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Majority of mass non-combat death in Communist countries occurred during the Stalin's rule in the USSR and Mao's rule in China; majority of the victims died in famines.[1]

Scholars use several different terms to describe the intentional killing of large numbers of noncombatants.[2][3] Discussion of the number of victims of Communist regimes has been "extremely extensive and ideologically biased".[4]

Many of the terms are generic, i.e. not specific to communism - these different definitions are not super important to keep on this page (a page that already is huge). Why not move this section to already referred page https://en.wiki.x.io/wiki/Genocide_definitions ? One additional benefit of moving the terms there would be that more terms could be compared to each other on a broader scale. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 213.102.90.134 (talk) 22:19, 25 November 2021 (UTC)Reply

Genocide

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The term Genocide was initially coined by Raphael Lemkin to describe Nazi policy in occupied Europe, and The Holocaust in particular.[5] The term was formalized by the UN Genocide Convention, which defined it as an act committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group; genocide defined in such a way is a crime punishable according to international laws, thus applying limitations on the sovereignty of governments that destroy their own peoples.[6] This legal definition of genocide has several limitations that made it inapplicable to many mass killing and mass mortality events in XX century. These limitations are as follows:[7]

  1. Protection of political groups was eliminated from the UN resolution, because many Eastern Bloc, Latin American, and some other governments anticipated that clause could apply unneeded limitations to their right to suppress internal rebellions.[8]
  2. The highest level of specific intent needs to be established for conviction of genocide.
  3. The intent to destroy some group in part may fit the genocide definition only if the perpetrators view the part of the group they wish to destroy as a distinct entity which must be eliminated as such.

As a result, most mass killing and mass mortality cases in Communist led countries do not fit the UN legal definition of genocide because the acts were either against political groups (Great Purge, Cultural Revolution), lacked established intentionality, or affected just a small part of some group (Soviet Famine of 1932-33, Great Leap Forward famine).

Genocide is also a popular term for mass political killing, which is studied academically as democide and politicide.[9]

Because of the ambiguities of the definition, the meaning of the term has long been debated by genocide scholars.[10] And as Genocide Studies developed and it became more apparent that political groups were being targeted, their exclusion has been re-evaluated.[11] Some modern scholars propose that the term "genocide" should be defined more widely[12] in order to expand the protection of the Genocide Convention to political groups, include both specific and constructive intent (i.e., the cases when perpetrator should realize that his actions make deaths likely), and bring the term "in part" in accordance with lay people's understanding. If this wider definition becomes commonly accepted, it can be applied to most cases of violence in Communist led countries. However, such an approach has been met with skepticism by other scholars, who argue that a looser definition would make genocide not a uniquely horrible and rare event and a large number of cases, starting from the colonization of America and ending with the economic sanctions against Iraq, would fit such a definition.[7]

Nevertheless, many authors use the term "genocide" as metaphors for various forms of lethal and non-lethal violence,[13] including the violence under Communist regimes.[14] Killing by the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia has been labeled genocide or auto-genocide and, more controversially, the deaths under Leninism and Stalinism in the USSR and Maoism in China have been investigated as possible cases. In particular, the famines in the USSR in the 1930s and during the Great Leap Forward in China have been "depicted as mass killing underpinned by genocidal intent."[11][nb 1] According to Alexandra Laignel-Lavastine, "historians and philosophers close to politically liberal groups" in Europe, especially in Romania, have made the term Communist Genocide part of today's vocabulary.[15]

Limitations of the term "genocide" prompted scholars to propose alternative terms describing lethal forms of mass violence, which are being discussed below.

Politicide

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The term politicide is used to describe the killing of groups that are not covered by the Genocide Convention.[16] It includes the mass killing of political, economic, ethnic and cultural groups.[9] Manus I. Midlarsky uses the term politicide to describe an arc of mass killings from the western parts of the Soviet Union to China and Cambodia.[nb 2] In his book The killing trap: genocide in the twentieth century Midlarsky raises similarities between the killings of Stalin and Pol Pot.[18]

Democide

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R. J. Rummel coined the term democide, which includes genocide, politicide, and mass murder.[19] Unlike politicide, randomly conducted and non-targeted mass killing are included. Frank Wayman and Atsushi Tago have shown the significance of the differences between the democide and politicide data-sets in that statistical analyses based on them can produce very different results, including whether or not regime type is a significance variable.[9] Helen Fein has termed the mass state killings in the Soviet Union and Cambodia as "genocide and democide."[20]

Crimes against humanity

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Klas-Göran Karlsson uses the term crimes against humanity, which includes "the direct mass killings of politically undesirable elements, as well as forced deportations and forced labour". He acknowledges that the term may be misleading in the sense that the regimes targeted groups of their own citizens, but considers it useful as a broad legal term which emphasizes attacks on civilian populations and because the offenses demean humanity as a whole.[4] Jacques Semelin and Michael Mann believe that crime against humanity is more appropriate than genocide or politicide when speaking of violence by Communist regimes.[21]

Classicide

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Michael Mann has proposed the term classicide as the "intended mass killing of entire social classes".[22]

Repression

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Stephen Wheatcroft notes that, in the case of the Soviet Union, terms such as the terror, the purges, and repression are used to refer to the same events. He believes the most neutral terms are repression and mass killings, although in Russian the broad concept of repression is commonly held to include mass killings and is sometimes assumed to be synonymous with it, which is not the case in other languages.[3]

Mass killing

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Ervin Staub defined mass killing as "killing members of a group without the intention to eliminate the whole group or killing large numbers of people without a precise definition of group membership. In a mass killing the number of people killed is usually smaller than in genocide." Referencing earlier definitions[nb 3], Joan Esteban, Massimo Morelli and Dominic Rohner have defined mass killings as "the killings of substantial numbers of human beings, when not in the course of military action against the military forces of an avowed enemy, under the conditions of the essential defenselessness and helplessness of the victims".[25] The term has been defined quantitatively by Benjamin Valentino as "the intentional killing of a massive number of noncombatants", where a massive number is defined as at least 50,000 intentional deaths over the course of five years or less.[26] This is the most accepted quantitative minimum threshold for the term.[25] He applies this definition to the cases of Stalin's USSR, the PRC under Mao, and Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge, while admitting that mass killings on a smaller scale also appear to have been carried out by regimes in North Korea, Vietnam, Eastern Europe, and Africa.[nb 4]

Holocaust

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The United States Congress has referred in legislation to "an unprecedented imperial communist holocaust"[28][29] and the Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation established as a result of that legislation refers to this subject as the "Communist holocaust".[30] The term Red Holocaust has been used by German historian Horst Möller; American academic Steven Rosefielde has published a book on this subject titled Red Holocaust.[31][32] According to Alexandra Laignel-Lavastine, "historians and philosophers close to politically liberal groups" in Europe, especially in Romania, have made the term Red Holocaust part of today's vocabulary.[15]

Victims of totalitarian regimes

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The European Parliament, the second-largest democratic electorate in the world with 375 million eligible voters in 2009, [33][34][35] has proclaimed and annually pays for a yearly act of remembrance of "the victims of all totalitarian and authoritarian regimes", which it describes as "Stalinism and other totalitarian communist regimes", in addition to Nazism and fascism.[36]

Estimates

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  • In his introduction to the Black Book of Communism, Stéphane Courtois gives a "rough approximation, based on unofficial estimates" approaching 100 million killed.[37] In his foreword to the book, Martin Malia notes "a grand total of victims variously estimated by contributors to the volume at between 85 million and 100 million."[38]
  • According to Benjamin Valentino, the estimates of the number of non-combatants killed by Communist regimes in the Soviet Union, People's Republic of China, and Cambodia alone range from a low of 21 million to a high of 70 million.[27]
  • In 2005, R. J. Rummel revised his estimate of total Communist democide between 1900 and 1999 upward by 38 million to "about 148,000,000", due to recent publications about Mao's role in China's Great Famine.[39]
  • According to Steven Rosefielde's book Red Holocaust, "approximately 60 million people and perhaps tens of millions more" were killed.[40]

States

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Cambodia

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Modern research has located 20,000 mass graves from the Khmer Rouge era all over Cambodia. Various studies have estimated the death toll of the Khmer Rouge regime at between 740,000 and 3,000,000, with perhaps half of those deaths being due to executions, and the rest from starvation and disease.[41]

 
Skulls of victims of the Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia.

The U.S. State Department-funded Yale Cambodian Genocide Project estimates approximately 1.7 million.[42] R. J. Rummel, an analyst of historical political killings, gives a figure of 2 million.[43] A UN investigation reported 2–3 million dead, while UNICEF estimated 3 million had been killed.[44] Demographic analysis by Patrick Heuveline suggests that between 1.17 and 3.42 million Cambodians were killed,[45] while Marek Sliwinski estimates that 1.8 million is a conservative figure.[46] Researcher Craig Etcheson of the Documentation Center of Cambodia suggests that the death toll was between 2 and 2.5 million, with a "most likely" figure of 2.2 million. After 5 years of researching grave sites, he concluded that "these mass graves contain the remains of 1,386,734 victims of execution".[41][47]

 
Infants were fatally smashed against the Chankiri Tree (Killing Tree) at Choeung Ek, Cambodia.[48]

Helen Fein, a genocide scholar, claims that the xenophobic ideology of the Khmer Rouge regime resembles more a phenomenon of national socialism, or fascism, than communism.[49] Daniel Goldhagen explains that the Khmer Rouge were xenophobic because they believed the Khmer were "the one authentic people capable of building true communism."[50] Sociologist Martin Shaw described the Cambodian genocide as "the purest genocide of the Cold War era".[51] Steven Rosefielde, by contrast, states that there is "no evidence Pol Pot sought to exterminate the Khmer people, or even the Cham and religious minorities." Instead, he defines Khmer Rouge killings as "dystopicide": "The no-prisoners-taken pursuit of badly implemented, poorly conceived communist utopia-building."[40] Cyprian Blamires and Paul Jackson wrote that "In the final analysis, several typical features of fascist regimes - such as qualified protection of private property, state toleration of a national religion, and an express rejection of Marxism-Leninism in all its variants - were not in evidence during Democratic Kampuchea, and the regime cannot, as such, be considered fascist."[52] Henri Locard argued that Khmer Rouge repression was "similar (if significantly more lethal) to the repression in all Communist regimes" and that "revisionist" accusations of "self-genocide" were employed "by the invading Vietnamese to distance themselves from a government they had overturned."[53] According to the Khmer Institute, "While ethnic minorities were disproportionately harmed during the Khmer Rouge period, this was not due to a policy of "ethnic cleansing" per se, but one of trying to eliminate religious or cultural differences to create a pure Communist society."[54]

In 1997 the Cambodian Government asked the United Nations assistance in setting up a genocide tribunal.[55][56][57] The investigating judges were presented with the names of five possible suspects by the prosecution on 18 July 2007.[55] On 19 September 2007 Nuon Chea, second in command of the Khmer Rouge and its most senior surviving member, was charged with war crimes and crimes against humanity, but not charged with genocide. He will face Cambodian and foreign judges at the special genocide tribunal.

Democratic People's Republic of Korea

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Further information: North Korea

According to R.J. Rummel, forced labor, executions, and concentration camps were responsible for over one million deaths in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea from 1948 to 1987;[58] others have estimated 400,000 deaths in concentration camps alone.[59] Pierre Rigoulot estimates 100,000 executions, 1.5 million deaths through concentration camps and slave labor, 500,000 deaths from famine, and 1.3 million killed in the Korean war.[60] Estimates based on the most recent North Korean census suggest that 240,000 to 420,000 people died as a result of the 1990s famine and that there were 600,000 to 850,000 unnatural deaths in North Korea from 1993 to 2008.[61] The famine, which claimed as many as one million lives, has been described as the result of the economic policies of the North Korean government,[62] and as deliberate "terror-starvation".[63] In 2009, Steven Rosefielde stated that the Red Holocaust "still persists in North Korea" as Kim Jong Il "refuses to abandon mass killing."[64]

Vietnam

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The Viet Minh collaborated with French colonial forces to massacre supporters of the Vietnamese nationalist movements from 1945-6. When the Viet Minh went to war against France they continued their campaign to wipe out the nationalist groups.[65] According to Lucien Bodard, "Ho Chi Minh had not stretched out his hand to the Nationalists: he had ordered them to be massacred....Thousands, maybe tens of thousands of men had been liquidated in 1945, 1946 and later....We know how it ended....how Ho Chi Minh allowed Leclerc's soldiers to come and how the Expeditionary Force let the Vietminh wipe out the Nationalists, with all their hatred of the French and their xenophobia. It had meant their extermination—or very nearly."[66]

 
Infant victim of Dak Son Massacre

Between 1953 and 1956, the North Vietnamese government instituted various agrarian reforms, including "rent reduction" and "land reform". Declassified Politburo documents confirm that 1 in 1,000 North Vietnamese (i.e., about 14,000 people) were the minimum quota targeted for execution during the earlier "rent reduction" campaign; the number killed during the multiple stages of the considerably more radical "land reform" was probably many times greater.[67] Lam Thanh Liem, a major authority on land issues in Vietnam, conducted multiple interviews in which communist cadres gave estimates for land reform executions ranging from 120,000 to 200,000. Such figures match the "nearly 150,000 houses and huts which were allocated to new occupants".[68] Ironically, a number of sources have suggested that about 30% of the "landlords" executed were actually communist party members.[69][70][71][72][73] Landlords were arbitrarily classified as 5.68% of the population, but the majority were subject to less severe punishment than execution. Official records from the time suggest that 172,008 "landlords" were executed during the "land reform", of whom 123,261 (71.66%) were later found to be wrongly classified.[74] Victims were reportedly shot, beheaded, and beaten to death; "some were tied up, thrown into open graves and covered with stones until they were crushed to death."[75] The full death toll was even greater because victims' families starved to death under the "policy of isolation."[76] As communist defector Le Xuan Giao explained: "There was nothing worse than the starvation of the children in a family whose parents were under the control of a land reform team. They isolated the house, and the people who lived there would starve. The children were all innocent. There was nothing worse than that. They wanted to see the whole family dead."[77] Former Viet Minh official Hoàng Văn Chí wrote that as many as 500,000 people may have died as a result of the policies of Hồ Chí Minh's government.[78] In his 1955 interviews, he described North Vietnam as a terrorist state where "the village guards would dig tombs" before every trial; where "ghastly" and "barbarous" torture was used; where the communists "starve the people in order to enslave them more surely"; where dissidents were either "in the other world [i.e., dead] or in the concentration camps"; and where non-communists had been "classified as landowners" and either "sentenced to hard labour" or "shot on the spot."[79]

 
Vietnamese boat people awaiting rescue.

During the Vietnam War, communist Viet Cong insurgents reportedly sliced off the genitals of village chiefs and sewed them inside their bloody mouths,[80] disemboweled civilians for purposes of psychological warfare,[81][82] cut off the tongues of helpless victims, rammed bamboo lances through one ear and out the other, slashed open the wombs of pregnant women, machine gunned children, hacked men and women to pieces with machetes, and cut off the fingers of small children who dared to get an education.[75][83] Squads were assigned monthly assassination quotas.[84] According to Guenter Lewy, Viet Cong insurgents assassinated at least 37,000 civilians in South Vietnam and routinely employed terror on a daily basis.[85] Ami Pedahzur has written that "the overall volume and lethality of Vietcong terrorism rivals or exceeds all but a handful of terrorist campaigns waged over the last third of the twentieth century".[86] Notable Viet Cong atrocities include the massacre of over 3,000 unarmed civilians at Huế during the Tet Offensive and the incineration of hundreds of civilians at Dak Son with flamethrowers.[87] Up to 155,000 refugees fleeing the final North Vietnamese Spring Offensive were killed or abducted on the road to Tuy Hòa in 1975.[88] According to Rummel, North Vietnamese and Viet Cong troops murdered between 106,000 and 227,000 civilians in South Vietnam.[89]

After the war, the new communist government sent at least 1 million South Vietnamese to "re-education camps" where at least 165,000 died of brutal mistreatment,[90][91] and over 1 million to "new economic zones" with perhaps 50,000 dying as a result.[89] Lê Duẩn's purges resulted in the execution of over 100,000 people;[92] refugees described victims being beheaded, eviscerated, or buried alive.[93] According to the United Nations High Commission for Refugees, between 200,000 and 400,000 Vietnamese boat people died at sea trying to escape.[94]

Laos

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The communist Pathet Lao overthrew the royalist government of Laos in December 1975, establishing the Lao People's Democratic Republic. The conflict between Hmong rebels and the Pathet Lao continued in isolated pockets. The government of Laos has been accused of committing genocide against the Hmong,[95][96] with up to 100,000 killed out of a population of 400,000.[97]

Footnotes

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  1. ^ Ronald Aronson. Communism's Posthumous TrialThe Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression by Stéphane Courtois; ThePassing of an Illusion: The Idea of Communism in the Twentieth Century by François Furet; The Burden of Responsibility: Blum, Camus, Aron, and the French Twentieth Century byTony Judt; Le Siècle des communismes by Michel Dreyfus. History and Theory, Vol. 42, No. 2 (May, 2003), pp. 222-245Published by: Wiley for Wesleyan UniversityStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3590882 .
  2. ^ Valentino (2005) Final solutions p. 9: "Mass killing and Genocide. No generally accepted terminology exists to describe the intentional killing of large numbers of noncombatants."
  3. ^ a b Stephen Wheatcroft. The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 1930–45. Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 48, No. 8 (Dec., 1996), pp. 1319–1353
  4. ^ a b Karlsson (2008) Crimes against humanity under communist regimes p. 8. Cite error: The named reference "Karlsson" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  5. ^ Raphael Lemkin. Genocide as a Crime under International Law. The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 41, No. 1 (Jan., 1947), pp. 145-151.
  6. ^ Beth van Schaack. The Crime of Political Genocide: Repairing the Genocide Convention's Blind Spot. The Yale Law Journal, Vol. 106, No. 7 (May, 1997), pp. 2259–2291
  7. ^ a b Michael Ellman. Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932-33 Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 59, No. 4 (Jun., 2007), pp. 663-693.
  8. ^ Beth van Schaack. The Crime of Political Genocide: Repairing the Genocide Convention's Blind Spot. The Yale Law Journal, Vol. 106, No. 7 (May, 1997), pp. 2259–2291
  9. ^ a b c Wayman, FW; Tago, A (2009). "Explaining the onset of mass killing, 1949–87". Journal of Peace Research Online: 1–17.
  10. ^ Straus, Scott. "Second-Generation Comparative Research on Genocide". World Politics, 2007, Vol. 59. pp 476-501.
  11. ^ a b c Williams, Paul (2008). Security Studies: An Introduction. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-42561-2.
  12. ^ Adam Jones. Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge; 2 edition (August 1, 2010). ISBN 041548619X
  13. ^ Helen Fein. Genocide. A sociologocal perspective. in Genocide: an anthropological reader, Volume 3 of Blackwell readers in anthropology. Blackwell Anthologies in Social and Cultural Sociology. Alexander Laban Hinton, ed. Wiley-Blackwell, (2002) ISBN 063122355X, 9780631223559, p. 74
  14. ^ Weiss-Wendt, Anton (December 2005). "Hostage of Politics Raphael Lemkin on "Soviet Genocide"". Journal of Genocide Research (7(4)): 551–559.
  15. ^ a b Rousso, Henry & Goslan, Richard Joseph (Eds.) (2004). Stalinism and Nazism: History and Memory Compared. U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-803-29000-6.
  16. ^ Harff, Barbara (1988). "Toward Empirical Theory of Genocides and Politicides: Identification and Measurement of Cases since 1945". 32: 359–371. {{cite journal}}: |first2= missing |last2= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  17. ^ Midlarsky, Manus I (2005). The killing trap: genocide in the twentieth century. Cambridge University Press. p. 310. ISBN 9780521815451. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |chapterurl= (help)
  18. ^ Midlarsky, Manus (2005). The killing trap: genocide in the twentieth century. Cambridge University Press. p. 321. ISBN 0521815452.
  19. ^ R.J. Rummel. Death by Government Chapter 2: Definition of Democide
  20. ^ Fein, Helen (1993). Genocide: a sociological perspective. Sage Publication. p. 75. ISBN 9780803988293.
  21. ^ Semelin, Jacques (2009). "Destroying to Eradicate". Purify and Destroy: The Political Uses of Massacre and Genocide. Columbia University Press. p. 318. ISBN 0231142838, 9780231142830. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  22. ^ Mann, Michael (2005). "The Argument". The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing. Cambridge University Press. p. 17. ISBN 0521538548, 9780521538541. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  23. ^ Charny, Israel (ed). (1999). Encyclopedia of Genocide, Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio.
  24. ^ Easterly, William, Roberta Gatti and Sergio Kurlat. (2006). "Development, democracy, and mass killings", Journal of Economic Growth 11: 129-56.
  25. ^ a b Esteban, Joan Maria, Morelli, Massimo and Rohner, Dominic, Strategic Mass Killings (May 11, 2010). Institute for Empirical Research in Economics, University of Zurich Working Paper No. 486. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1615375
  26. ^ “Draining the Sea”: Benjamin Valentino, Paul Huth, Dylan Balch-Lindsay. Mass Killing and Guerrilla Warfare. International Organization 58, Spring 2004, pp. 375–407
  27. ^ a b Valentino, Benjamin A (2005). "Communist Mass Killings: The Soviet Union, China, and Cambodia". Final solutions: mass killing and genocide in the twentieth century. Cornell University Press. pp. 91–151. ISBN 0801472733. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help) Cite error: The named reference "Valentino" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  28. ^ [1] The US Act of Congress (1993) establishing the Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation uses the term "Imperial Communist Holocaust"
  29. ^ Rauch, Jonathan (December 2003). "The Forgotten Millions: Communism is the deadliest fantasy in human history (but does anyone care?)". The Atlantic Monthly. Retrieved 24 April 2010.
  30. ^ http://www.victimsofcommunism.org/history_communism.php
  31. ^ Rosefielde, Steven (2009). Red Holocaust. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-77757-5.
  32. ^ Möller, Horst (1999). Der rote Holocaust und die Deutschen. Die Debatte um das 'Schwarzbuch des Kommunismus'. Piper Verlag. ISBN 978-3492041195. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  33. ^ Brand, Constant; Wielaard, Robert (8 June 2009). "Conservatives Post Gains In European Elections". The Washington Post. Associated Press. Retrieved 17 August 2010.
  34. ^ Ian Traynor (7 June 2009). "Misery for social democrats as voters take a turn to the right". The Guardian. UK. Retrieved 17 August 2010.
  35. ^ "18 new MEPs take their seats". European Parliament. 10 January 2012. Retrieved 14 February 2012.
  36. ^ "Press corner" (PDF). European Commission - European Commission.
  37. ^ Courtois (1999) "Introduction" p. 4: USSR: 20 million deaths; China: 65 million deaths; Vietnam: 1 million deaths; North Korea: 2 million deaths; Cambodia: 2 million deaths; Eastern Europe: 1 million deaths; Latin America: 150,000 deaths; Africa: 1.7 million deaths; Afghanistan: 1.5 million deaths; the international Communist movement and Communist parties not in power: about 10,000 deaths.
  38. ^ Courtois (1999) "Foreword" p. x.
  39. ^ Rummel (2005)
  40. ^ a b Rosefielde (2009) Cite error: The named reference "Rosefielde120121" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  41. ^ a b Sharp, Bruce (April 1, 2005). "Counting Hell: The Death Toll of the Khmer Rouge Regime in Cambodia". Retrieved January 22, 2012.
  42. ^ "Cambodian Genocide Program | Yale University". Yale.edu. July 18, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2012.
  43. ^ "Rummel, RJ, "Statistics of Cambodian Democide: Estimates, Calculations, And Sources."". Hawaii.edu. Retrieved January 22, 2012.
  44. ^ William Shawcross, The Quality of Mercy: Cambodia, Holocaust, and Modern Conscience (Touchstone, 1985), p115-6.
  45. ^ Heuveline, Patrick (2001). "The Demographic Analysis of Mortality in Cambodia." In Forced Migration and Mortality, eds. Holly E. Reed and Charles B. Keely. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
  46. ^ Marek Sliwinski, Le Génocide Khmer Rouge: Une Analyse Démographique (L'Harmattan, 1995).
  47. ^ Craig Etcheson, After the Killing Fields (Praeger, 2005), p119.
  48. ^ Khmer Rouge torturer describes killing babies by 'smashing them into trees' Mail Online, June 9, 2009
  49. ^ Helen Fein. Revolutionary and Antirevolutionary Genocides: A Comparison of State Murders in Democratic Kampuchea, 1975 to 1979, and in Indonesia, 1965 to 1966. Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 35, No. 4 (Oct., 1993), pp. 796–823
  50. ^ Goldhagen (2009) Worse than War p. 207.
  51. ^ Theory of the Global State: Globality as Unfinished Revolution by Martin Shaw, Cambridge University Press, 2000, pp 141, ISBN 9780521597302
  52. ^ Blamires, Cyprian and Paul Jackson, World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1, ABC-CLIO, 2006, p. 363.
  53. ^ Locard, Henri, State Violence in Democratic Kampuchea (1975-1979) and Retribution (1979-2004), European Review of History, Vol. 12, No. 1, March 2005, pp.121–143.
  54. ^ Soneath Hor, Sody Lay, and Grantham Quinn, "FIRST THEY KILLED HER SISTER: A DEFINITIVE ANALYSIS", Khmer Institute, 2001.
  55. ^ a b Doyle, Kevin. Putting the Khmer Rouge on Trial, Time, July 26, 2007
  56. ^ MacKinnon, Ian Crisis talks to save Khmer Rouge trial, The Guardian, 7 March 2007
  57. ^ The Khmer Rouge Trial Task Forc, Royal Cambodian Government
  58. ^ Rummel, R.J. (1997), Statistics Of North Korean Democide: Estimates, Calculations, And Sources, Statistics of Democide, Transaction.
  59. ^ Omestad, Thomas, "Gulag Nation", U.S. News & World Report, 23 June 2003.
  60. ^ Black Book of Communism, pg. 564.
  61. ^ Spoorenberg, Thomas and Schwekendiek, Daniel (2012). "Demographic Changes in North Korea: 1993–2008", Population and Development Review, 38(1), pp. 133-158.
  62. ^ Stephan Haggard, Marcus Noland, and Amartya Sen (2009), Famine in North Korea, Columbia University Press, p.209.
  63. ^ Rosefielde, Stephen (2009), Red Holocaust, p. 109.
  64. ^ Rosefielde (2009) Red Holocaust pp. 228, 243.
  65. ^ Robert F. Turner (1975), Vietnamese Communism: Its Origins and Development, Hoover Institution Press, pp.57-9, 67-9, and 74; Arthur J. Dommen (2001), The Indochinese Experience of the French and the Americans, Indiana University Press, pp.153-4.
  66. ^ Bodard, Lucien (1967), The Quicksand War: Prelude to Vietnam, Little, Brown and Company, p. 208-09.
  67. ^ Alec Holcombe, Politburo's Directive Issued on May 4, 1953, on Some Special Issues regarding Mass Mobilization Journal of Vietnamese Studies, Vol. 5, No. 2 (Summer 2010), pp. 243-247, quoting a translated Politburo directive from May 4, 1953. This directive was published in Complete Collection of Party Documents (Van Kien Dang Toan Tap), a 54 volume work authorized by the Vietnamese Communist Party.
  68. ^ Lam Thanh Liem (1990), "Chinh sach cai cach ruong dat cua Ho Chi Minh: sai lam hay toi ac?" in Jean-Francois Revel et al., Ho Chi Minh, Nam A, pp. 179-214.
  69. ^ Nhan Dan, August 13, 1957.
  70. ^ Time, July 1, 1957, p. 13, says they were given a proper burial.
  71. ^ Gittinger, J. Price, "Communist Land Policy in Viet Nam", Far Eastern Survey, Vol. 29, No. 8, 1957, p. 118.
  72. ^ Lam Thanh Liem (1990), "Chinh sach cai cach ruong dat cua Ho Chi Minh: sai lam hay toi ac?" in Jean-Francois Revel et al., Ho Chi Minh, Nam A, pp. 179-214.
  73. ^ Dommen, Arthur J. (2001), The Indochinese Experience of the French and the Americans, Indiana University Press, p. 340.
  74. ^ The History of the Vietnamese Economy (2005), Vol. 2, edited by Dang Phong of the Institute of Economy, Vietnamese Institute of Social Sciences.
  75. ^ a b Hubbel, John G. (November 1968). "The Blood-Red Hands of Ho Chi Minh". Readers Digest: 61–67.
  76. ^ Nhan Vhan, November 5, 1956: "In the agrarian reform, illegal arrests, imprisonments, investigations (with barbarous torture), executions, requisitions of property, and the quarantining of landowners’ houses (or houses of peasants wrongly classified as landowners), which left innocent children to die of starvation, are not exclusively due to the shortcomings of the leadership, but also due to the lack of a complete legal code. If the cadres had felt that they were closely observed by the god of justice... calamities might have been avoided for the masses." Nhan Vhan was one of the best-known opposition periodicals that was allowed during the three-month period of relative intellectual freedom in the fall of 1956, modeled on Mao's "Hundred Flowers" campaign.
  77. ^ Turner, Robert F. "Expert Punctures 'No Bloodbath' Myth". Human Events, November 11, 1972.
  78. ^ Hoang Van Chi (1962), From Colonialism to Communism: A Case Study of North Vietnam, New York: Congress of Cultural Freedom.
  79. ^ Interviews, August 17 and July 30, 1955, reprinted in Hoang Van Chi, The Fate of the Last Viets (1956), Saigon: Hoa Mai Publishing, pp30-40.
  80. ^ Baker, Mark (2001). Nam:The Vietnam War in the Words of the Men and Women Who Fought There. Cooper Square Press. ISBN 0-8154-1122-7.
  81. ^ De Silva, Peer (1978). Sub Rosa: The CIA and the Uses of Intelligence. New York: Time Books. ISBN 0-8129-0745-0.
  82. ^ Sheehan, Neil (2009). Bright Shining Lie: John Paul Vann and America in Vietnam. New York: Modern Library.
  83. ^ "Off With Their Hands". Newsweek. 15 May 1967.
  84. ^ U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee, The Human Cost of Communism in Vietnam (1972), p.49.
  85. ^ Lewy, Guenter (1978), America in Vietnam, Oxford University Press, pp. 270-9.
  86. ^ Pedahzur, Ami (2006), Root Causes of Suicide Terrorism: The Globalization of Martyrdom, Taylor & Francis, p.116.
  87. ^ Pike, Douglas (1996). PAVN: Peoples Army of Vietnam. Presidio.
  88. ^ Wiesner, Louis (1988), Victims and Survivors: Displaced Persons and Other War Victims in Viet-Nam, 1954-1975 Greenwood Press, pp. 318-9.
  89. ^ a b Rummel, Rudolph, Statistics of Vietnamese Democide, in his Statistics of Democide, 1997.
  90. ^ Anh Do and Hieu Tran Phan, Camp Z30-D: The Survivors, Orange County Register, 29 April 2001. Jacqueline Desbarats cites a higher estimate of 2.5 million sent to "reeducation" camps, which might suggest an even higher death toll.
  91. ^ Sagan, Ginetta, "Vietnam’s Postwar Hell," Newsweek, May 3, 1982, p. 13. "During the last three years friends and I have interviewed several hundred former prisoners, read newspaper articles on the camps as well as various reports of Amnesty International, and have studied official statements from the Vietnamese Government and its press on the re-education camps. The picture that emerges is one of severe hardship, where prisoners are kept on a starvation diet, overworked and harshly punished for minor infractions of camp rules. We know of cases where prisoners have been beaten to death, confined to dark cells or in ditches dug around the perimeters of the camps and executed for attempting escape. A common form of punishment is confinement to the CONEX boxes—air-freight containers that were left behind by the United States in 1975. The boxes vary in size; some are made of wood and others of metal. In a CONEX box 4 feet high and 4 feet wide, for example, several prisoners would be confined with their feet shackled, and allowed only one bowl of rice and water a day. "It reminded me of the pictures I saw of Nazi camp inmates after World War II," said a physician we interviewed who witnessed the release of four prisoners who had been confined to a CONEX box for one month. None of them survived."
  92. ^ Desbarats, Jacqueline. "Repression in the Socialist Republic of Vietnam: Executions and Population Relocation", from The Vietnam Debate (1990) edited by John Morton Moore, University Press of America. "We know now from a 1985 statement by Nguyen Co Tach that two and a half million, rather than one million, people went through reeducation....in fact, possibly more than 100,000 Vietnamese people were victims of extrajudicial executions in the last ten years....it is likely that, overall, at least one million Vietnamese were the victims of forced population transfers."
  93. ^ Jacqueline Desbarats and Karl D. Jackson, "Research Among Vietnamese Refugees Reveals a Bloodbath," Wall Street Journal, April 22, 1985.
  94. ^ Associated Press, June 23, 1979, San Diego Union, July 20, 1986. See generally Nghia M. Vo, The Vietnamese Boat People (2006), 1954 and 1975-1992, McFarland.
  95. ^ Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization. "WGIP: Side event on the Hmong Lao, at the United Nations". Retrieved 20 April 2011.
  96. ^ Jane Hamilton-Merritt, Tragic Mountains: The Hmong, the Americans, and the Secret Wars for Laos, 1942-1992 (Indiana University Press, 1999), pp337-460
  97. ^ Forced Back and Forgotten (Lawyers’ Committee for Human Rights, 1989), p8.

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