Wikipedia

Politics of Iran

(Redirected from Politics of modern Iran)

The politics of Iran takes place in the framework of an Islamic theocracy which was formed following the overthrow of Iran's millennia-long monarchy by the 1979 Revolution. Iran's system of government (nezam) was described by Juan José Linz in 2000 as combining "the ideological bent of totalitarianism with the limited pluralism of authoritarianism".[1] Although it "holds regular elections in which candidates who advocate different policies and incumbents are frequently defeated",[1] Iran scored lower than Saudi Arabia in the 2021 Democracy Index, determined by the Economist Intelligence Unit.[2]

Islamic Republic of Iran
Legislative branch
NameIslamic Consultative Assembly
TypeUnicameral
Meeting placeBaharestan, Tehran
Presiding officerMohammad Bagher Ghalibaf, Speaker
Executive branch
Head of government
TitlePresident
CurrentlyMasoud Pezeshkian
AppointerDirect popular vote
Head of state and government
TitleSupreme Leader
CurrentlyAli Khamenei
AppointerAssembly of Experts
Cabinet
NameCabinet of Iran
Current cabinetCabinet of Masoud Pezeshkian
LeaderPresident
Deputy leaderVice President
AppointerPresident
HeadquartersPresidential Administration of Iran, Sa'dabad Complex
Ministries19
Judicial branch
NameJudicial system of the Islamic Republic of Iran
CourtsCourts of Iran
Supreme Court
Chief judgeGholam-Hossein Mohseni-Eje'i
SeatCourthouse of Tehran

The December 1979 constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, declares that Shia Islam is Iran's state religion (around 90–95% of Iranians associate themselves with the Shia branch of Islam),[3] and it combines elements of theocracy (Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist) with a presidential system. Like many Western democracies, Iran has a president and a parliament (Majles). Unlike other Western or Islamic governments, the government of the Islamic Republic of Iran is supervised by a supreme leader, and an appointed and unelected Guardian Council half of which is made up of Islamic jurists.

The Supreme Leader is the head of state, above the president. According to Karim Sadjadpour he either has direct or indirect control of the executive, legislative and judicial branches of government, as well as the military and the media. Iran's president, a parliament (e.g. Majlis), an Assembly of Experts, which elects the supreme leader, and local councils are all elected. All candidates who run for these positions must be vetted by the Guardian Council (which disqualifies the overwhelming majority of the candidates) for their loyalty to the Islamic Republic's system of government.[4] In 1998, the Guardian Council rejected Hadi Khamenei's candidacy for a seat in the Assembly of Experts for "insufficient theological qualifications".[5][6] In addition, there are representatives elected from appointed organizations, usually under the Supreme Leader's control, to "protect the state's Islamic character".[7]

History and background

edit

1979 Revolution

edit

In 1979, Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was overthrown by an Islamic Revolution in Iran, replacing its millennia-old monarchy with a theocratic republic. Shortly after, the leader of the Revolution, a senior Islamic jurist named Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, also transliterated Khumaynî, successfully supported referendums to declare Iran an Islamic Republic in March 1979, and to approve a constitution in December 1979, whereby "the Islamic government" would be "based upon wilayat al-faqih", (Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist) "as proposed by Imam Khumaynî", quoting the preamble of the constitution.[8]

The constitution (which was drafted by an assembly made up primarily by disciples of Khomeini),[9] calls for a Vali-ye faqih (Guardian Islamic Jurist), to serve as the Supreme Leader of Iran,[10][11] and for Islamic jurists to serve in other powerful institutions such as the Guardian Council and Assembly of Experts.

Establishment of guardianship of the jurist

edit

Guardianship of the Jurist is a concept in Twelver Shia Islamic law, which holds that, in the absence of the "Infallible Imam", who, according to Twelver beliefs, is the religious and political leader of Islam and will reappear sometime before Judgement Day, righteous Shi'i jurists (faqīh)[12] should administer "some" of the "religious and social affairs" of the Shi'i community.[12] In its "absolute" form—the form advanced by the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini[13] and the basis of government in Islamic Republic of Iran—the state and society are ruled by an Islamic jurist. Khomeini served as the Guardian Jurist Supreme Leader of Iran until his death in 1989. His successor, Ali Khamenei, is still ruling as of mid 2023.

In a 1970 book on the subject circulated to his network of supporters, Khomeini argued that since Islamic sharia law contains everything needed to rule a state, whether ancient or modern,[14] any other basis of governance will lead to injustice and sin.[15] Thus Iran, the Muslim world and eventually the whole world, must be ruled according to sharia, and the person who should rule according to sharia, is an expert in that form of law.[16]

These Guardians are deemed the true holders of both religious and political authority, who must be obeyed as "an expression of obedience to God",[17] and whose rule has "precedence over all secondary ordinances in Islam such as prayer, fasting, and pilgrimage."[18]

Post-revolutionary political conditions

edit

The early days of the revolutionary government were characterized by political tumult. In November 1979, the US embassy was seized and its occupants taken hostage and kept captive for 444 days, because of US support for the Shah (monarch) of Iran. The eight-year Iran–Iraq War killed hundreds of thousands and cost the country billions of dollars. By the early 1980s, power struggles ended in leftists and nationalists eliminated from all governmental institutions,[19][20][21] and the revolutionary leader Ayatollah Khomeini and his supporters firmly in control.

Iran's post-revolution challenges have included the imposition of economic sanctions and the suspension of diplomatic relations with Iran by the United States because of the hostage crisis, political support to Iraq and other acts of terrorism that the U.S. government and some others have accused Iran of sponsoring. Emigration from Iran has cost Iran millions of educated people, including entrepreneurs, professionals, technicians, and skilled craftspeople and their capital.[22][23] Poverty rose by nearly 45% in absolute terms during the first 6 years of the Iran-Iraq War,[24] and according to the World Bank, by the time the war ended in 1988, per capita income was a little more than half of what it had been in 1976, shortly before the revolution.[25][26]

Human rights

edit
Background
edit

The alleged tyranny and brutality towards all opposition of the monarchy was one of the propaganda themes of the Islamic revolution, but the Islamic Republic has not tolerated opposition to its system of government, since, as mentioned above, it believes disobedience to it is disobedience to God. In 1984, Iran's representative to the United Nations, Saʿid Rajaʾie-Khorassani, declared the Universal Declaration of Human Rights to be representing a "secular understanding of the Judeo-Christian tradition", which did not "accord with the system of values recognized by the Islamic Republic of Iran" and whose provisions the IRI would "not hesitate to violate".[27][28]

In reply to international criticism of repression, Iranian officials loyal to the Supreme Leader deny wrongdoing, maintaining its human rights record is better than western countries who criticize its record.[29][30] In 2004, Judiciary chief Ayatollah Mahmoud Hashemi Shahroudi, denied that there were any political prisoners in Iran, saying "The world may consider certain cases, by their nature, political crimes, but because we do not have a law in this regard, these are considered ordinary offenses."[31] In 2008, President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad replied to a question about human rights by stating that Iran has fewer prisoners than the US and "the human rights situation in Iran is relatively a good one, when compared ... with some European countries and the United States."

Whether the Islamic Republic goes well beyond what Sunni and many Shia Muslims consider Islamic exceptions to international human rights norms, is also an issue. Khomeini's January 1988 pronouncement "... that [Islamic] government is a branch of the Prophet's absolute Wilayat and one of the primary (first order) rules of Islam that has priority over all ordinances of the law even praying, fasting and Hajj…The Islamic State could prevent implementation of everything – devotional and non- devotional – that so long as it seems against Islam's interests",[32][33] leads Ann Elizabeth Mayer to argue that this theory of velayat-e motlaqaye faqih ("the absolute authority of the jurist") "freed" the Islamic Republic "to do as it chose-even if this meant violating fundamental pillars of the religion ...", and that this doctrine, not sharia law, explained "the prevalence of torture and punishment of political dissent" in the Islamic Republic.[34]

On the other hand, despite the vast popularity of Khomeini in Iran before and after the revolution, (approximately 10 million people are estimated to have participated in his funeral in a country of about 60 million),[35][36] observers (Akbar Ganji, Arzoo Osanloo, Hooman Majd) have suggested there is no widespread support for violent crackdowns on dissent in contemporary Iran. "Notions of democracy and human rights" now have much deeper roots among Iranians than under the Shah,[37] and in fact are "almost hegemonic" (Arzoo Osanloo),[38] so that it is much harder to spread fear among them, even to the point that if Iranian intelligence services "were to arrest anyone who speaks ill of the government in private, they simply couldn't build cells fast enough to hold their prisoners", according to journalist Hooman Majd.[39]

Situation
edit

The Islamic Republic centralized and drastically expanded the prison system of the previous regime. In one early period (1981-1985) more than 7,900 people were executed.[40] Somewhere between 3,000 and 30,000 political prisoners were executed between July and early September 1988 on orders of the Ayatollah Khomeini, causing a 2020 UN Special Rapporteurs to send a letter to the regime describing the killings as "crimes against humanity".[41]

The Islamic Republic has been criticized both for restrictions and punishments that follow the Islamic Republic's constitution and law, but not international human rights norms (harsh penalties for crimes, punishment of victimless crimes, restrictions on freedom of speech and the press, restrictions on freedom of religion, etc.); and for "extrajudicial" actions that follow neither, such as firebombings of newspaper offices, and beatings, torture, rape, and killing without trial of political prisoners and dissidents/civilians.[42][43]

Protests

edit

While the Islamic Republic has been noted for its political stability, political protests against perceived corruption and injustice have become more severe and common in the twenty-first century. Nevertheless, at least one analyst, Seth G. Jones, believes that as of 2019, "the Iranian protest movement is ... too decentralized and Iranian security forces ... too strong" for the regime to be in danger of being overthrown by protesters.[44] Some protests include:

Leading figures and institutions

edit

Current office holders

edit
Main office holders
Office Name Picture Since
Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei   4 June 1989; 35 years ago (1989-06-04)
President Masoud Pezeshkian   28 July 2024; 5 months ago (2024-07-28)
Speaker of Parliament Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf   28 May 2020; 4 years ago (2020-05-28)
Chief Justice Gholam-Hossein Mohseni-Eje'i   1 July 2021; 3 years ago (2021-07-01)

Supreme Leader

edit
Further information: Supreme Leader of Iran

Two very powerful, unelected posts/institutions unique to the Islamic Republic are the Supreme Leader and Guardian Council.

The Supreme Leader of Iran[64] is the head of state and highest ranking political and religious authority (above the President). The armed forces, judicial system, state television, and other key governmental organizations such as the Guardian Council and Expediency Discernment Council are under the control of the Supreme Leader. According to article 110 of the constitution, the Supreme Leader delineates the general policies of the Islamic Republic. There have been only two Supreme Leaders since the founding of the Islamic Republic, and the current leader (Ali Khamenei), has been in power since 1989. His powers extend to issuing decrees and making final decisions on the economy, environment, foreign policy, education, national planning of population growth,[65][66][67][68][69][70][71] the amount of transparency in elections in Iran,[72] and who is to be fired and reinstated in the Presidential cabinet.[73][74]

 
Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei at the head of Iran, an Iranian poster

The Supreme Leader is appointed by the Assembly of Experts. All candidates to the Assembly of Experts, the President and the Majlis (Parliament), are selected by the Guardian Council, half of whose members are selected by the Supreme Leader of Iran.[75] All directly elected members after the vetting process by the Guardian Council still have to be approved by the Supreme Leader.[76][77]

Guardian Council

edit
Further information: Guardian Council

The Guardian Council is an appointed and constitutionally mandated 12-member council with considerable power. It approves or vetoes legislative bills from the Islamic Consultative Assembly (the Iranian Parliament), supervises elections, and approves or forbids candidates seeking office to the Assembly of Experts, the Presidency and the parliament.[78] Six of its twelve members are Islamic faqihs (expert in Islamic Law) selected by the Supreme Leader of Iran. The other six are jurists nominated by the Head of the Judicial system (who is also appointed by the Supreme Leader),[79] and approved by the Iranian Parliament.[80]

Political parties, factions and elections

edit

Political parties, organizations, pressure groups

edit
Further information: Political parties in Iran

After the revolution, the Islamic Republic Party was Iran's ruling and only legal political party until its dissolution in 1987. Its abolition has been attributed to Ayatollah Khomeini's well founded belief that leftist, monarchists and nationalists had been suppressed, and his network's place in power was secure. Supporters of the Islamic Republic Party reorganised themselves as "principalists", and along with the "reformists", became two of the major political factions in the country.[81]

The Executives of Construction Party was formed in 1994 to run for the fifth parliamentary elections, made up mainly of executives in the government close to the then-president Akbar Hashemi-Rafsanjani. There are several other legal political parties or associations operating in Iran. Legal political groups, must support the Ayatollah Khomeini, his Islamic Revolution, and the Islamist political system (nezam) created by the revolution, the exclusion of “nonrevolutionary” and secular parties from political participation, and agree Iran's fundamental security interest is the survival and strengthening of the nezam.[81]

Active student groups include the pro-reform "Office for Strengthening Unity" and "the Union of Islamic Student Societies". Groups that generally support the Islamic Republic include Ansar-e Hizballah, The Iranian Islamic Students Association, Muslim Students Following the Line of the Imam, Islam's Students, and the Islamic Coalition Association. The conservative power base has been said to be made up of a "web of Basiji militia members, families of war martyrs, some members of the Revolutionary Guard, some government employees, some members of the urban and rural poor, and conservative-linked foundations."[82]

see: List of political parties in Iran.
Anti-government groups

There are many nationalist, leftist and monarchist dissident parties and militias including National Front, the Constitutionalist Party, the Tudeh Party, People's Mujahedin Organization of Iran (MEK), Iranian People's Fedai Guerrillas (IPFG), and the Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan.

Political factions

edit
Further information: Political factions in Iran

Iran's political parties/organizations are said to represent political factions in Iran,[83][84] and according to at least one source, "factionalism has generally been more important than constitutional process in decision making",[85] especially under Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei, i.e. after 1990, when "factional competition" grew "markedly in both intensity and influence".[86]

Scholars such as Maziar Behrooz, Behzad Nabavi, Bahman Baktiari, Maaike Warnaar, Payam Mohseni, have given different formulations of them, varying in number, usually between three and five, the basic three being Principlists aka hard liners, Pragmatists and Reformists, and orientation (ideological purity vs. pragmatism; support for political and religious freedom vs. authoritarianism; support for regulation and intervention in the marketplace vs. laissez faire policies).

Elections

edit
Further information: Elections in Iran

These are the most recent elections that have taken place:

President

edit
Main article: 2024 Iranian presidential election

Local councils

edit
Further information: 2017 Iranian local elections

Islamic Consultative Assembly

edit
Further information: 2024 Iranian legislative election

Assembly of Experts

edit
Further information: 2024 Iranian Assembly of Experts election

Military

edit
Main article: Military of Iran

Public finance and fiscal policy

edit
See also: Economy of Iran, Economic history of Iran, Supreme Audit Court of Iran, Trade policy in Iran, Monetary policy in Iran, and Science policy in Iran

Budget

edit
See also: Bonyad and Setad
 
Government budget deficit has been a chronic problem in Iran. In 2004, about 45 percent of the government's budget came from exports of oil and natural gas revenues and 31 percent came from taxes and fees.[87]

Iran's fiscal year (FY) goes from 21 to 20 March of the following year.

Iran has two types of budget:

  1. Public or "General" Government Budget
  2. Overall or "Total" Government Budget; which includes state-owned companies

Iran's budget is established by the Management and Planning Organization of Iran and then proposed by the government to the parliament/Majlis. Once approved by Majlis, the bill still needs to be ratified by the Guardian Council. The bill will be sent back to the parliament for amendments if it is voted down by the Guardian Council. The Expediency Council acts as final arbiter in any dispute.

Following annual approval of the government's budget by Majlis, the central bank presents a detailed monetary and credit policy to the Money and Credit Council (MCC) for approval. Thereafter, major elements of these policies are incorporated into the five-year economic development plan.[88] The 5-year plan is part of "Vision 2025", a strategy for long-term sustainable growth.[89]

A unique feature of Iran's economy is the large size of the religious foundations, called Bonyads, whose combined budgets make up more than 30% of that of the central government.[90][91][92]

Setad, another organization worth more than $95 billion, has been described as "secretive" and "little known".[93] It is not overseen by the Iranian Parliament. In 2008, Parliament voted to "prohibit itself from monitoring organizations that the supreme leader controls, except with his permission". It is an important factor in the Supreme Leader's power, giving him financial independence from parliament and the national budget.[93]

The National Development Fund of Iran (NDFI) does not depend on Iran's budget.[94] But according to the Santiago Principles, NDFI must coordinate its investment decisions and actions with the macro-economic and monetary policies of the government of Iran.

Revenues

edit
See also: Taxation in Iran
 
Iran's projected oil and gas projected revenues by the International Monetary Fund

In 2004, about 45 percent of the government's budget came from exports of oil and natural gas revenues. This varies with the fluctuations in world petroleum markets. 31 percent of the budget came from taxes and fees.[87] Overall, an estimated 50 percent of Iran's GDP was exempt from taxes in FY 2004.[95]

In 2010, oil income accounted for 80% of Iran's foreign currency revenues and 60% of Iran's overall budget.[citation needed] Any surplus revenues from the sale of crude oil and gas are to be paid into the Oil Stabilization Fund (OSF). In 2010, the approved "total budget", including state owned commercial companies, was $295 billion.[96]

The Government seeks to increase the share of tax revenue in the budget through the implementation of the economic reform plan, through more effective tax collection from businesses.

As of 2016, the formula set by law is that, for sales of oil at or below the budget's price assumption, 14.5% remains with the National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC), 20% goes to the National Development Fund (NDF), 2% goes to deprived and oil-producing provinces, and 63.5% goes to the government treasury.[97]

Iran has not yet implemented the treasury single account system.[98]

Expenditures

edit
See also: Military budget of Iran and Iranian Economic Reform Plan
 
National Budget Expenditures for Social and Economic Purposes, Fiscal Year 2004. Government spending as percent of total budget was 6% for health care, 16% for education and 8% for the military in the period 1992–2000 and contributed to an average annual inflation rate of 14 percent in the period 2000–2008.

Because of changes in the classification of budgetary figures, comparison of categories among different years is not possible. However, since the Iranian Revolution, the government's general budget payments have averaged:[95]

  • 59 percent for social affairs,
  • 17 percent for economic affairs,
  • 15 percent for national defense, and
  • 13 percent for general affairs.

Iran spent 22.5% of its 2003 national budget on social welfare programs, of which more than 50% covered pension costs.[99]

For a breakdown of expenditures for social and economic purposes, see the attached chart.

In FY 2004, central government expenditures were divided as follows:[95]

  • current expenditures, 59 percent, and
  • capital expenditures, 32 percent.
  • Other items (earmarked expenditures, foreign-exchange losses, coverage of liabilities of letters of credit, and net lending) accounted for the remainder.

Among current expenditures, wages and salaries accounted for 36 percent; subsidies and transfers to households accounted for 22 percent (not including indirect subsidies). Earmarked expenditures totaled 13 percent of the central government total. Between FY 2000 and FY 2004, total expenditures and net lending accounted for about 26 percent of GDP.[95] According to the Vice President for Parliamentary Affairs, Iran's subsidy reforms would save 20 percent of the country's budget.[citation needed]

According to the head of the Department of Statistics of Iran,[100] if the rules of budgeting were observed in this structure, the government could save at least 30 to 35 percent on its expenses.[101]

Contrary to the main objective and because of a lack in the implementation of the subsidy reform plan, the volume of Iranian subsidies given to its citizens on fossil fuel, which increased 42.2% in 2019, equals 15.3% of Iran's GDP and 16% of total global energy subsidies.[102][103] As a direct consequence, Iranian taxpayers incur a loss of $3.3 billion annually because of fuel smuggling (& not including other smuggled oil derivatives), equivalent to the "development budget" of Iran.[104]

Public debt

edit
See also: Central Bank of Iran and Banking in Iran

Distribution of Public Debt (FY 2016)[105]

  Unsecurized Public Debt (43.3% of GDP) (88.2%)
  Securized Public Debt (4.3% of GDP) (8.8%)
  External Debt (1.5% of GDP) (3%)

In 2014, Iran's banks and financial institutions total claims on the public sector (government and governmental institutions) amounted to 929 trillion IRR ($34.8 billion), which must be reduced according to the IMF.[106][107][108] IMF estimates that public debt could be as high as 40% of GDP (or more) once government arrears to the private sector are recognized.[109] These arrears are owed to banks (45%), private contractors (37%), and social security (18%) (FY 2016).[105]

External debts
edit
See also: Foreign exposure of Iran and Foreign direct investment in Iran

In 2013, Iran's external debts stood at $7.2 billion compared with $17.3 billion in 2012.[110] Iran's external debt was $7.12 billion in April 2022. This is one of the lowest numbers internationally (~$90 per capita).[111]

Financial situation of the government

edit
See also: Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran
Financial situation of the Government[112][113][114][115]
2007-2009 (In billion Iranian rials)1)3)4)5)6)7)
Year 1386 (2007–08)

(realized)

% of nominal GDP

(2007–08)[113][116]

Year 1387 (2008–09)

(approved budget)

Year 1387 (2008–09)

(realized)

Year 1391 (2012–13)

(realized)

Revenues and payments
191,815.3 11.4% 217,155 239,741.4 395,166.7 Tax revenues (i.e. Income tax, Corporate tax, VAT, Customs fees etc.)
106,387.8 121,598.1 139,597.1 173,036.5 (+) Other revenues (i.e. Public corporations' dividend, Government services & other fees)
298,203.1 338,753.1 379,338.5 568,203.2 = Revenues
(-) 421,334.1 16.1% (-) 621,126 (-) 564,290.0 (-) 889,993.2 (–) Expenditure payments/current (i.e. Government wages) (see also: Iranian targeted subsidy plan)
-123,131 4.7% -282,372.9 -184,951.5 -321,790.0 = (+/-) Operational balance*
173,519.1 298,865.6 215,650.3 425,526.5 Sale of oil and oil products (see also: Ministry of Petroleum of Iran & National Iranian Oil Company)
1,272.7 3,095 986.5 2,994.9 (+) Others (Value of movable and immovable properties)
174,791.8 301,960.6 216,636.7 428,521.4 = Transfer of capital assets
- 147,715.8 (-157,215.8)(2) 5.6% (-) 251,573.8 (-) 213,495.8 (-) 152,277.4 (–) Acquisition of capital assets/development expenditures (in Transport, Urban and Rural Development and Housing Provision Plans in the Framework of Welfare and Social Security System)
27,076.1 (17,576.1)(2) 50,386.8 3,140.9 276,244.0 = Net transfer of capital assets
-123,131 4.7% -282,372.9 -184,951.5 -321,790.0 + Operational balance (see above for details*)
-96,054.9 (-105,554.9)(2) 3.7% -231,986.1 -181,810.6 -45,546.0 = Operational and capital balance (Operational balance + Net transfer of capital assets)
156,614.1 (166,114.0)(2) 267,771.6 218,260.0 67,696.1 Transfer of financial assets (i.e. Privatization proceeds, World Bank facilities, Sale of participation papers & Oil Stabilization Fund utilization)
(-) 60,559.2 (-) 35,785.5 (-) 36,449.4 (-) 22,150.1 (–) Acquisition of financial assets (i.e. Repayment of external debts and obligations)
96,054.9 (105,554.9)(2) 3.7% 231,986.1 181,810.6 45,546.0 = Net transfer of financial assets (Transfer of financial assets – Acquisition of financial assets)

Notes:
1) Since 2002, the latest International Monetary Fund Guidelines on government financial statistics have been used as a model to prepare annual budgetary acts. Accordingly, revenues are classified into "taxes and other revenues", and "oil sales" which had earlier been classified as revenue are now referred to as "transfer of capital assets".
2) In 2007/08, it includes budget supplement at Rls. 9,500 billion.
3) The government budget does not include state revenues and expenses derived from state owned commercial enterprises.[117]
4) The government budget does not account for subsidies paid to state owned commercial enterprise. See also Subsidy reform plan.[117]
5) Excluding special revenues and expenditures and the figure for transparency in the price (subsidy) of energy bearers.[113]
6) For "Total Government Budget" (including state owned commercial companies), see Statistical Center of Iran.
7) Hidden spending and liability not included.

Annual budgets

edit

2009–10

edit

In Iran's state budget for the Iranian calendar year 1388 (2009–2010), of the $102 billion earmarked for government spending,[96]

Oil revenues are calculated based on the average price of $37.50 per barrel at the US Dollar conversion rate of 9,500 Rials.[118] Iran balances its external accounts around $75 per barrel.[119]

2010–11

edit

The budget for Iranian year 1389 (2010–2011), which starts on 21 March, amounts to $368.4bn, representing an increase of 31 per cent on the previous year and is based on a projected oil price of $60 a barrel compared with just $37.50 last year.[118]

2011–12

edit

The public budget was $165 billion (1,770 trillion rials) in Iranian year 2011–2012. The Iranian Parliament also approved a total budget of $508 billion (5,170 trillion rials) that factors in $54 billion from price hikes and subsidy cuts and aside from the government (or public budget) also includes spending for state-owned companies.[120][121] The budget is based on an oil price of $81.5 per barrel. The value of the US dollar is estimated at IRR 10,500 for the same period. The 2011-12 total budget is 40 per cent bigger than previous year's (which stood at $368 billion) because of dropping subsidies on energy and food item.[121]

2012–13

edit

The proposed budget for 2011–2012 amounts to 5.1 quadrillion rials (approximately $416 billion).[122] The funding for running the government has been decreased by 5.6 percent and the government's tax revenues have been envisaged to rise by 20 percent.[122] The defense budget shows an increase of 127 percent. The government also is seeking higher sums for development, research, and health projects.[123] Approved budget of 5,660 trillion Rials $477 billion is based on an oil price of $85 per barrel and the average value of the U.S. dollar for the fiscal year has been projected to be 12,260 rials, allowing the government to gain $53.8 billion from subsidy cut.[124]

The approved total state budget figure shows an 11% increase in Rial terms, in comparison to the previous year's budget. Of this amount, $134 billion relates to the government's general budget and the remaining $343 billion relates to state-owned companies and organizations. Of the $134 billion for the government's general budget, $117 billion relates to operating expenditure and $17 billion is for infrastructure developments. The government's general budget for 2012–13 shows a 3.5% decline in comparison to the previous year, while the budget for state-owned companies and organisations has risen by 18.5%. Revenues from crude oil make up 37% of the state's total revenues in the budget. Revenues from taxes have been projected at 458 trillion Rials ($37 billion), which shows a 10% increase year-on-year.[125] In the first half of 2012, Iran announced in Majlis that it has taken in only 25% of its budgeted annual revenue.[126] According to Apicorp, Iran needs oil to average $127 a barrel in 2012 for its fiscal budget to break even.[127]

2013–14

edit

In May 2013, the Iranian parliament approved a 7.27-quadrillion-rial (about $593 billion) national budget bill for 2013–14. The new national budget has forecast a 40% drop in oil revenues compared to the previous year's projected figure. The bill has set the price of oil at $95 per barrel, based on the official exchange rate of 12,260 rials for a U.S. dollar, which has been fixed by the Central Bank of Iran.[128] The budget law also includes income of 500 trillion Rials from the subsidies reform plan. Out of this amount, 410 trillion Rials is allocated for direct cash handouts to those eligible who have registered and for social funds.[129]

2014–15

edit

Iran's earmarked government spending for the year starting in March 2014 at $75 billion, calculated on an open-market exchange rate, with an overall/"total" budget ceiling estimated at $265 billion. The draft budget estimates oil exports at about 1.1 million barrels per day (bpd). The 2014 budget assumes an average oil price of $100 per barrel, inflation at 21%, GDP growth at 3% and the official USD/IRR exchange rate at 26,000 Iranian rials.[130][131][132][133] The budget bill permits the government to use more than $35 billion in foreign finance.[134] Capital expenditure is set to rise by 9.7%.[135]

The administration has set the goal of 519 trillion rials, (about $20.9 billion) government's income from implementation of the subsidy reform plan in budget bill and will be likely forced to double fuel prices.[136] In February 2014, Parliament approved a total budget bill worth 7,930 trillion rials ($319 billion at the official exchange rate).[137] The International Monetary Fund has estimated Iran needs an oil price above $130 a barrel to balance its 2015-state budget; Brent crude was below $80 a barrel in November 2014. The IMF estimated in October 2014 that Iran would run a general government deficit of $8.6 billion in 2015, at the official exchange rate, to be compensated by drawing on the National Development Fund.[138]

2015–16

edit

Iran's 2015 proposed budget is nearly $300 billion. The overall/"total" budget shows a 4% growth compared with the 2014 budget. The budget assumes that the country exports 1 million barrels per day of crude oil and 0.3 million barrels per day of gas condensates at an average price of $72 per barrel of crude.[139] The official exchange rate is projected to be on average US$28,500/IRR.[140] Dependency on oil exports in this overall budget bill has dropped to 25% (down from over 30% of government revenues in 2014.)[citation needed] The plan is to increase taxation on large organizations by reducing tax evasion/exemption. The Iranian state is the biggest player in the economy, and the annual budget strongly influences the outlook of local industries and the stock market. The 2015 budget is not expected to bring much growth for many of the domestic industries.[140][141]

An average oil price of $50 for the coming year would result in a deficit of $7.5 billion. The government can lower this deficit by increasing the official exchange rate but this will trigger higher inflation.[142] The proposed expenses are $58 billion including $39 billion is salary and pension payments to government employees. Proposed development expenditure amounts to $17 billion.[142] R&D's share in the GNP is at 0.06% (where it should be 2.5% of GDP)[143][144] and industry-driven R&D is almost non‑existent.[140]

2016–17

edit

Proposed government budget is 9.52-quadrillion Iranian rials (about 262 billion US dollars).[145] Assumptions made in the budget are $50 billion in foreign investment and foreign loans, 5-6% GDP growth and 11% inflation.[145] Sixty-five percent of the budget is to be financed through taxation and the remaining 35% from oil sales, based on 2.25 million barrels of oil sales per day, an average oil price of 40 dollars a barrel and US dollar-Iranian rial exchange rate at 29,970.[145]

According to the sixth five-year development plan (2016-2021), the subsidy reform plan is to continue until 2021.[145]

An amendment to the budget was passed in August 2016. This amendment allows the government to issue debt based instruments and the use of forex reserves in an attempt to clear its debt to the private sector, including contractors, banks and insurers.[146]

2021-22

edit
Main article: 2021–22 Iranian national budget

2022-23

edit
Main article: 2022–23 Iranian national budget

Complexity of the system

edit
 
Iran's complex and unusual political system combines elements of a modern Islamic theocracy with democracy. A network of elected, partially elected, and unelected institutions influence each other in the government's power structure.

According to the constitution, the Guardian Council oversees and approves electoral candidates for elections in Iran. The Guardian Council has 12 members: 6 clerics, appointed by the Supreme Leader and 6 jurists, elected by the Majlis from among the Muslim jurists nominated by the Head of the Judicial System, who is appointed by the Supreme Leader. According to the current law, the Guardian Council approves the Assembly of Experts candidates, who in turn elect the Supreme Leader.

The reformists say this system creates a closed circle of power.[citation needed] Iranian reformists, such as Mohammad-Ali Abtahi have considered this to be the core legal obstacle for the reform movement in Iran.[147][148][149][150][151]

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^ a b Juan José Linz, Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes (Lynne Rienner, 2000), p. 36. Archived 2020-07-26 at the Wayback Machine.
  2. ^ "Democracy Index 2021: the China challenge" (PDF). Economist Intelligence Unit. 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2024.
  3. ^ "The World Factbook". Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 20 February 2011. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  4. ^ Muir, Jim (12 January 2000). "Khamenei's brother attacks reformist purge". BBC News. Retrieved 28 July 2009.
  5. ^ A. William Samii (17 January 2000). "Candidates rejected and Guardians Criticized". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Iran Report. Retrieved 28 July 2009 – via GlobalSecurity.org.
  6. ^ "Iranian Elections, 1997-2001". PBS. Retrieved 28 July 2009.
  7. ^ IRAN: POLITICS, THE MILITARY AND GULF SECURITY Archived 15 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine by Darius Bazargan, v.1, n.3, September 1997
  8. ^ "Iran (Islamic Republic of)'s Constitution of 1979 with Amendments through 1989. Preamble. Islamic Government" (PDF). Constitute Project. p. 6. Retrieved 3 August 2022.
  9. ^ Abrahamian, Khomeinism, 1993: p.33-36
  10. ^ Taking Stock of a Quarter Century of the Islamic Republic of Iran Archived 27 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Wilfried Buchta, Harvard Law School, June 2005, p.5–6
  11. ^ Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, section 8 Archived 23 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine Article 109 states an essential qualification of "the Leader" is "scholarship, as required for performing the functions of mufti in different fields of fiqh"
  12. ^ a b "Review by Hossein Modarressi, by THE JUST RULER OR THE GUARDIAN JURIST: AN ATTEMPT TO LINK TWO DIFFERENT SHICITE CONCEPTS by Abdulaziz Abdulhussein Sachedina". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 3 (3): 549–562. July–September 1991. JSTOR 604271. Retrieved 31 July 2022.
  13. ^ Algar, Hamid; Hooglund, Eric. "VELAYAT-E FAQIH Theory of governance in Shiʿite Islam". Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 31 July 2022.
  14. ^ Khomeini, Islamic Government, 1981: p.137-8
  15. ^ Khomeini, Islamic Government, 1981: p.31-33
  16. ^ Abrahamian, Ervand, Khomeinism : Essays on the Islamic Republic by Ervand Abrahamian, p.34-5
  17. ^ Islamic Government Islam and Revolution I, Writings and declarations of Imam Khomeini, 1981, p.91
  18. ^ Hamid Algar, `Development of the Concept of velayat-i faqih since the Islamic Revolution in Iran,` paper presented at London Conference on wilayat al-faqih, in June, 1988] [p.135-8]. Also Ressalat, Tehran, 7 January 1988, online]
  19. ^ Moin, Khomeini (2001), p.21-234
  20. ^ Arjomand, Said Amir, The Turban for the Crown : The Islamic Revolution in Iran, Oxford University Press, c1988, p.144
  21. ^ Bakhash, Shaul, Reign of the Ayatollahs : Iran and the Islamic Revolution by Shaul, Bakhash, Basic Books, c1984 p.158-9
  22. ^ "Iran's Economic Morass". www.washingtoninstitute.org. Archived from the original on 17 June 2009. Retrieved 29 July 2020.
  23. ^ Harrison, Frances (8 January 2007). "Huge cost of Iranian brain drain By Frances Harrison". BBC News. Archived from the original on 29 March 2012. Retrieved 7 February 2012.
  24. ^ Based on the government's own Planning and Budget Organization statistics, from: Jahangir Amuzegar, 'The Iranian Economy before and after the Revolution,' Middle East Journal 46, n.3 (summer 1992): 421)
  25. ^ "According to World Bank figures, which take 1974 as 100, per capita GDP went from a high of 115 in 1976 to a low of 60 in 1988, the year war with Iraq ended ..." (Keddie, Modern Iran, 2003, p.274)
  26. ^ Low reached in 1995, from: Mackey, Iranians, 1996, p. 366.
  27. ^ United Nations General Assembly. 39th Session. Third Committee. 65th meeting, held on 7 December 1984 at 3 pm New York. A/C.3/39/SR.65. quoted by Luiza Maria Gontowska, Human Rights Violations Under the Sharia'a, A Comparative Study of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Islamic Republic of Iran, May 2005, p. 4
  28. ^ paraphrased speech, UN Doc. A/C.3/39/SR.65, para. 95. quoted in Mayer, Ann Elizabeth (1996). "Islamic Rights or Human Rights: An Iranian Dilemma". Iranian Studies. 29 (3 (Summer)/4 (Autumn)): 269–296. doi:10.1080/00210869608701851. JSTOR 4310998. Retrieved 6 September 2022.
  29. ^ "Tehran Times". 5 March 2008. Retrieved 12 April 2016.
  30. ^ "Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad on the Threat of US Attack and International Criticism of Iran's Human Rights Record". Democracy Now!. Retrieved 12 April 2016.
  31. ^ John Pike (3 May 2004). "Iran Report, A Weekly Review of Developments in and Pertaining to Iran, 3 May 2004". Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 26 September 2013.
  32. ^ Sahife’ Noor (letters and lectures of Ayatollah Khomeini), Volume 20, p. 170. quoted in Vaezi, Ahmed (2004). "The Dominion Of The Wali Al-Faqih". Shia Political Thought. Retrieved 11 August 2022. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
  33. ^ Keyhan, January 8, 1988; quoted in MATSUNAGA, Yasuyuki (2009). "Revisiting Ayatollah Khomeini's Doctrine of Wilayat al-Faqıh (Velayat-e Faqıh)". Orient. XLIV: 81, 87. Retrieved 5 August 2022.
  34. ^ Mayer, Ann Elizabeth (1996). "Islamic Rights or Human Rights: An Iranian Dilemma". Iranian Studies. 29 (3 (Summer)/4 (Autumn)): 269–270. doi:10.1080/00210869608701851. JSTOR 4310998. Retrieved 6 September 2022.
  35. ^ Pendle, George (29 August 2018). "Which Famous Figure Had the Biggest Public Funeral?". HISTORY. Archived from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
  36. ^ "The ten largest gatherings in human history". www.telegraph.co.uk. 19 January 2015. Archived from the original on 29 October 2021. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
  37. ^ "The Latter-Day Sultan, Power and Politics in Iran" by Akbar Ganji, Foreign Affairs, November/December 2008
  38. ^ Sally E. Merry, New York University, writing about The Politics of Women's Rights in Iran by Arzoo Osanloo accessed 30-June-2009
  39. ^ Majd, The Ayatollah Begs to Differ, 2008, p.183
  40. ^ source: Anonymous "Prison and Imprisonment", Mojahed, 174–256 (20 October 1983 – 8 August 1985).
  41. ^ "Mandates of the Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances; ..." Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights. 3 September 2020. Retrieved 22 January 2021.
  42. ^ Ehsan Zarrokh (Ehsan and Gaeini, M. Rahman). "Iranian Legal System and Human Rights Protection" The Islamic Law and Law of the Muslim World e-journal, New York law school 3.2 (2009).
  43. ^ "Rights Crisis Escalates Faces and Cases from Ahmadinejad's Crackdown, 20 September 2008". Iranhumanrights.org. 20 September 2008. Retrieved 26 September 2013.
  44. ^ Jones, Seth G. (8 November 2019). "Iran's Protests and the Threat to Domestic Stability". CSIS, Center for Strategic and International Studies. Retrieved 6 September 2022.
  45. ^ "New Arrests and "Disappearances" of Iranian Students". Human Rights Watch. 1 February 2013. Retrieved 25 February 2013.
  46. ^ "Iran official says 36 killed in post-vote unrest". AFP. 10 September 2009. Archived from the original on 5 February 2010. Retrieved 14 February 2011.
  47. ^ BBCPersianTV (8 June 2012). "BBCPersian: The cases of the victims of the 2009 election". BBC. Archived from the original on 8 June 2012. Retrieved 8 June 2012.
  48. ^ "Chaos prevails as protesters, police clash in Iranian capital". CNN. 21 June 2009. Archived from the original on 30 January 2011. Retrieved 14 February 2011.
  49. ^ "١۵٠ ایرانیانی که از خرداد ١٣۸۸ تا تیر ١٣۸۹ به دست رژیم کشته شده اند | انقلاب اسلامی در هجرت". Sarbaz01. Archived from the original on 12 September 2010. Retrieved 11 September 2010.
  50. ^ "Iran's Karroubi isolated but determined". Google News. Tehran. Agence France-Presse. 25 February 2011. Archived from the original on 22 February 2013. Retrieved 25 February 2011.
  51. ^ "Iran: Freedom of expression denied". 26 September 2011. Archived from the original on 10 June 2015. Retrieved 11 June 2015.
  52. ^ "Iran limits the freedoms of speech, press, and the right of assembly; denies the right of personal freedom; and prevents the freedom of religion. The following explains the constant abuses of the human rights by giving some examples". Archived from the original on 6 March 2013. Retrieved 6 April 2013.
  53. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 23 August 2019. Retrieved 6 April 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  54. ^ Gast, Phil; Andone, Dakin. "Here's why the Iran protests are significant". CNN. Archived from the original on 1 January 2018. Retrieved 2 January 2018.
  55. ^ Erdbrink, Thomas (30 December 2017). "Iran Confronts 3rd Day of Protests, With Calls for Khamenei to Quit". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 30 December 2017.
  56. ^ "Iranian protesters attack police stations, raise stakes in unrest". Reuters. 2 January 2018. Archived from the original on 1 January 2018. Retrieved 2 January 2018.
  57. ^ Kim Senqupta (2 January 2018). "Iran protests latest: Grand Ayatollah accuses foreign powers of meddling as protest death toll rises to 22". Independent. Archived from the original on 2 January 2018. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
  58. ^ Səid Kəmali Dəğan və Culiyan Borqer (2 January 2018). "Iran's enemies to blame for unrest, says supreme leader, as death toll rises". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2 January 2018. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
  59. ^ "Iran: le bilan officiel des manifestations monte à 25 morts". Le Monde with AFP. 14 January 2018. Archived from the original on 22 November 2019. Retrieved 1 June 2018.
  60. ^ Con Qambrell (9 January 2018). "Iran lawmaker says some 3,700 arrested amid protests, unrest". ABC News. Archived from the original on 9 January 2018. Retrieved 10 January 2018.
  61. ^ "Special Report: Iran's leader ordered crackdown on unrest – 'Do whatever it takes to end it'". 23 December 2019. Archived from the original on 23 December 2019. Retrieved 23 December 2019.
  62. ^ "Iran arrests 7,000 fuel protesters in one week". 27 November 2019. Archived from the original on 27 November 2019. Retrieved 28 November 2019.
  63. ^ "Iranian police clash with protesters after water shortage rallies". Reuters. 26 November 2021. Retrieved 6 September 2022.
  64. ^ Article 89-91, Iranian Constitution
  65. ^ "Iran's Khamenei hits out at Rafsanjani in rare public rebuke". Middle East Eye. Archived from the original on 4 April 2016. Retrieved 15 August 2017.
  66. ^ "Khamenei says Iran must go green - Al-Monitor: the Pulse of the Middle East". Al-Monitor. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 15 August 2017.
  67. ^ Louis Charbonneau and Parisa Hafezi (16 May 2014). "Exclusive: Iran pursues ballistic missile work, complicating nuclear talks". Reuters.com. Archived from the original on 31 July 2017. Retrieved 15 August 2017.
  68. ^ "IranWire - Asking for a Miracle: Khamenei's Economic Plan". En.iranwire.com. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 15 August 2017.
  69. ^ "Khamenei outlines 14-point plan to increase population". Archived from the original on 1 August 2017. Retrieved 15 August 2017.
  70. ^ "Iran: Executive, legislative branch officials endorse privatization plan". Payvand.com. Archived from the original on 5 January 2017. Retrieved 15 August 2018.
  71. ^ "Khamenei slams Rouhani as Iran's regime adopted UN education agenda". Thebaghdadpost.com. 8 May 2017. Archived from the original on 31 May 2017. Retrieved 15 August 2018.
  72. ^ "Leader outlines elections guidelines, calls for transparency". Tehrantimes.com. 15 October 2016. Archived from the original on 1 August 2017. Retrieved 15 August 2018.
  73. ^ "St. Albert Gazette". St. Albert Gazette. Archived from the original on 17 December 2013. Retrieved 15 August 2018.
  74. ^ "BBC NEWS - Middle East - Iranian vice-president 'sacked'". News.bbc.co.uk. 25 July 2009. Archived from the original on 25 July 2009. Retrieved 15 August 2017.
  75. ^ "Rafsanjani breaks taboo over selection of Iran's next supreme leader". Theguardian.com. 14 December 2015. Archived from the original on 18 December 2016. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
  76. ^ (see Article 108 of the constitution)
  77. ^ "ICL - Iran - Constitution". Servat.unibe.ch. Archived from the original on 21 August 2018. Retrieved 15 August 2018. "Everything you need to know about Iran's Assembly of Experts election". Brookings.edu. 30 November 2001. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
  78. ^ Article 99 of the constitution
  79. ^ "خانه ملت". Archived from the original on 18 June 2009. Retrieved 15 August 2017.
  80. ^ "Iranian Government Constitution, English Text". Iranonline.com. Archived from the original on 17 June 2011.
  81. ^ a b Nader, Next Supreme Leader, 2011: p.12
  82. ^ Molavi, Afshin, The Soul of Iran, Norton, (2005), p.353
  83. ^ Sherrill, Clifton (2011). "After Khamenei: Who Will Succeed Iran's Supreme Leader?". Orbis. 55 (4): 631–47. doi:10.1016/j.orbis.2011.07.002.
  84. ^ Thaler; et al. (2010). Mullahs, Guards, and Bonyads: An Exploration of Iranian Leadership Dynamics. Sacramento, CA: RAND Corporation. ISBN 978-0-8330-4773-1.
  85. ^ Nader, Next Supreme Leader, 2011: p.11
  86. ^ Nader, Next Supreme Leader, 2011: p.18
  87. ^ a b Iran - MSN Encarta>. Archived from the original on 28 October 2009. Retrieved 25 May 2010.
  88. ^ Curtis, Glenn; Hooglund, Eric (April 2008). Iran, a country study. Washington, D.C., USA: Library of Congress. p. 195. ISBN 978-0-8444-1187-3. Archived from the original on 16 December 2019. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  89. ^ Ayse, Valentine; Nash, Jason John; Leland, Rice (January 2013). The Business Year 2013: Iran. London, U.K.: The Business Year. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-908180-11-7. Archived from the original on 27 December 2016. Retrieved 15 February 2015.
  90. ^ Economist, 18 January 2003
  91. ^ Pike, John. "Mostazafan and Janbazan (Oppressed and Disabled Veterans) Foundation (MJF)". www.globalsecurity.org. Archived from the original on 6 September 2017. Retrieved 15 August 2018.
  92. ^ Abrahamian, History of Modern Iran, (2008), p. 178
  93. ^ a b Steve Stecklow; Babak Dehghanpisheh; Yeganeh Torbati (11 November 2013). "Khamenei controls massive financial empire built on property seizures, (part 1)". Reuters. Archived from the original on 12 November 2013. Retrieved 13 November 2013.
  94. ^ National Development Fund of Iran an overview of activities. YouTube. 11 July 2014. Archived from the original on 15 March 2016. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
  95. ^ a b c d "About this Collection" (PDF). The Library of Congress. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 June 2015. Retrieved 18 May 2016.
  96. ^ a b c "Iran Investment monthly" (PDF). Turquoisepartners.com. May 2009. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 January 2016. Retrieved 15 August 2018.
  97. ^ "Iran's 'Frozen' Assets: Exaggeration on Both Sides of the Debate". Washingtoninstitute.org. Archived from the original on 27 June 2017. Retrieved 24 June 2017.
  98. ^ "Why the Iranian government must modernize its cash management system - Al-Monitor: The Pulse of the Middle East". Archived from the original on 4 July 2019. Retrieved 4 July 2019.
  99. ^ "Annual Review". Central Bank of Iran. December 2009. Archived from the original on 18 June 2011. Retrieved 10 May 2010.
  100. ^ "PUBLICATIONS INFORMATION BASE Statistical Centre of Iran". 3 September 2011. Archived from the original on 3 September 2011. Retrieved 20 October 2022.
  101. ^ "Ten Million Iranians Under 'Absolute Poverty Line'". Payvand.com. 20 March 2010. Archived from the original on 5 January 2012. Retrieved 7 February 2012.
  102. ^ "Iran: Largest Fuel Subsidizer in 2018". 16 July 2019. Archived from the original on 22 July 2019. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
  103. ^ "Why the Rouhani administration must eliminate energy subsidies - Al-Monitor: The Pulse of the Middle East". Archived from the original on 22 July 2019. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
  104. ^ "Why Fuel is Smuggled Out of Iran and Why No One Stops It". Archived from the original on 18 July 2019. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
  105. ^ a b IMF. "Selected Issues" Report, Islamic Republic of Iran, March 2018.
  106. ^ Iran Investment Monthly. Turquoise Partners, November 2014. Retrieved 1 October 2015.
  107. ^ Iran to test investor confidence with debt issue Archived 2 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Financial Times. Retrieved 1 October 2015.
  108. ^ "IMF: Iran accord to lift Mideast economy". Archived from the original on 14 October 2015. Retrieved 18 May 2016.
  109. ^ "Iran: Concluding Statement of an IMF Staff Visit". Imf.org. Archived from the original on 18 April 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2017.
  110. ^ Iran's external debts cut by $10b, hit $7.2b: Central Bank Chief Archived 16 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Tehran Times, 27 May 2013. Retrieved 24 August 2013.
  111. ^ "Iran among world's top countries with lowest foreign debt". 13 April 2022.
  112. ^ "The Memorandum of The Foreign Trade Regime of The Islamic Republic of Iran" (PDF). irantradelaw.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 July 2011. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
  113. ^ a b c "سازمان توسعه تجارت ایران". Archived from the original on 1 May 2010. Retrieved 19 April 2010.
  114. ^ "Islamic Republic of Iran: 2009 Article IV Consultation—Staff Report; Staff Supplement; Public Information Notice on the Executive Board Discussion; and Statement by the Executive Director for Iran" (PDF). Imf.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 December 2011. Retrieved 15 August 2018.
  115. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 8 August 2014. Retrieved 8 August 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  116. ^ "Annual Review" for 1387(2008/09)". Cbi.ir. 1 December 2009. Archived from the original on 24 February 2012. Retrieved 7 February 2012.
  117. ^ a b "Statistical Centre of Iran". 13 November 2009. Archived from the original on 13 November 2009. Retrieved 15 August 2018.
  118. ^ a b Bozorgmehr, Najmeh (24 January 2010). "Ahmadi-Nejad unveils expansionary Iran budget". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 8 June 2011. Retrieved 7 February 2012.
  119. ^ PBS - Iran Primer: The Oil and Gas Industry Archived 26 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Pbs.org, Retrieved 27 October 2010
  120. ^ Nasseri, Ladane (27 April 2011). "Iran Parliament Cut Budget 2.25% Before Approval, Donya Reports". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 5 November 2012. Retrieved 7 February 2012.
  121. ^ a b "More subsidy cuts in Iran budget". Archived from the original on 15 May 2011. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
  122. ^ a b "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 19 April 2012. Retrieved 18 April 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  123. ^ "Global Legal Monitor: Iran: Criticism of Newly Proposed Budget - Global Legal Monitor - Law Library of Congress - Library of Congress". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 5 June 2015. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
  124. ^ "Iran parliament approves reduced sanction-hit budget - Yahoo! News". Archived from the original on 12 July 2012. Retrieved 29 July 2020.
  125. ^ "Iran Investment monthly" (PDF). Turquoisepartners.com. May 2012. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 October 2013. Retrieved 15 August 2018.
  126. ^ "Iranian Government Facing Budget Shortfall". Archived from the original on 11 June 2015. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
  127. ^ Bloomberg. "Iran needs oil at $127 to balance budget". Archived from the original on 5 June 2015. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
  128. ^ "Iranian Parliament passes $593 billion national budget bill". Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
  129. ^ "Iran Investment monthly" (PDF). Turquoisepartners.com. June 2013. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 15 August 2018.
  130. ^ "Irandaily - No. 4671 - Front page. p. 1". Archived from the original on 14 December 2013. Retrieved 18 May 2016.
  131. ^ "Iran's president: Nuclear deal has helped economy". Yahoo News. 8 December 2013. Archived from the original on 29 November 2014. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
  132. ^ "Iran's 2014 Budget Taking Shape". VOA. Archived from the original on 31 January 2014. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
  133. ^ "Iran's next year budget bill sees economic growth at 3%, inflation at 21%". Trend. 29 January 2014. Archived from the original on 5 July 2014. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
  134. ^ "Irandaily - No. 4680 - Front page. p. 1". Archived from the original on 23 December 2013. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
  135. ^ "Iran Investment monthly" (PDF). Turquoisepartners.com. May 2014. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 15 August 2018.
  136. ^ AzerNews (29 January 2014). "Iranian government likely forced to double fuel prices". AzerNews. Archived from the original on 8 June 2015. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
  137. ^ "Iranian Parliament Passes Budget in Win for Rouhani". VOA. Archived from the original on 29 November 2014. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
  138. ^ "Iran to draw on sovereign fund to withstand oil price slide". Yahoo Finance. 15 November 2014. Archived from the original on 15 August 2018. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
  139. ^ Iran Investment Monthly (January 2015) Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Turquoise Partners. Retrieved 25 February 2015.
  140. ^ a b c "Iran's Neoliberal Austerity-Security Budget". Payvand.com. 16 February 2015. Archived from the original on 21 August 2016. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
  141. ^ Iran Investment Monthly (December 2014) Archived 26 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Turquoise Partners. Retrieved 25 February 2015.
  142. ^ a b Iran Investment Monthly (January 2015) Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Turquoise Partners. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
  143. ^ "Memorandum of the foreign trade regime of Iran" (PDF). Ministry of Commerce. November 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 July 2011.
  144. ^ "Govt. favors weaning research from national budget". Tehrantimes.com. 29 July 2015. Archived from the original on 10 June 2016. Retrieved 15 August 2018.
  145. ^ a b c d "Rouhani presents $262b budget bill to Majlis". Tehran Times. Tehran Times Social Desk. 18 January 2016. Archived from the original on 31 January 2016. Retrieved 24 January 2016.
  146. ^ "Iran Investment monthly" (PDF). Turquoisepartners.com. October 2016. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 September 2017. Retrieved 15 August 2018.
  147. ^ "Mohammad Ali Abtahi - Weblog". Webneveshteha.com. 8 October 2006. Archived from the original on 21 February 2012. Retrieved 7 February 2012.
  148. ^ "Mohammad Ali Abtahi - Weblog". Webneveshteha.com. 13 November 2006. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 7 February 2012.
  149. ^ "Mohammad Ali Abtahi - Weblog". Webneveshteha.com. 7 September 2005. Archived from the original on 21 February 2012. Retrieved 7 February 2012.
  150. ^ "Mohammad Ali Abtahi - Media - Articles". Webneveshteha.com. Archived from the original on 21 February 2012. Retrieved 7 February 2012.
  151. ^ "Mohammad Ali Abtahi - Weblog". Webneveshteha.com. 11 January 2004. Archived from the original on 21 February 2012. Retrieved 7 February 2012.

Literature

edit
  • Ray Takeyh: Hidden Iran - Paradox and Power in the Islamic Republic, New York 2006, ISBN

Further reading

edit
edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wiki.x.io/w/index.php?title=Politics_of_Iran&oldid=1259870091"