Wikipedia

Union State

(Redirected from Union State of Russia and Belarus)
This article is about the post-Soviet organization. For the 19th-century rump state, see Union (American Civil War). For subnational division, see Union territory (disambiguation). For other, see Union (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with State of the Union or Union State Bank (disambiguation).

The Union State of Russia and Belarus,[b] officially also referred to as simply Union State,[c] is a supranational union consisting of Belarus and Russia, with the stated aim of deepening the relationship between the two states through integration in economic and defence policy.[6][7] Originally, the Union State aimed to create a confederation; however, both countries currently retain their independence.[8]

Union State
  • Союзное государство (Russian)
  • Саюзная дзяржава (Belarusian)
The Union State of Russia and Belarus on the globe, with Russian-occupied territories in light green[a]
The Union State of Russia and Belarus on the globe, with Russian-occupied territories in light green[a]
Headquarters8/5 Staraya Square, Entrance 3, 103132 Moscow, Russia[3]
Largest cityMoscow
55°45′N 37°37′E / 55.750°N 37.617°E / 55.750; 37.617
Official languages
Demonym(s)Russians, Belarusians
TypeSupranational union
Member states
GovernmentSupranational union (currently), confederation (formerly)
• Chairman of the Supreme State Council
Belarus Alexander Lukashenko
• Chairman of the Council of Ministers
Russia Mikhail Mishustin
• General Secretary
Russia Dmitry Mezentsev[4]
LegislatureSupreme State Council and Council of Ministers
• Upper house
Supreme State Council
• Lower house
Council of Ministers
Formation
26 December 1991
• Commonwealth of Belarus and Russia
2 April 1997
• Treaty on the Creation of a Union State of Russia and Belarus
8 December 1999
Area
• Total
17,332,786 km2 (6,692,226 sq mi)a
Population
• 2023 estimate
Neutral increase 159,000,000a
• Density
8.9/km2 (23.1/sq mi)
GDP (PPP)2023 estimate
• Total
Increase $5.3 trillion[5]
GDP (nominal)2023 estimate
• Total
Increase $2.2 trillion[5]
Currency
Time zoneUTC+2 to +12
Date formatdd.mm.yyyy
Drives onRight
Website
soyuz.by/en
  1. ^ Combined Belarus and Russian numbers, excluding annexed Crimea in March 2014 that is not recognized internationally.

The Union State is based on a previous international treaty between Russia and Belarus[9] made on 2 April 1997.[10] Although it consists of only Russia and Belarus, other countries are allowed to join.[7] The supranational union is ruled through the Supreme State Council[11] and other governing bodies.[12] As of 2024, the current president of the Supreme State Council of the Union is Alexander Lukashenko, who has held the position since 2000.[13] The present goal of the Union State mainly focuses on economic integration,[14] taxation,[15] and integration of defence and intelligence apparatus.[16]

History of formation

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Presidents Alexander Lukashenko and Boris Yeltsin signing the founding treaty of the Russian-Belarusian Union at the Grand Kremlin Palace, Moscow, 2 April 1997
 
Russian postage stamp commemorating the Treaty between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Belarus establishing the Union on 2 April 1996

The Community of Belarus and Russia was founded on 2 April 1996,[17] following 1995 agreements that established a Russian military presence in Belarus. The basis of the union was strengthened on 2 April 1997 with the signing of the "Treaty on the Union between Belarus and Russia", at which time its name was changed to the Union of Belarus and Russia.[18]

Several further agreements were signed on 25 December 1998, with the intention of providing greater political, economic and social integration.[18]

Nevertheless, the nature of the political entity remained vague. Under pressure from his political opponents, who argued for a reunion of the two states, and from Belarusian President Alexander Lukashenko, who sought to tie his excessively weak economy to Russia's stronger one, Russian President Boris Yeltsin initiated the creation of the Union to harmonize the political and economic differences between the two countries.[19] According to some observers, Lukashenko's intention was also to gain great power, becoming president of a future Russia-Belarus federation after Yeltsin's demise due to his all-time low popularity. However, after Yeltsin resigned, Vladimir Putin was elected in 2000 to succeed him as Russian president. There was also the Freedom March, a 1999 protest against unification in the Belarusian capital of Minsk. Putin's election and the Freedom March forced Lukashenko to cancel his plans and maintain a balance between the independence of Belarus and Putin's increasing pressure for further integration of the two countries into the Union State.[20][21]

The Treaty on the Creation of a Union State of Russia and Belarus was signed on 8 December 1999.[22] The intention was to achieve a federation like the Soviet Union, with a common head of state, legislature, flag, coat of arms, anthem, constitution, army, citizenship and currency. The Union was ratified by the Russian State Duma on 22 December 1999 and the National Assembly of Belarus on 26 January 2000. On the latter date the Treaty and the Union came into effect.[23]

Then Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbayev had put forward a similar proposal in 1994, envisioning the founding of a Eurasian union, but this proposal was not adopted until 29 May 2014 with the formation of the Eurasian Economic Union.[24]

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The Treaty on the Creation of a Union State[7] creates legal framework as constitutional act and establishes the following institutions[25][11][18]

The Union State based on its founding treaties has exclusive jurisdiction over the creation of a single economic space and legal foundations for a common market, monetary union, single tax and pricing policy, unified development and procurement of defence equipment, unified system of technical support for the armed forces. Common command of regional military is further realized through many other documents based on this Union State jurisdiction,[29] common border policy and other jurisdictions.[7]

Besides exclusive jurisdictions of the Union State there are joint jurisdiction of the Union State and the subjects of the Union State that includes joint defence policy, harmonization and unification of the legislation of the subjects of the Union State, development of science, education, culture, formation of a common scientific, technological and information space, migration, working conditions and labor protection, social security, combating terrorism, corruption and others.[7]

Outside the limits of the exclusive jurisdiction of the Union State and subjects of joint jurisdiction of the Union State and the subjects of the Union State, the subjects of the Union State retain the full completeness of state power.[7]

Pavel Borodin was the first State Secretary of the Union. He was first appointed by the Supreme State Council on 26 January 2000 for a four-year term. In 2004 and 2008 his term was renewed for an additional four years, leaving office in 2011. Since then the office has been held by Grigory Rapota.[citation needed]

Union State is ruled through Supreme State Council of the Union.[26] The Supreme State Council of the Union includes the member heads of states, respective governments, and both chambers of parliaments.[13] Decisions on Supreme Council are made by principle of one state – one vote and presidents of states give that vote. Supreme Council includes the chairman of the Executive Committee of the Union that have an advisory vote. The President of the Supreme State Council is the head of one of the participating States on a rotation basis, unless the participating States agree otherwise.

Supreme State Council makes decisions on issues regarding the security of the member states of the Union including their collective protection from outside threats, the protection of the Union's borders, military development, and many other issues.

The Council of Ministers[28] is composed of the member states' Prime Ministers, Ministers of Foreign Affairs, Economy, and Finance and the State Secretary of the Union. Permanent Committee of the Union State[30] is formed as permanent working body of Council of Ministers.[31] Current president of Council of Ministers is Mikhail Mishustin.

 
20th Anniversary of Russia Belarus Union Treaty

Parliamentary Assembly of the Union comprises two chambers – the House of the Union and the House of Representatives. The House of Representatives should contain of 75 deputies from Russia and 28 from Belarus, elected by the general populace of each. According to treaty, currently only House of the Union is formed and it consists of 72 deputies – 36 from Russia and 36 from Belarus. Before the elections for the House of Representatives of the Union State Parliament, the functions of the Union State Parliament are performed by the Parliamentary Assembly of the Union of Belarus and Russia in accordance with paragraph 4 of Article 70 of the Treaty on the Establishment of the Union State of 8 December 1999. Regular sessions of the Parliamentary Assembly House of the Union are held twice a year and for Quorum at least two third is needed to be present. House of the Union Parliament has president and four vice presidents and 8 permanent committees for different areas of legislature.[32] Current president of Parliamentary Assembly of Union is Vyacheslav Volodin[32][33] On 12 December 2020, the 59th joint session of the House of the Union parliament was held to consider the Union State budget for 2021. in 4715,15 millions of roubles or approximately 61.631.112 US dollars[34][35][vague]

Court of Union should consist of nine judges appointed for six-year terms. But while provisions for court are given in adopted treaty court was not formed.[36]

Accounting Chamber, is tasked with controlling the implementation of the Union State budget. It consists of 11 members[37] appointed for a period of 6 years from among the citizens of the member states who have experience in control and audit who are appointed by the Parliament of the Union State on the proposal of the Council of Ministers. The Accounting Chamber establishes its own regulations, which are approved by the Council of Ministers.

Language

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The official languages of the Union State are the state languages of the participating states. Russian is used as a working language in the common organs of the Union State.[7]

Developments

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Shortly after its inauguration, both member states seemed to have lost their enthusiasm for the Union, with first Russia, and then Belarus, restoring customs controls along their common border in 2001, effectively suspending the customs union until it was restored in 2010. Plans had also been set in motion to implement a common currency across the Union, but these have been postponed several times.

On 16 November 2010, it was announced by the Union State website that the Constitutional Act was 99% ready.[38]

Common currency

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Belarusian President Alexander Lukashenko promised to introduce a common currency on 1 January 2004. The currency was not introduced, and the plan was pushed back by one year. On 1 January 2005, the Union State again failed to introduce a common currency, and it was again postponed by one year, which, in 2006, happened once again. During a press-conference in Minsk on 2 February 2006, Pyotr Prokopovich, chief of the National Bank of Belarus, announced that a "common currency might be introduced in 2007". This, however, failed to occur in 2007. The National Bank of the Republic of Belarus announced that, starting in 2008, the Belarusian ruble would be pegged to the United States dollar instead of the Russian ruble.[39][needs update]

Citizenship and freedom of migration

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Union State grants citizenship to citizens in both states meaning that every citizen of the Russian Federation and every citizen of the Republic of Belarus is at the same time a citizen of the Union with the guaranteed right to move and reside freely within the territory of the other party, allowing Belarusian citizens to travel freely in Russia and have the right to settle there to work or study, and vice versa including possession, use and disposal of property on the territory of another state.[40] The Union State does provide citizens of Russia and Belarus the right to work and permanently settle in either country without formal immigration procedures otherwise mandatory for foreign nationals. They retain their national passports and other identification papers.

Military

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On 10 February 2009, Russia and Belarus implemented the first stage of joint military officer training programs designed to integrate the military structures of the countries. This military collective is called the Regional Forces Group of Belarus and Russia (RGF). The goal of these operations is to ensure cohesive training, practice and implementation of military interests for the nations, and were aimed at strategic and battle training taking place in February and March 2009.[41] Furthermore, the military doctrine of the Russian Federation provides that "an armed attack on the state-participant in the Union State, as well as all other actions involving the use of military force against it," should be deemed "an act of aggression against the Union State", authorizing Moscow to "take measures in response".[42]

Proposed symbols

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Proposed flag of the Union State

Since the formation of the Union State in 1997, Belarus and Russia have thus far failed to institute any symbols or even a flag for the Union State. There have, however been several proposals for flags and coats of arms.[43][44]

Two proposals have been made for the flag of the Union. In all cases, they are modifications to the flag of the Soviet Union, but representing the state (not communism). In both cases, two gold stars are placed in the canton of the red flag (to represent the two states of the Union).[44]

A proposed coat of arms is a modification of the double-headed eagle holding the coats of arms of Russia and Belarus.[43]

A song called "Sovereign Union of Nations" (Russian: Державный союз народов Derzhavny soyuz narodov, Belarusian: Дзяржаўны саюз народаў Dzyarzhauny sayuz narodau) has been proposed as the Union's unofficial anthem. The song, which was modified from the National Anthem of the Soviet Union, refers to a wider union of the two nations.[45]

Value-added tax controversy

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Belarus and Russia had been collecting a value-added tax (VAT), meant to finance the Union State, in the country of origin, but from 1 January 2005, VAT is collected in the country of destination, as in most other independent countries of the world. This change gave rise to a considerable degree of confusion and has disrupted many trade operations between Belarus and Russia. On 10 February 2005, private entrepreneurs in Belarus staged a one-day warning strike, protesting the new VAT scheme between the two countries and Lukashenko's economic policies.

Contemplated expansion

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The Union State (yellow), states that have expressed interest in joining the Union (green), and other members of the CIS (pink)
  •   Abkhazia and   South Ossetia both currently have observer status in parliamentary sessions.[citation needed]
  •   South Ossetia: Opposition party Iron, founded and led by Georgiy Kabisov, called for a unified North and South Ossetia to be an equal partner to Russia in the Union State, as opposed to Ossetia being a subject of Russia.[46]
  •   Armenia: several political parties including the Constitutional Rights Union,[47] National Unity,[48] and the Towards Russia Party[49] have expressed their desire for the country to join the Union.
  •   Kazakhstan had expressed interest in forming a separate customs union with Russia and Belarus by 2010.[50] This Customs Union was formed as planned at the beginning of 2010. Kazakhstan has mentioned that it may join the Union State after some time. In late May 2023, however, President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev declined an offer by President Alexander Lukashenko to join the union, referring to it as a "joke."[50][51]
  •   Kyrgyzstan: As of June 2007, opposition in Kyrgyzstan, which has been locked in political turmoil, had initiated a nationwide referendum to join the union of Russia and Belarus.[52]
  •   Moldova: In 2001, president of Moldova Vladimir Voronin announced right after his election that he had plans for Moldova to join the Union of Russia and Belarus.[53][54] The coming to power of the Alliance for European Integration at the 2009 Moldovan elections has since shifted Moldovan interest towards the European Union.
  •   Transnistria: in the Transnistrian referendum of 2006, the government said 97.2% of the population voted for the integration of the unrecognized state of Transnistria into Russia, which analysts say indicates a possibility that Transnistria might unilaterally ask to join the Union, once it is established. Already in spring 1998, 66.5% of Transnistrian voters supported joining the Union of Russia and Belarus in a non-binding referendum by the Transnistrian state.[55] However, not being recognised by either member, this is unlikely to happen in the near future.
  •   Ukraine: In response to speculation about Ukraine joining the Union, then-president of Ukraine, Viktor Yanukovych, declared that Ukraine is an independent sovereign state and this is not something that can be questioned by anyone in the government.[56] The issue is to be reconsidered in the new light of the Revolution of Dignity and the developments of the Euromaidan movement seeking for the integration into the European Union. During the term of office of the fifth President of Ukraine Petro Poroshenko, the Constitution of Ukraine in 2019 was amended to consolidate the irreversibility of Ukraine's course to join the European Union and NATO after the events of the Revolution of Dignity in 2014. In 2021, the sixth president of Ukraine, Volodymyr Zelenskyy, stated that the creation of a "true union state" between Belarus and Russia is a real danger for Ukraine.[57] Russia invaded Ukraine in February 2022 in an escalation of the Russo-Ukrainian War that continues today.
  •   Novorossiya: During the 2014 Russian military intervention in Ukraine, Deputy Prime Minister Rustam Temirgaliev of the Russian-annexed Republic of Crimea expressed the hope that southeastern Ukraine would form a "Ukrainian Federation" and join the Union State.[58] However, only the self-proclaimed Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic broke away from Ukraine, and the confederate Novorossiya political project was frozen at the start of 2015.[59][60][61]
  •   FR Yugoslavia/  Serbia: On April 12, 1999, the Federal Assembly of the FR Yugoslavia passed the Decision on the accession of the FRY to the Union state of Russia and Belarus.[62] The legal successor of that decision is the Republic of Serbia. In 2007, Speaker of Parliament Tomislav Nikolić said during a speech that he wished that Serbia would strengthen its ties with and eventually join the Union State rather than joining the European Union,[63] but he resigned from his position less than a week later. Although Nikolić did eventually serve as President of Serbia from 2012–2017, Serbia had submitted a membership application to the EU in 2009 and had received full candidate status in March 2012, prior to his term.

Renewed interest

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 GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic DevelopmentGeorgia (country)AzerbaijanUkraineMoldovaTajikistanTurkmenistanCollective Security Treaty OrganizationEurasian Economic UnionUzbekistanKyrgyzstanKazakhstanArmeniaUnion StateBelarusRussiaCommonwealth of Independent StatesCommonwealth of Independent States Free Trade AreaBaltic AssemblyLithuaniaLatviaEstoniaCommunity for Democracy and Rights of NationsAbkhaziaTransnistriaSouth Ossetia
A clickable Euler diagram showing the relationships among various supranational organisations in the territory of the former Soviet Unionv • d • e

On 15 December 2006, talks over the Union State were heating up.[citation needed] By January 2007, however, talks appeared to be stalled, as President Alexander Lukashenko of Belarus stated: "The Russian leadership is demanding that we join the Russian Federation—that's what is in the heads of the Russian leadership. I don't want to bury the sovereignty and independence of [Belarus]." He added: "From all the consultations and discussions, I have understood that we have different approaches and understandings of the building of a Union State", and opposed "the possibility of the incorporation into Russia [of Belarus]".[64]

However, on 19 October 2007, Russian Prime Minister Viktor Zubkov announced that the budget of the Union State "will grow by no less than ten percent next year, and that growth will provide for worthy funding of our common projects."[65] This has led to speculation that the Russian government have renewed their interest in the idea.

A meeting between President Lukashenko of Belarus, President Vladimir Putin of Russia and Union State Secretary Pavel Borodin was held in Minsk 13–14 December 2007. This meeting received a considerable amount of media attention and raised speculation that a Union State might indeed be the focus of a new initiative by both governments. Of primary interest was renewed discussion of the Union Parliament (which, although planned, was never actually realized) and a Union State Constitutional Act, an instrument which could strengthen the authority of the Union. According to State Secretary Borodin, five variants of this Act were discussed at the meeting, each of which would involve a 7 to 10 year transitional period in the Union's development. Trade and energy issues were also discussed.[66]

On 27 May 2008, President Lukashenko, acting in his capacity as Chairman of the Supreme State Council named then Russian Prime Minister and current President Putin Chairman of the Council of Ministers.[67] This move raised speculation that the Union was about to undergo a significant political transformation. However, the most visible and arguably important official in the Union has been the State Secretary, who runs the Union State's day-to-day operations. In the same meeting, State Secretary Borodin announced that the 2009 Union State budget would total 6–7 billion roubles, an increase of over 2 billion roubles from 2008.

On 1 August 2011, Putin stated he supported a union of Russia, Belarus, and possibly South Ossetia.[68] Belarusian Foreign Minister spokesman Andrei Savinykh rejected the idea,[69] as did Dmitri Medojev, South Ossetia's ambassador to Moscow, who stated "Our people voted for independence in a referendum in 2006 and they do not relish the idea of becoming part of the Russian Federation."[69]

Since 2015, focus on developing relations between former members of the Soviet Union is on continued development of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), itself a further development of the Eurasian Customs Union established in 2010. It is modelled on the integration of the European Union and comprises 5 member states: Belarus, Russia, Kazakhstan, Armenia and Kyrgyzstan. Tajikistan has also expressed an interest in joining.[citation needed] However, the EAEU is only an economic union, and at present, political integration remains within the remit of the Union State.

Deeper economic integration is proposed in 2021 within current talks of member states.[70] In November 2021, Russia and Belarus signed an agreement to provide for common policies on taxation, banking, industry, agriculture, and energy.[71]

2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine

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Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, part of which was staged from Belarus' territory, Russia and Belarus came under sanctions and boycotts. On 3 March, Belarusian president Alexander Lukashenko said he stood fully behind Russian president Vladimir Putin's campaign in Ukraine as part of Belarus's longstanding commitment to the Union State with Russia.[72] On 14 March, Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Mishustin met with Belarusian Prime Minister Roman Golovchenko in Moscow, telling reporters that they "coordinated measures to protect our economic security and the technological sovereignty of Russia and Belarus" and "consider it necessary to strengthen integration in the Union State".[73] On 18 March, the Russian government announced that all restrictions on the movement of citizens between Russia and Belarus would be lifted.[74] On 1 July 2022, Russian President Vladimir Putin announced that the "unification" process has been accelerated to alleviate the economic damage of the sanctions.[75]

In October 2022, following the September 2022 mobilisation of reservists in Russia, a contingent of approximately 9,000 Russian soldiers arrived in Belarus. According to the Belarusian ministry of defence the purpose of this deployment was to create a "regional military grouping" of the Union State.[76] In the same month it was announced that Russian air forces were patrolling the borders of the Union State in Belarus.[77]

2023 nuclear deterrence

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In an interview aired by Russia's state television in late May 2023, Lukashenko stated that other countries who were willing to join the Union State would be given nuclear weapons: "If someone is worried ... (then) it is very simple: join in the Union State of Belarus and Russia. That's all: there will be nuclear weapons for everyone."[78] This was just a few days after he had confirmed that the movement of some of Russia's tactical nuclear weapons to Belarus had begun and the Russian Defence Minister had said he was signing documents concerning the procedure for storing tactical nuclear weapons in Belarus,[79] the plan for which had first been announced by Putin in March.[80]

25th anniversary of the Treaty on the Creation of the Union State

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On 6 December 2024, coinciding with the 25th anniversary of the Treaty on the Creation of the Union State, signed on December 9, 1999, at a meeting of the Supreme State Council of the Union State, the Russian President Vladimir Putin and his Belarussian counterpart Alexander Lukashenko expanded the defense and security cooperation between the two countries by signing the Russia-Belarus Treaty on security guarantees within the Union State.[81][82][83][84]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Crimea, which was annexed by Russia in 2014, remains internationally recognised as a part of Ukraine.[1] Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson, and Zaporizhzhia oblasts, which were annexed—though are only partially occupied—in 2022, also remain internationally recognised as a part of Ukraine. The southernmost Kuril Islands have been the subject of a territorial dispute with Japan since their occupation by the Soviet Union at the end of World War II.[2]
  2. ^ Russian: Союзное государство России и Беларуси, romanized: Soyuznoe gosudarstvo Rossii i Belarusi, IPA: [sɐˈjuznəjə ɡəsʊˈdarstvə rɐˈsʲi(j)ɪ i bʲɪlɐˈrusʲɪ]; Belarusian: Саюзная дзяржава Расіі і Беларусі, romanized: Sajuznaja dziaržava Rasii i Biełarusi.
  3. ^ Russian: Союзное государство, romanized: Soyuznoye gosudarstvo; Belarusian: Саюзная дзяржава, romanized: Sajuznaja dziaržava.

References

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  1. ^ Pifer, Steven (17 March 2020). "Crimea: Six years after illegal annexation". Brookings Institution. Retrieved 30 November 2021.
  2. ^ Chapple, Amos (4 January 2019). "The Kurile Islands: Why Russia And Japan Never Made Peace After World War II". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved 26 January 2022.
  3. ^ "Постоянный Комитет Союзного государства". postkomsg.com.
  4. ^ "Dmitry Mezentsev appointed Secretary of State of the Union State". postkomsg.com.
  5. ^ a b "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects: October 2020". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 26 October 2020.
  6. ^ "СОЮЗНОЕ ГОСУДАРСТВО". Совет Федерации Федерального Собрания Российской Федерации. Archived from the original on 22 April 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h "Проект Конституционного акта Союзного государства".
  8. ^ "A Political Union Between Russia and Belarus is Creeping Closer". 23 September 2020.
  9. ^ "Куракина, Светлана Ивановна – Союзное государство Беларуси и России: конституционно-правовое исследование : автореферат дис. ... кандидата юридических наук : 12.00.02 – Search RSL".
  10. ^ a b c d e f "Устав Союза Беларуси и России от 23 мая 1997 – docs.cntd.ru". docs.cntd.ru. Retrieved 14 October 2021.
  11. ^ a b "Союзное Государство". Archived from the original on 29 May 2020.
  12. ^ "Органы Союзного государства". belrus.ru.
  13. ^ a b "Высший Государственный Совет Союзного государства".
  14. ^ "Full integration of Russia and Belarus unlikely in present context, says expert". TASS. 16 February 2021. Retrieved 5 August 2021.
  15. ^ "Lukashenko says Minsk and Moscow agreed 26–27 roadmaps on integration". TASS. 22 April 2021. Retrieved 5 August 2021.
  16. ^ "Putin believes integration processes of intelligence in Union State to be effective". TASS. 22 April 2021. Retrieved 5 August 2021.
  17. ^ Žulys, Audrius (2005). "Towards a Union State of Russia and Belarus". Lithuanian Foreign Policy Review (15–16): 149. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015 – via Central and Eastern Europe Online Library.
  18. ^ a b c Žulys, Audrius (2005). "Towards a Union State of Russia and Belarus". Lithuanian Foreign Policy Review (15–16): 150. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015 – via Central and Eastern Europe Online Library.
  19. ^ "Boris Yeltsin's Legacy". personal.utulsa.edu. Archived from the original on 27 May 2019. Retrieved 28 May 2008.
  20. ^ Mankoff, Jeffrey (5 February 2020). "Will Belarus Be the Next Ukraine?". Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 6 February 2020. Retrieved 2 June 2020. Lukashenko signed on in the apparent hope that he could one day replace Yeltsin and rule over both Belarus and Russia.
  21. ^ "How Belarus Maneuvers between Russia and the West". Institute of Modern Russia. 30 April 2020. Retrieved 2 June 2020. [...] Lukashenko was pleased with the idea for other reasons: he planned to use the arrangement to ultimately replace the unpopular Yeltsin. The creation of the Union State could lead to common citizenship, which would allow Lukashenko to run for the top office in case of Yeltsin's departure. Another reason for him to move closer to Russia was that Belarus' highly industrialized economy relied heavily on Russian raw materials, mostly gas and oil.
  22. ^ "Russia and Belarus form confederation". news.bbc.co.uk. 8 December 1999.
  23. ^ Žulys, Audrius (2005). "Towards a Union State of Russia and Belarus". Lithuanian Foreign Policy Review (15–16): 151. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015 – via Central and Eastern Europe Online Library.
  24. ^ Asadova, Nargiz. "An interview with Prime Minister of Kazakhstan Karim Masimov". Originally printed in Kommersant, 4 June 2007, p. 2. Translated by Ferghana.Ru "An interview with Prime Minister of Kazakhstan Karim Masimov – Ferghana.Ru Information agency, Moscow". Archived from the original on 5 June 2008. Retrieved 28 May 2008.
  25. ^ "Союзное государство: 20 лет совместного развития". page726227.html.[permanent dead link‍]
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  28. ^ a b "Официальный сайт Постоянного Комитета Союзного государства | Совет Министров". www.postkomsg.com.
  29. ^ "Соглашение между Российской Федерацией и Республикой Беларусь о создании и функционировании объединенной системы связи региональной группировки войск (сил) Республики Беларусь и Российской Федерации от 19 января 2008 – docs.cntd.ru". docs.cntd.ru. Retrieved 14 October 2021.
  30. ^ "Официальный сайт Постоянного Комитета Союзного государства | Постоянный Комитет Союзного государства".
  31. ^ "Постоянный Комитет Союзного государства Россия Беларусь". www.postkomsg.com.
  32. ^ a b "Парламентское Собрание Союза Беларуси и России".
  33. ^ "21 ноября Вячеслав Володин проведет сессию Парламентского Собрания Союза Беларуси и России". Государственная Дума. 21 November 2019.
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