
| Korean | 흥정 / heungjeong | [xɯŋd͡ʑʌ̹ŋ] | 'bargaining' | Allophone of /h/ before /ɯ/. See Korean phonology | |
| Kurdish | xanî | [xɑːˈniː] | 'house' | See Kurdish phonology | |
| Kurukh[15] | कुड़ुख़ | [kuɽux] | 'Kurukh' | Corresponds to /x/ in Brahui and /q/ in Malto. | |
| Limburgish[16][17] | loch | [lɔx] | 'air' | The example word is from the Maastrichtian dialect. See Maastrichtian dialect phonology and Hard and soft G in Dutch | |
| Lishan Didan | Urmi Dialect | חלבא / xalwa | [xalwɑ] | 'milk' | Generally post-velar |
| Lithuanian | choras | [ˈxɔrɐs̪] | 'choir' | Occurs only in loanwords (usually international words) | |
| Lojban | xatra | [xatra] | 'letter' | ||
| Macedonian | Охрид / Ohrid | 'Ohrid' | See Macedonian phonology | ||
| Malay | اﺧير / akhir | [axir] | 'last', 'end' | Occurs in Arabic loanwords. Often pronounced as [h] or [k]. See Malay phonology | |
| Manx | aashagh | [ˈɛːʒax] | 'easy' | ||
| Nepali | आँखा/axa | [ä̃xä] | 'eye' | Allophone of /kʰ/. See Nepali phonology | |
| Norwegian | |||||
| Urban East[18] | hat | [xɑːt] | 'hate' | Possible allophone of /h/ near back vowels; can be voiced [ɣ] between two voiced sounds.[18] See Norwegian phonology | |
| Brekke dialect[19] | seg | [sɛɰ̊] | 'oneself' | Also described as an approximant. Coda allophone of /ɡ/; reported to occur only in this word.[19] See Norwegian phonology | |
| Kaldfarnes dialect[19] | |||||
| Sørkjosen dialect[19] | [sæɰ̊] | ||||
| Undheim dialect[19] | [seɰ̊] | ||||
| Bryne dialect[19] | sterkaste, sterkeste |
[ˈstæɰ̊kɑstə] | 'strongest' | Also described as an approximant. Allophone of /r/ when it is in contact with voiceless consonants. Exact distribution may differ between dialects. In the Hafrsfjord dialect, [ɰ̊] may also occur in the word seg. See Norwegian phonology | |
| Hafrsfjord dialect[19] | |||||
| Raundalen dialect[19] | |||||
| Stanghelle dialect[19] | |||||
| Fyllingsdalen dialect[19] | [ˈstæɰ̊kestɛ] | ||||
| Pashto | اخته / axta | [ax.t̪a] | 'occupied' | See Pashto phonology | |
| Persian | دُخـتَر / doxtär | [doxˈtær] | 'daughter' | See Persian phonology | |
| Polish[20] | chleb | [xlɛp] | 'bread' | Also (in great majority of dialects) represented orthographically by ⟨h⟩. See Polish phonology | |
| Portuguese | Fluminense | arte | [ˈaxtɕi] | 'art' | In free variation with [χ], [ʁ], [ħ] and [h] before voiceless consonants |
| General Brazilian[21] | rosa | [ˈxɔzɐ] | 'rose' | Some dialects. An allophone of /ʁ/. See Portuguese phonology | |
| Punjabi | Gurmukhi | ਖ਼ਬਰ/xabar | [xəbəɾ] | 'news' | Less frequent and may merge with /kʰ/ in Gurmukhi varieties. |
| Shahmukhi | ﺧﺒر/xabar | ||||
| Romanian | hram | [xräm] | 'patronal feast of a church' | Allophone of /h/. See Romanian phonology | |
| Russian[22] | хороший / horošij | 'good' | See Russian phonology | ||
| Scottish Gaelic[23] | drochaid | [ˈt̪ɾɔxɪtʲ] | 'bridge' | See Scottish Gaelic phonology | |
| Serbo-Croatian | храст / hrast | [xrâːst] | 'oak' | See Serbo-Croatian phonology | |
| Slovak | chlap | [xɫäp] | 'guy' | ||
| Slovene | Standard | pohlep | [poˈxlɛ̂p] | 'greed' | See Slovene phonology |
| Some dialects | bog | [ˈbôːx] | 'god' | Allophone of /ɣ/ before voiceless obstruents or pause. See Slovene phonology | |
| Somali | khad | [xad] | 'ink' | Also occurs allophone of /q/ in Arabic loan words. See Somali phonology | |
| Spanish[24] | Latin American[25] | ojo | [ˈo̞xo̞] | 'eye' | May be glottal instead;[25] in northern and central Spain it is often post-velar[25][26][27] or uvular /χ/.[27][28] See Spanish phonology |
| Southern Spain[25] | |||||
| Spanish | Standard European[29] | Predrag | [ˈpɾe̞ð̞ɾäɣ̞̊] | 'Predrag' | Also described as an approximant. Allophone of /ɡ/ before a pause.[29] See Spanish phonology |
| Sylheti | ꠈꠛꠞ/xobor | [xɔ́bɔɾ] | 'news' | ||
| Tachelhit | ixf | [ixf] | 'head' | ||
| Taqbaylit | axaṭar | [ɑχɑtˤɑr] | 'because' | ||
| Tagalog | bakit | [baxit] | 'why' | Allophone of /k/ in intervocalic positions. See Tagalog phonology | |
| Toda[30] | pax | [pax] | 'smoke' | ||
| Turkish[31] | ıhlamur | [ɯxlämuɾ] | 'linden' | Allophone of /h/.[31] See Turkish phonology | |
| Turkmen | hile | [xiːle] | 'cunning' (noun) | ||
| Tyap | kham | [xam] | 1. 'calabash'; 2. 'prostitute' | ||
| Xhosa | rhoxisa | [xɔkǁiːsa] | 'to cancel' | ||
| Ukrainian | хлопець / hlopeć | [ˈxɫɔ̝pɛt͡sʲ] | 'boy' | See Ukrainian phonology | |
| Uzbek[32] | oxirgi | [ɒxirgi] | 'last' | Post-velar. Occurs in environments different from word-initially and pre-consonantally, otherwise it is pre-velar.[32] | |
| Vietnamese[33] | không | [xəwŋ͡m˧] | 'no', 'not', 'zero' | See Vietnamese phonology | |
| Yaghan | xan | [xan] | 'here' | ||
| Yi | ꉾ / he | [xɤ˧] | 'good' | ||
| Zapotec | Tilquiapan[34] | mejor | [mɘxoɾ] | 'better' | Used primarily in loanwords from Spanish |
Related consonants
edit| Nearby Fricatives | Palatal | Velar | Uvular |
|---|---|---|---|
| Voiceless | ç | x | χ |
| Voiced | ʝ | ɣ | ʁ |
See also
editNotes
edit- ^ Watson (2002), pp. 17, 19–20, 35–36 and 38.
- ^ a b Hualde & Ortiz de Urbina (2003), pp. 16 and 26.
- ^ Hualde & Ortiz de Urbina (2003), p. 16.
- ^ "Blackfoot Pronunciation and Spelling Guide". Native-Languages.org. Retrieved 2007-04-10.
- ^ Bhadriraju Krishnamurti (2003), p. 100.
- ^ Ternes, Elmer; Vladimirova-Buhtz, Tatjana (1999). "Bulgarian". Handbook of the International Phonetic Association. Cambridge University Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0.
- ^ Verhoeven (2005:243)
- ^ a b c Collins & Mees (2003:191)
- ^ Gussenhoven (1999:74)
- ^ "Annexe 4: Linguistic Variables". Archived from the original on 2021-02-25. Retrieved 2014-12-03.
- ^ "University of Essex :: Department of Language and Linguistics :: Welcome". Essex.ac.uk. Retrieved 2013-08-01.
- ^ Wells (1982:373)
- ^ Shosted & Chikovani (2006), p. 255.
- ^ Okada, Hideo (December 1991). "Japanese". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 21 (2): 94–96. doi:10.1017/S002510030000445X. S2CID 242782215. Retrieved 14 July 2022.
- ^ Bhadriraju Krishnamurti (2003), p. 74.
- ^ Gussenhoven & Aarts (1999:159)
- ^ Peters (2006:119)
- ^ a b Vanvik (1979), p. 40.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Nordavinden og sola: Opptak og transkripsjoner av norske dialekter". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2015.
- ^ Jassem (2003), p. 103.
- ^ Barbosa & Albano (2004), pp. 5–6.
- ^ Padgett (2003), p. 42.
- ^ Oftedal, M. (1956) The Gaelic of Leurbost. Oslo. Norsk Tidskrift for Sprogvidenskap.
- ^ Martínez-Celdrán, Fernández-Planas & Carrera-Sabaté (2003), p. 255.
- ^ a b c d Chen (2007), p. 13.
- ^ Hamond (2001:?), cited in Scipione & Sayahi (2005:128)
- ^ a b Lyons (1981), p. 76.
- ^ Harris & Vincent (1988), p. 83.
- ^ a b Wetzels & Mascaró (2001), p. 224.
- ^ Bhadriraju Krishnamurti (2003), p. 149.
- ^ a b Göksel & Kerslake (2005:6)
- ^ a b Sjoberg (1963), pp. 11–12.
- ^ Thompson (1959), pp. 458–461.
- ^ Merrill (2008), p. 109.
References
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