Pakawan languages

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The Pakawan languages were a small language family spoken in what is today northern Mexico and southern Texas. Some Pakawan languages are today sleeping.[1] While others are engage in revitalizations and thus awakening.

Pakawan
Geographic
distribution
Rio Grande Valley
Linguistic classificationHokan ?
Subdivisions
Language codes
GlottologNone

Classification

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Five clear Pakawan languages are attested: Coahuilteco, Cotoname, Comecrudo, Garza and Mamulique. The first three were first proposed to be related by John Wesley Powell in 1891, in a grouping then called Coahuiltecan. Goddard (1979) groups the latter three in a Comecrudan family while considering the others language isolates. The current composition and the present name "Pakawan" are due to Manaster Ramer (1996).

The term Coahuiltecan languages today refers to a slightly expanded and less securely established grouping. Most Pakawan languages have at times been included also in the much larger and highly hypothetical Hokan "stock".[2]

Common vocabulary

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The following word comparisons are given by Manaster Ramer (1996):

Core Pakawan Peripheral Pakawan tentative reconstruction[2]
Coahuilteco[3] Comecrudo[3] Cotoname[3] Karankawa[3] Tónkawa[4]
axtē
'two'
ale-kueten
'two'
haíkia
'two'
#al-, #axte
'two'
''
#ali
'ear'
uxualʼ
'heaven'
apel
'sky, heaven, clouds'
#apel'
'sky'
apam
'water'
áx̣
'water'
klai, komkom
'water'
#axə
'juice, water'
tciene
'salt'
dá-än dem, ketac #dem
'salt'
xāi
'to be extinguished,
to come to an end'
kai
'to eat'
aknámas
'to eat'
#kai
'to eat up, consume'
axām
'not'
kam
'no'
kóṃ
'not'
#kam
'no(t)'
hām
'to eat'
kam
'to eat'
hahame, xaxame
'to eat; food'
#kam
'to eat, drink'
''
#kamkam
'body of water'
xasal
'heart'
kayasel
'heart'
láhama
'heart'
#kayasel
'heart'
pe=kĕwek
'low (of water)'
xuăxe
'low (of water)'
#k(a)waka
'low (of water)'
kemen
'vein'
kemma
'bow'
#keme(n)
'sinew, vein'
pa=kna(x)
'high, big'
kenex
'good'
#kenex
'good, big'
''
ō'
'sun'
klos, dóowal
'sun'
#ketekawi
'sun, star'
talōm
'fire'
klewem, klewen, len
mánĕx
'fire'
kwátci, kwoilesem
'fire'
#klewem
'fire'
''
kĕnám kanín #knem
'breast'
kuas kial sä'x #kual
'blood'
kuan
'to go'
kio; kie
'to go'; 'to come'
awóyo!
'go over there!'
#kuV-
'to go, come'
k’āu
'husband'
gnax, na
'man'
xuaináxe
'man'
#kwainaxə
'man'
''
kuak
'reed, cane; arrow'
ka-u, kau
'reed; arrow'
#kwak
'reed'
pe=kla
'to suck'
huäxle
'to suck'
#kwa(x/k?)la
'to suck'
kʼāu
'to marry'
kuau, kwai
'married'
#k'aw
'to marry'
''
wax
'belly'
kox
'belly'
#k'wax
'belly'
tšum
'night, evening'
lesum, lesom
'evening'
#lesum
'evening'
''
#lel
'buttock, leg'
''
katówan #lot
'arm'
''
#makə
'to give'
masõ
'to give up, abandon,
desert, leave'
mel, pa=mesai
'to fall'
#maɬ-
'to fall'
māux
'hand'
mapi
'hand'
miapa
'wing'
#mapi
'hand'
pa=msol, pa=msul
'red'
msae
'red'
#msa'ol
'red'
el-pau
'to kneel down,
sink or sit down'
pawe
'to sit'
#pawə
'to sit'
pilʼ
'one'
pe-kueten
'one'
#pil'
'one'
ānua
'moon'
kan
'moon'
#q'an
'moon'
saayēx
'to be wanting'
#sayex
'to want'
sel
'straw'
suau
'grass, tobacco;
to smoke'
#sel
'grass'
pa=kahuai, -kawai
'to write, paint; paper'
thawe
'painted
(on body, face)'
#tkawai
'paint'
tʼāhaka, tʼāxakan
'what'
tete
'how, what, why'
*tit
'what'
#t'ete-
'what'
tʼil
'day'
al
'sun'
o
'sun'
#t'al
'sun'
xop
'far, distant'
huanpa, xuanpa
'far'
#xwanpa
'far'
''
yá-ĕx #ya'ex
'nose'
yēwal
'to bewitch'
yamel, yamis
'devil'
#yameɬ
'evil spirit'
na-
'my, me'
na
'I'
na
'I'
mai-
'2PS subject prefix'
emnã
'you (sg.)'
*men
'you (sg.)'
pamawau
la-ak
'goose'
krak
'goose'
kol
'crane'
karakor
'crane'
ketuau
'dog'
kowá-u
'dog'
kiextuén
'rabbit'
kiáx̣nem
'rabbit'
pa=kwessom
'orphan'
kuwosam
'small, little;
boy, girl'
malāux
'male sexual organs'
melkuai
'female sexual organs'
xūm
'to die'
kamau
'to kill'
wátxuka
'to kill'
tzin
'I'
yen
'I'
tzōtz
'chest'
yeso knem
'to nurse'
*tšei
'to hear'
ye
'to hear'
tilʼ
'posterior, anus'
alel; (al)el
'leg'; 'buttocks,
backsides, bottom'
tām
'woman's breast'
dom
'breast'
mās
'to look, observe'
max, ma, mahe
'to see'
kuāx(ai)
'to suffer'
kayau
'ache, sore'

The following sound changes and correspondences should be noted:

  • Vocalization of word-final *l in Cotoname: 'sun', 'straw', red'
  • Lenition of *p to /xw/ in Coahuilteco between vowels: #apel', #mapi
  • Syncope of
  • Apocope of final e (perhaps /ə/) in Comecrudo: 'man', 'low [water]', 'to kneel'.
  • /k/, /kw/ in other languages correspond to /x/, /xw/ in Cotoname, when before /a/ ('man', 'low [water]', 'to eat', 'to suck', 'to write'), as well as in Coahuilteco, when before any low vowel (__examples).
  • /kiV/ in Comecrudo corresponds to /kuV/ in Coahuilteco: 'blood', 'to go'
  • s ~ l (perhaps indicating a lateral fricative /ɬ/) in Comecrudo corresponds to s in Coahuilteco: Comecrudo 'blood', 'devil', 'to fall'.
  • Initial y in Comecrudo corresponds to /ts/ in Coahuilteco: I, chest, to hear

Lexical comparison

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The Comecrudo, Cotoname, Karankawa, Coahuilteco, Solano, and Maratino data below are all from Swanton (1940).[5] The Quinigua data is from Gursky (1964),[6] which in turn is from del Hoyo (1960).[7] Naolan is from Weitlaner (1948),[8] and Tonkawa is from Hoijer (1949).[9]

language head hair eye ear nose tooth tongue mouth hand foot breast meat blood bone person name
Comecrudo eláx eláx, emól u-i alí yáx̣ í expén xál mapí emí, lemí kném ewé, kai kiál ehûei, klemí, xí estók lekaú
Cotoname makuát makuát arókwan yá-ĕx ayésim kĕnám kemás sä'x xuaináxe
Karankawa en-okea ekia aikui em-ikus em-ai aluak é, dolonakin a-lean emi-akwoi étsma eham, kékeya kanín ahaks, tecoyu, úci, yámawe
Tonkawa taˑkey xʔaˑk nemtan-xaˑ henicxayʔan yamʔacxan ne̠ta̠le- kala nota- naˑtan ʔawas ʔoˑn ne̠kame- tickan hes-tewe-(toˑ-) 'to name (him)'
Coahuilteco māux tām ahāuh kuās, hātz pīlam aux
Solano nikaog
Maratino migtikui
Quinigua kai
Naolan mi yuːhu; ma yoho (my) ma naːme; manáme (of deer)
language dog fish louse tree leaf flower water fire stone earth salt road eat die I you
Comecrudo ketuaú, klám atuís, selaú ak 'blackish louse' xaí sel awaí, exnó, xaí, pawaí áx̣ klewém, len woyekuél kamlá sepén ál to, kai kamaú, plau, pokuét na, ye-inán, yén nánã
Cotoname kowá-u áx̣ mánĕx pén dá-än haháme wátĕxo
Karankawa kec áṃ, kiles akwiní klai, komkom húmhe, kwátci, kwoilesem dem, ketac aknámas náyi áwa
Tonkawa ʔekˑan neswalʔan xaˑsoy-tlc nahen- ʔaˑx mʔelʔan yatexan haˑc mamʔe- naˑx ya̠xa- hewawa- saˑ- naˑ-ya
Coahuilteco talōm tāp hām xūm, tzam na, tzin
Solano apam tciene namō 'eat it' na- (?)
Maratino migtikui paahtcu 'kill'
Quinigua karama ama, ami; ka ana ka, kwa, wa pixa ama ama; ka(ene)
Naolan mi; míː mi koːl; ma koːl (my) mi, ma (poss.)

References

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King, Kendall A., ed. (2008). Sustaining linguistic diversity: endangered and minority languages and language varieties. Georgetown University round table on languages and linguistics. Washington, D.C: Georgetown University Press. ISBN 978-1-58901-192-2. OCLC 132681435.

  1. ^ King 2008, p. 23.
  2. ^ a b Ramer, Alexis Manaster (1996). "Sapir's Classifications: Coahuiltecan". Anthropological Linguistics. 38 (1): 1–38. ISSN 0003-5483. JSTOR 30028442.
  3. ^ a b c d Swanton, John. 1940. Linguistic material from the tribes of southern Texas and northern Mexico.
  4. ^ Hoijer, Harry. 1949. An analytical dictionary of the Tonkawa language. University of California publications in linguistics, 5(1). Berkeley: University of California Press.
  5. ^ Swanton, John R. 1940. Linguistic material from the tribes of Southern Texas and Northeastern Mexico. (Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 127). Washington: Government Printing Office.
  6. ^ Gursky, Karl-Heinz (October 1964). "The Linguistic Position of the Quinigua Indians". International Journal of American Linguistics. 30 (4). The University of Chicago Press: 325–327. doi:10.1086/464792. JSTOR 1263527. S2CID 143736051.
  7. ^ del Hoyo, Eugenio. 1960. Vocablos de la Lengua Quinigua de los Indios Borrados del Noreste de México. Anuario del Centro de Estudios Humanisticos, Universidad de Nuevo León 1. 489-515.
  8. ^ Weitlaner, Roberto J.. 1948. Un Idioma Desconocido del Norte de México. In Actes du XXVIII Congrès International de Américanistes, 205-227. Paris.
  9. ^ Hoijer, Harry. 1949. An analytical dictionary of the Tonkawa language. University of California publications in linguistics, 5(1). Berkeley: University of California Press.

Further reading

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  • Manaster Ramer, Alexis. 1996. Sapir's Classifications: Coahuiltecan. Anthropological Linguistics 38/1, 1–38.
  • Sapir, Edward. 1920. The Hokan and Coahuiltecan languages. International Journal of American Linguistics, 1 (4), 280–290.
  • Swanton, John R. (1915). Linguistic position of the tribes of southern Texas and northeastern Mexico. American Anthropologist, 17, 17–40.