The plasmodiophores[1] (also known as plasmophorids[2] or plasmodiophorids[3]) are a group of obligate endoparasitic protists belonging to the subphylum Endomyxa in Cercozoa.[4] Taxonomically, they are united under a single family Plasmodiophoridae, order Plasmodiophorida, sister to the phagomyxids.[5]
| Plasmodiophores | |
|---|---|
| |
| "Plasmodiophoraceae" 1960 illustration. | |
Scientific classification 
| |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Clade: | Diaphoretickes |
| Clade: | SAR |
| Clade: | Rhizaria |
| Phylum: | Endomyxa |
| Class: | Phytomyxea |
| Order: | Plasmodiophorida Cook, 1928 |
| Family: | Plasmodiophoridae Zopf, 1884 |
| Type genus | |
| Plasmodiophora M. Woronin, 1877
| |
| Genera | |
| Synonyms | |
Ecology and pathology
editPlasmodiophores are pathogenic for a wide range of organisms, but mainly green plants. The more commonly recognized are agents of plant diseases such as clubroot, powdery scab and crook root of watercress,[6] or vectors for viruses that infect beets, peanut, monocots and potatoes, such as the potato mop-top virus or the beet necrotic yellow vein virus.[7][8]
Taxonomy
editHistory
editThe plasmodiophores have historically been regarded as Fungi. The first description of plasmodiophores as a taxonomic group was in 1885 by Zopf, who united two genera Plasmodiophora and Tetramyxa in a common family “Plasmodiophoreæ”, inside the group “Monadineæ”, as part of the division Myxomycetes. The family was renamed “Plasmodiophoraceae” in 1888 by Berlese.[9] In 1892, Engler placed the family in its own class “Plasmodiophorales”, later renamed “Plasmodiophoromycetes” to fit nomenclature standards.[10]
In 1969 Whittaker, in his five-kingdom system, elevated the group to a separate phylum “Plasmodiophoromycota”, acknowledging them as protists instead of fungi.[1]
In 1993 Cavalier-Smith included the plasmodiophores and their sister group Phagomyxida in their current class, Phytomyxea, as part of a polyphyletic phylum called Opalozoa, which at the time contained a diverse assemblage of unrelated zooflagellates, opalines and proteomyxids.[11] Eventually this phylum was discarded, and the name Opalozoa was modified to label a group inside the phylum Bigyra containing the opalines, bicosoecids and related organisms.[12]
Finally, after phylogenetic analyses, in 2002 Cavalier-Smith placed all Phytomyxea, including plasmodiophores, in the subphylum Endomyxa, inside the rhizarian phylum Cercozoa.[13][14]
Classification
editThe number of genera varies between sources. There are three accepted genera in the group according to the WoRMS register: Plasmodiophora, Spongospora and Tetramyxa.[15] Below is a complete list with genera that are not included in the register but appear in relevant sources:[3][16][17]
- Ligniera R. Maire & A. Tison 1911 (=Anisomyxa Nemec 1913; Rhizomyxa Borzí 1884; Sorolpidium B. Nĕmec 1911)
- Membranosorus C.H. Ostenfeld & H.E. Petersen 1930
- Octomyxa J.N. Couch J. Leitner & A. Whiffen 1939
- Ostenfeldiella Ferdinandsen & Winge 1914[18]
- Polymyxa G.A. Ledingham 1939
- Plasmodiophora Woronin 1877
- Pseudoligniera Hittorf et al. 2020[18]
- Sorodiscus G. Lagerheim & Ø. Winge 1912
- Sorosphaerula J. Schröt. 1886 (as Sorosphaera) nom. nov. Neuhauser & Kirchmair 2011[19] (=Tuburcinia E.M. Fries; Sorosporium F. Rudolphi 1829)
- Spongospora Brunch. 1887 (=Clathrosorus C. Ferdinandson & Ö. Winge 1920)
- Hillenburgia Hittorf et al. 2020[18]
- Tetramyxa K. Goebel 1884 (=Molliardia R. Maire & A. Tison 1911; Thecaphora W. A. Setchell 1924)
- Woronina Cornu 1872
These genera were once considered plasmodiophores[20] until they were excluded:[17]
- Cystospora J.E. Elliott 1916 – possibly a physiological symptom.
- Frankiella Maire & A. Tison 1909 – synonym of the bacteria Frankia.
- Peltomyces L. Léger 1909 – excluded as unclassifiable.
- Pyrrhosorus H. O. Juel 1901 – considered Labyrinthulida incertae sedis.[21]
- Sporomyxa L. Léger 1907 – excluded as unclassifiable.
- Trematophlyctis Patouillard 1918 – a chytrid fungus.[22]
References
edit- ^ a b Whittaker RH (10 January 1969). "New concepts of kingdoms or organisms. Evolutionary relations are better represented by new classifications than by the traditional two kingdoms". Science. 163 (3863): 150–60. doi:10.1126/science.163.3863.150. PMID 5762760.
- ^ Stjelja S, Fogelqvist J, Tellgren-Roth C, et al. (2019). "The architecture of the Plasmodiophora brassicae nuclear and mitochondrial genomes". Sci Rep. 9 (15753): 15753. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-52274-7. PMC 6823432. PMID 31673019.
- ^ a b Neuhauser S, Kirchmair M, Bulman S, et al. (23 February 2014). "Cross-kingdom host shifts of phytomyxid parasites". BMC Evol Biol. 14 (33): 33. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-14-33. PMC 4016497. PMID 24559266.
- ^ Irwin, Nicholas A.T.; Tikhonenkov, Denis V.; Hehenberger, Elisabeth; Mylnikov, Alexander P.; Burki, Fabien; Keeling, Patrick J. (2019-01-01). "Phylogenomics supports the monophyly of the Cercozoa". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 130: 416–423. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2018.09.004. ISSN 1055-7903. PMID 30318266. S2CID 52982396.
- ^ Cavalier-Smith, Thomas; Chao, Ema E.; Lewis, Rhodri (April 2018). "Multigene phylogeny and cell evolution of chromist infrakingdom Rhizaria: contrasting cell organisation of sister phyla Cercozoa and Retaria". Protoplasma. 255 (5): 1517–1574. doi:10.1007/s00709-018-1241-1. PMC 6133090. PMID 29666938.
- ^ Braselton JP (2001). "Plasmodiophoromycota". In McLaughlin DJ, McLaughlin EG, Lemke PA (eds.). The Mycota. Vol. VII: Systematics and Evolution Part A. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. pp. 81–91. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-10376-0_4. ISBN 978-3-662-10376-0.
- ^ Schwelm A, Badstöber J, Bulman S, Desoignies N, Etemadi M, Falloon RE, Gachon CMM, Legreve A, Lukeš J, Merz U, Nenarokova A, Strittmatter M, Sullivan BK, Neuhauser S (April 2018). "Not in your usual Top 10: protists that infect plants and algae". Mol Plant Pathol. 19 (4): 1029–1044. doi:10.1111/mpp.12580. PMC 5772912. PMID 29024322.
- ^ Neuhauser, Sigrid; Kirchmair, Martin; Gleason, Frank H. (28 April 2011). "Ecological roles of the parasitic phytomyxids (plasmodiophorids) in marine ecosystems – a review". Marine and Freshwater Research. 62 (4): 365–371. doi:10.1071/MF10282. PMC 3272469. PMID 22319023.
- ^ Saccardo PA, Traverso GB, Trotter A (1882). Sylloge fungorum omnium hucusque cognitorum. Vol. 1. p. 323. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.5371. LCCN agr12002244. OCLC 2472326.
- ^ Engler A (1903). Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien : eine Übersicht über das gesamte Pflanzensystem mit Berücksichtigung der Medicinal- und Nutzpflanzen nebst einer Übersicht über die Florenreiche und Florengebiete der Erde zum Gebrauch bei Vorlesungen und Studien über specielle und medicinisch-pharmaceutische Botanik (3rd ed.). Berlin: Borntraeger. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.22956.
- ^ Cavalier-Smith T (September 1993). "The Protozoan Phylum Opalozoa". Eukaryotic Microbiology. 40 (5): 609–615. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.1993.tb06117.x. S2CID 84129692.
- ^ Cavalier-Smith, Thomas; Scoble, Josephine Margaret (2012). "Phylogeny of Heterokonta: Incisomonas marina, a uniciliate gliding opalozoan related to Solenicola (Nanomonadea), and evidence that Actinophryida evolved from raphidophytes". European Journal of Protistology. 49 (3): 328–353. doi:10.1016/j.ejop.2012.09.002. PMID 23219323.
- ^ Cavalier-Smith T (1 March 2002). "The phagotrophic origin of eukaryotes and phylogenetic classification of Protozoa". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 52 (2): 297–354. doi:10.1099/00207713-52-2-297. PMID 11931142.
- ^ Cavalier-Smith E, Chao EE (2003). "Phylogeny and Classification of Phylum Cercozoa (Protozoa)". Protist. 154 (3–4): 341–358. doi:10.1078/143446103322454112. ISSN 1434-4610. PMID 14658494.
- ^ "Plasmodiophoridae". WoRMS. World Register of Marine Species. Retrieved 19 October 2022.
- ^ Sparrow FK (1960). Aquatic Phycomycetes. University of Michigan studies, Scientific series, v. 15. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.5685. LCCN 59011269. OCLC 1362167.
- ^ a b Dick, Michael W. (2001). Straminipilous Fungi: Systematics of the Peronosporomycetes Including Accounts of the Marine Straminipilous Protists, the Plasmodiophorids and Similar Organisms (1 ed.). Springer Dordrecht. doi:10.1007/978-94-015-9733-3. ISBN 978-94-015-9733-3. S2CID 28755980.
- ^ a b c Hittorf M, Letsch-Praxmarer S, Windegger A, Bass D, Kirchmair M, Neuhauser S (2020-11-08). "Revised Taxonomy and Expanded Biodiversity of the Phytomyxea (Rhizaria, Endomyxa)". J Eukaryot Microbiol. 67 (6): 648–659. doi:10.1111/jeu.12817. PMC 7756720. PMID 32654223.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Neuhauser, Sigrid; Kirchmair, Martin (18 August 2011). "Sorosphaerula nom. n. for the Plasmodiophorid Genus Sorosphaera J. Schröter 1886 (Rhizaria: Endomyxa: Phytomyxea: Plasmodiophorida)". Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology. 58 (5): 469–470. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2011.00571.x. PMC 3245851. PMID 21851471.
- ^ "Plasmodiophoraceae". www.mycobank.org.
- ^ Juel. "Pyrrhosorus". WoRMS. World Register of Marine Species.
- ^ Wijayawardene, N.N.; Hyde, K.D.; Dai, D.Q.; Sánchez-García, M.; Goto, B.T.; Saxena, R.K.; et al. (2022). "Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa – 2021". Mycosphere. 13 (1): 53–453. doi:10.5943/mycosphere/13/1/2. hdl:10481/76378. S2CID 249054641.